Abstract: Provided is a thermoplastic resin laminate suitable for optical applications of transparent substrate materials and protective materials. The thermoplastic resin laminate includes a first layer including an amorphous polyester resin (A) as the main component, and a second layer including a (meth)acrylic resin (B) as the main component on the first layer.

Abstract: A resin including up to 99.99 weight percent (wt. %) of a first polyolefin grafted with a functional group selected from an ethylenically unsaturated carboxylic acid, a carboxylic acid anhydride, an ester functional group or a combination thereof; and 0.01 to 3.0 wt. % of a tin oxide-based catalyst, where the resin includes 0.2 wt. % to 1.5 wt. % of the functional group from the first polyolefin, the wt. % based on a total weight of the resin. The first polyolefin can be selected from a polyethylene, a polypropylene, an ethylene/alpha-olefin copolymer, a propylene/alpha-olefin copolymer and combinations thereof. The tin oxide-based catalyst can be selected from dibutyltin oxide, dioctyltin oxide and combinations thereof. The resin can be used in a multilayer structure, where a Layer A comprises the resin and a Layer B comprises a polyester, where a first major surface of Layer A is in adhering contact with the second major surface of Layer B.

Abstract: A polyolefin-and-poly (2-alkyl-2-oxazoline) formulation comprising (A) an olefin-based (co) polymer, (B) a poly (2-alkyl-2-oxazoline) (co) polymer, and (C) an antioxidant. Also a method of making the composition; a crosslinked polyolefin product made by curing the composition; manufactured articles comprising a shaped form of the inventive formulation or product; and methods of using the inventive formulation, product, or articles.

Abstract: The present invention provides a heat shrinkable film which is capable of replacing polyvinyl chloride-based heat shrinkable films, exhibits appropriate rigidity and appropriate shrinkage force, and is excellent in stability during storage, The heat shrinkable film including a polyester resin A having a glass transition temperature of 65° C. or higher, and a polyester resin B having a glass transition temperature higher than the glass transition temperature of the polyester resin A by 10° C. or more, wherein a content of the polyester resin B is from 5 to 25% by mass with respect to 100% by mass of the heat shrinkable film, and a thickness is 25 ?m or more and less than 80 ?m.

Abstract: According to the invention, a melting and traction matrix for use on icy or wet surfaces comprising at least one melting agent and at least one substrate impregnated therewith and a method for making and using same are disclosed. The matrix is applied to surfaces where ice is present or anticipated. Upon surface contact, the substrate provides immediate traction and melting agent dissipates from the substrate. Further melting agent dissipates slowly by diffusion for a long-term, persistent effect. In combination with the substrate, the overall amount of melting agent may be controlled, thereby mitigating potential corrosive, toxic and adverse cosmetic and/or environmental effects. The remaining substrate after melting agent has totally diffused may provide longer traction benefit or may be swept away.

Abstract: Gel including a phase-change material and a gelling agent. In one embodiment, the phase-change material may be n-tetradecane, n-hexadecane or mixtures thereof. The gelling agent may be a high molecular weight styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene (SEBS) triblock copolymer with a styrene:rubber ratio of about 30:70 to 33:67% by weight. To form the gel, the phase-change material and the gelling agent may be mixed at an elevated temperature relative to room temperature to partially, but not completely, dissolve the gelling agent. The mixture may then be cooled to room temperature. Alternatively, the phase-change material and the gelling agent may be mixed at room temperature, and the mixture may then be heated to form a viscoelastic liquid, which is then cooled to room temperature. The invention is also directed at a method of preparing the gel, a thermal exchange implement including the gel, and a method of preparing the thermal exchange implement.

Abstract: The present invention provides a heat shrinkable multilayer film that can prevent wrinkles or loosening after attachment when the film is attached to a container as a heat shrinkable label for dry heat shrinking, and a heat shrinkable label including the heat shrinkable multilayer film as a base film. Provided is a heat shrinkable multilayer film including: front and back layers each containing a polyester resin; and an interlayer containing a polystyrene resin, wherein the heat shrinkable multilayer film has a dimensional change in a TD represented by an equation (1) of ?55 to ?1000 ?m as measured by thermomechanical analysis (TMA) in which the temperature of the heat shrinkable multilayer film under a load of 0.10 N is increased from 30° C. to 60° C. at a temperature increase rate of 5° C./min and then cooled from 60° C. to 10° C. at a temperature decrease rate of 5° C./min, the equation (1) being: Dimensional change=dimension in TD at 20° C. ?dimension in TD at 60° C. (1).

Abstract: There is provided a multilayer film comprising a starch layer and at least one other layer. The multilayer film has excellent barrier properties. The starch layer comprises a modified starch having a degree of substitution less than 1.5. Suitable other layers include polyolefins. The multilayer film finds use in packaging, particularly in packaging foodstuffs.

Abstract: The present invention provides a heat shrinkable multilayer film that can prevent layer misalignment at a center seal portion and thereby provide a labelled container having excellent appearance when the film is attached to a container as a heat shrinkable label for dry heat shrinking, and a heat shrinkable label including the heat shrinkable multilayer film as a base film. Provided is a heat shrinkable multilayer film including: front and back layers each containing a polyester resin; an interlayer containing a polystyrene resin; and adhesive layers, wherein the front and back layers and the interlayer are stacked with the adhesive layers interposed therebetween, and the heat shrinkable multilayer film has a maximum shrinkage stress of 3.5 to 11 MPa when immersed in hot water at 80° C. for 30 seconds.

Abstract: An adhesive composition of at least one ethylene polymer or copolymer, wherein at least one first polymer or copolymer including the unsaturated carboxylic acid ester type comonomer is copolymerized in a continuous high-pressure tubular reactor, while a second polymer or copolymer including the functional comonomer is copolymerized by either autoclave or tubular continuous high-pressure radical means; the first and second polymer or copolymer possibly being of one and the same polymer/copolymer. Also, a multilayer structure that incorporates the adhesive composition and a particular process for obtaining this composition.

Abstract: Provided is a method for forming a multilayer coating film, comprising simultaneously curing an uncured base coating film, an uncured effect coating film, and an uncured clear coating film. In this method, an effect pigment dispersion (Y) that forms the effect coating film contains water, a surface adjusting agent (A), a flake-effect pigment (B), and a rheology control agent (C), and has a solids content of 0.5 to 10 mass %.

Abstract: A UV-photocured resin layer (and an image display device including the UV-photocured resin layer), the UV-photocured resin layer including the following cured components: an acrylate-based oligomer component selected from the group consisting of a polyisoprene-based (meth)acrylate oligomer, a polybutadiene-based (meth)acrylate oligomer, and a polyurethane-based (meth)acrylate oligomer; an acrylic-based monomer component; a plasticizer component; and a photoradical polymerization initiator component.

Abstract: A first sheet layer is made of a nonwoven fabric; a second sheet layer is made of a nonwoven fabric opposed to one side of the first sheet layer; and a plurality of elongated elastically stretchable members are provided along the stretchable direction at intervals from each other between the first sheet layer and the second sheet layer. Both ends of the elastically stretchable members are fixed to at least one of the first sheet layer and the second sheet layer via a first hot melt adhesive. The first sheet layer and the second sheet layer are bonded via a second hot melt adhesive in a range in the stretchable direction corresponding to a space between the both ends of the elastically stretchable member. The holding power of the first hot melt adhesive is higher than the second hot meld adhesive.

Abstract: A PVC rigid substrate, a preparation method therefor and a PVC rigid composite plate, wherein the PVC rigid substrate comprises the following raw materials in parts by weight: 40-50 parts of PVC, 75-150 parts of calcium carbonate, 0.6-1.0 parts of balance lubricant, 3.0-5.0 parts of stabilizer and 10-20 parts of CPVC. The PVC substrate has a high hardness, a very small heating size change rate which can be less than or equal to 0.05%. The impact resistance and toughness of a product may be greatly improved to facilitate the treatments that follow. Second, the PVC rigid composite plate has a high mechanical strength and a long service life; at the same time, the PVC rigid substrate can be prepared by using an extrusion method, which is very simple and easy to implement.

Abstract: A functional polarizing film includes a polarizing layer, at least one moisture-binding layer on a first surface of the polarizing layer, and at least one moisture-blocking layer disposed on a first surface of the moisture-binding layer.

Abstract: A UV-photocured resin layer (and an image display device including the UV-photocured resin layer), the UV-photocured resin layer including the following cured components: an acrylate-based oligomer component selected from the group consisting of a polyisoprene-based (meth)acrylate oligomer, a polybutadiene-based (meth)acrylate oligomer, and a polyurethane-based (meth)acrylate oligomer; an acrylic-based monomer component including octyl acrylate or isobornyl acrylate; a plasticizer component; and a photoradical polymerization initiator component.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a pressure-sensitive adhesive composition including a polymer of a monomer mixture containing isobornyl (meth)acrylate, a pressure-sensitive adhesive sheet, and a semiconductor wafer backgrinding method. In the present invention, by using isobornyl (meth)acrylate which is a hard-type monomer and has a low hydrophilic property, a pressure-sensitive adhesive composition having superior releasing and re-releasing properties and wettability with respect to the wafer, and having an excellent wafer-proofing property; a pressure-sensitive adhesive sheet prepared by using the pressure-sensitive adhesive composition; and a backgrinding method using the pressure-sensitive adhesive sheet can be provided.

Abstract: An object of the present invention is to provide a novel production method of ethylene-based ionomer having excellent mechanical properties and heat resistance which exhibits remarkably excellent breaking elongation, breaking stress, and strain hardening, and has a high melting point. The present invention relates to a production method of an ethylene-based ionomer including a heating conversion step of heating a specific ethylene/unsaturated carboxylic acid ester copolymer and converting the ester group in the copolymer into a metal-containing carboxylate containing a metal ion of Group 1, 2, or 12 of the periodic table.

Abstract: A method of fabricating a composite laminate comprises forming a stack including first and second fiber beds and an interlayer between the fiber beds. The fiber beds are impregnated with matrix resin. The interlayer includes a soluble thermoplastic component on an insoluble component. The method further comprises dissolving the soluble thermoplastic component into the matrix resin to reduce thickness of the interlayer.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for welding a polyolefin plastic and a plastic based on at least one polymer containing carbonyl groups, using a primer which contains, in relation to the proportion of polymer, at least 20 wt. % of a polymer that comprises maleic anhydride or maleic anhydride derivative units. Also disclosed are correspondingly welded products.

Abstract: The present invention provides a method of producing a thin polarizing film having both excellent optical characteristics and excellent in-plane uniformity. The method of producing a thin polarizing film includes stretching a thermoplastic resin substrate in a first direction, followed by formation of a polyvinyl alcohol-based resin layer on the thermoplastic resin substrate to prepare a laminate and shrinking and stretching the laminate in the first direction and a second direction, respectively.

Abstract: Provided is a resin composition, comprising: an ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (A); an isobutylene-based copolymer (B) containing a halogen atom; and a halogen scavenger (C), wherein a mass ratio (B/A) of the isobutylene-based copolymer (B) to the ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (A) is from 5/95 to 45/55, and a content of the halogen scavenger (C) is from 0.01 to 1 part by mass based on 100 parts by mass of a total of the ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (A) and the isobutylene-based copolymer (B). Such a resin composition is excellent in gas barrier properties and flexibility and stably produced over a long period of time.

Abstract: The invention provides novel devices, systems, designs, materials and fabrication methods that enable high-load capacity, easy release, and suitable for extended/repeated use in a variety of applications.

Abstract: The present invention provides a mold release film including a resin layer provided on one surface of a polyester film, wherein the resin layer includes 100 parts by mass of a polypropylene-based modified polyolefin resin with the proportion of a modifying component of 1 to 10% by mass and 1 to 50 parts by mass of a cross-linking agent; the peel strength between the resin layer and a pressure-sensitive adhesive measured by bonding a rubber-based pressure-sensitive adhesive to the resin layer exceeds 3.0 N/cm; and the residual adhesion rate of a pressure-sensitive adhesive after bonding an acrylic pressure-sensitive adhesive to the resin layer is 80% or more.

Abstract: A method of forming multi-layer paint films comprises forming a first base paint film, wherein an aqueous first base paint (A) is coated over an object; forming a second base paint film wherein a second aqueous base paint (B) is coated over the uncured first base paint film; forming a clear paint film wherein a clear paint (C) is coated over the uncured second based paint film; and heating and curing the first base paint film, the second base paint film, and the clear paint film at the same time and in which the aqueous first base paint (A) includes as the base resin a water-soluble or water-dispersible acrylic resin (A1) and one or more type of water-soluble or water-dispersible resin (A2), selected from among the polyester resins, polyurethane resins and acrylic-urethane resins, both (A1) and (A2) having a weight average molecular weight of from 10,000 to 100,000.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing a thin high-performance polarizing film includes coating a polyvinyl alcohol type resin on a resin substrate having a thickness of at least 20 ?m and then drying the resin to thereby form a polyvinyl alcohol type resin layer, immersing thus produced polyvinyl alcohol type resin layer in a dyeing solution including a dichroic material to thereby have the dichroic material impregnated in the polyvinyl alcohol type resin layer, stretching the polyvinyl alcohol type resin layer having the dichroic material impregnated therein together with the resin substrate in a boric acid solution such that a total stretching ratio of 5.0 or more of the original length is achieved.

Abstract: A robust, two component adhesive for laminating flexible packaging material comprising a mixture of Component A and Component B. Component A comprises an isocyanate-functionalized compound. Component B comprises a mixture of a high functionality polyol containing at least four hydroxyl groups per molecule with at least two primary OH groups on the molecule and two secondary OH groups on the molecule and a trifunctional polyol containing three OH groups on the molecule. Component B can contain a difunctional polyol containing two OH groups on the molecule. The adhesive is robust and retains desirable properties when used at varying A:B mix ratios better than conventional laminating adhesives used at the same mix ratios.

Abstract: A transaction card has a substructure consisting at least in part of a layer of fibrous material, such as carbon fiber strands or filaments, arranged in a pre-selected pattern, such as a weave pattern, that is at least partially enclosed by a transparent plastic film. A sheet is laminated on each of two opposing faces of the substructure to form a transaction card core. One or both of the sheets laminated on the opposing faces of the substructure is also made of a transparent material, and one or both of the two opposing faces of the transaction card core can be printed. An over-laminate film, such as a transparent polyvinyl chloride plastic film, can be laminated on each of two opposing faces of the transaction card core.

Abstract: A method for preparing a flexographic printing precursor is carried out by forming a laser-engravable composition in a layer. This laser-engravable composition has one or more EPDM elastomeric rubbers, at least one of which comprises at least 8 weight % polyene recurring units. This laser-engravable composition of elastomeric rubbers can be quickly crosslinked using sulfur-containing vulcanizing compositions to provide laser-engravable compositions and layers in the flexographic printing plate precursors that can be laser-engraved to provide relief images for flexographic printing.

Abstract: A photocurable resin composition contains an acrylate-based oligomer component as component (a), an acrylic-based monomer component as component (b), a plasticizer component as component (c), and a photopolymerization initiator component as component (d). The total amount of the component (a) and the component (b) contained in the photocurable resin composition is 25 to 80% by mass, and the amount of the plasticizer component as the component (c) contained in the photocurable resin composition is 65 to 10% by mass. The component (c) contains a solid tackifier and a liquid plasticizing component, and the mass ratio of the tackifier to the liquid plasticizing component is in the range of 60 to 30 : 30 to 10.

Abstract: There is provided a pressure-sensitive adhesive composition for optical films, which is excellent in heat resistance, weathering resistance and bleed resistance, which has an excellent balance of pressure-sensitive adhesion properties, such as adhesive strength, cohesive force and tack, the tack of which can be controlled, which is excellent in initial reworkability when it is used for applying an optical film to an adherend or applying a protective film to an optical film, and which further exhibits excellent adhesive durability by virtue of rise of adhesive strength when such a film as above in the applied state is kept over a long period of time after application or especially when the film in the applied state is exposed to high temperatures or moist heat.

Abstract: A laser-engravable composition comprises one or more EPDM elastomeric rubbers, at least one of which comprises at least 8 weight % polyene recurring units. This laser-engravable composition of elastomeric rubbers can be quickly crosslinked using sulfur-containing vulcanizing compositions to provide laser-engravable compositions and layers in flexographic printing plate precursors. These precursors can be laser-engraved to provide relief images for flexographic printing.

Abstract: A liquid crystal film, a method for manufacturing the same, a polarizing plate, and a liquid crystal display are provided. The liquid crystal film has excellent physical properties such as durability and an optical physical property so that it can be effectively used for various applications. In addition, the physical property of the liquid crystal film can be controlled according to desired purposes.

Abstract: A polymer is obtained from copolymerization of a unit having a carboxyl and/or phenolic hydroxyl group substituted with an acid labile group with a hydroxyphenyl methacrylate unit having one acyl, acyloxy or alkoxycarbonyl group. The polymer is useful as a base resin in a positive resist composition. The resist composition comprising the polymer is improved in contrast of alkali dissolution rate before and after exposure, acid diffusion control, resolution, and profile and edge roughness of a pattern after exposure.

Abstract: An improved thermoplastic material for orthoses and prostheses. This material comprises at least one resin layer of polymeric resin, optionally reinforced with multiple layers or internal fibers, designed to be compatible with vacuum thermoforming, with thickness between 3/64 inches and ¾ inches. The material additionally comprises at least one and optionally two extremely thin cap layers with thickness between 2/1000 and 12/1000 inches, at least one of which is intended for improved compatibility with human skin, and the other of which can be configured for various cosmetic or UV protection purposes. Methods of producing this material, and various orthotic and prosthetic devices using this material, are also taught.

Abstract: A coated polymer film, such as a coated polyester film, is disclosed. In one embodiment, the coated film may be used as a substrate for digital printing. In one embodiment, the coating contains an anionic anti-static agent comprising a sulphonated copolyester resin. In an alternative embodiment, the coating contains an anti-static agent comprising an organometallic, such as an organo zirconate, in combination with metal oxide particles. The metal oxide particles may comprise nanoparticles. In one embodiment, the coating can further contain a print enhancing agent and an adhesion promoter.

Abstract: A multilayer laminate, which is usable as a reinforcing element for a finished article or for a semifinished product made of rubber, such as a tyre, includes at least one polymer film having, in any tensile direction in the film's plane, a Young's modulus that is greater than 500 MPa. The film is positioned between and in contact with two layers formed of a rubber composition, such as natural rubber. Each layer formed of the rubber composition exhibits, in a crosslinked state, a secant modulus that, in extension at 10% elongation, is greater than 30 MPa, with between 30 and 150 MPa being preferable for the secant modulus.

Abstract: The invention relates to a metal-cutting machining process for a semi-finished product having a predetermined shape and at least one machining surface which has the steps: applying a protective foil having a predetermined elongation at break to the at least one machining surface with a predetermined adhesive force, placing a metal-cutting tool in a predetermined position above the machining surface, exerting a predetermined mechanical force in a predetermined direction for a predetermined length of time to the tool for carrying out a metal-cutting process on the semi-finished product and lifting the tool from the at least one machining surface after the predetermined length of time.

Abstract: The present invention provides a hard coating film having high hardness and excellent properties. The hard coating film has high hardness and is not easily curled.

Abstract: The present invention is a shrink label, comprising a heat-shrinkable multilayer resin film comprising an intermediate layer comprising a polystyrene type resin and outer surface layers comprising a polyester type resin, with said intermediate layer interposed therebetween, as a base film, wherein the polystyrene type resin composing said intermediate layer is an aromatic vinyl hydrocarbon-conjugated diene copolymer, and said intermediate layer is bonded to said outer surface layers with an adhesive layer comprising a hydrogen addition product of an aromatic vinyl hydrocarbon-conjugated diene copolymer, having at least one functional group selected from the group consisting of a carboxylic group, an acid anhydride group, an amino group, an epoxy group and a hydroxyl group in a molecule.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is an optical article including a multilayer optical film and a primer layer disposed on the multilayer optical film. The primer layer consists essentially of a sulfopolyester and a crosslinker. The multilayer optical film may be a reflective film, a polarizer film, a reflective polarizer film, a diffuse blend reflective polarizer film, a diffuser film, a brightness enhancing film, a turning film, a mirror film, or a combination thereof. A microstructured or unstructured optical layer may be disposed on the primer layer opposite the multilayer optical film. Also disclosed herein is a method of making the optical article. Also disclosed herein is a display device including the optical article.

Abstract: A laminate film including a first core polylactic acid layer, a coating receiving-layer of polylactic acid, and coated on one side of the coating receiving-layer with PVOH, EVOH, a blend of crosslinked EVOH/PVOH, vinyl alcohol-vinylamine (PVAm) copolymer, anionic carboxylated styrene-butadiene copolymer (SBR) emulsion, or blends thereof. This coating may be applied after the machine-direction orientation step and dried and oriented in a transverse direction orientation oven if in-line coating is desired; or applied to the film in an off-line coating method and dried in an air flotation oven. The dried coating layer can be metallized. This laminate film exhibits excellent gas and moisture barrier properties, appearance, and metal adhesion. It may also optionally include a heat sealable or winding improving layer on the side opposite the coating receiving-layer of the core layer.

Abstract: A multi-layer shrink film. The shrink film can exhibit a significant amount of shrink within a certain temperature range that is above the onset temperature of the film. The film can exhibit a shrinkage that is at least about 50% of the total shrink within a temperature range T1 above the onset temperature of the film. In one aspect, the shrink film comprises a core layer and skin layers disposed about opposite surfaces of the core layer, and tie layers disposed between the core and the skin layers, the skin layers individually comprising a polyester, e.g., a glycol-modified polyester, and the tie layers individually comprising an anhydride modified material.

Abstract: Films useful as optical reflectors are prepared by coating a sheet of polyethylene terephthalate or other thermoplastic with acrylic polymer, white pigment, and optionally other additives such as impact modifiers, matting agents and UV stabilizers.

Abstract: A coating system for polymer articles made from polyoxymethylene polymers is disclosed. The coating system can include a primer coat, a base coat, and a clear coat.

Abstract: A label for removable application to an article such as a beverage bottle includes a backing layer (2) comprising a laminate of a bi-axially oriented polyester such as PET (12) and a bi-axially oriented polypropylene (14). The polyester film (12) has a lower coefficient of thermal expansion than the polypropylene film (14). Consequently, when the label is heated, it will tend to curl and this effect can be used to assist in the removal of the label from the article in a hot washing bath during recycling of the article.

Abstract: A laminated article comprises a substrate having opposite major surfaces, and a multi-layer lamination composition comprising (i) a base layer and (ii) an adhesion layer bonded to at least one surface of the base layer. The adhesion layer (ii) comprises a propylene copolymer which comprises units derived from propylene and from about 3 to about 25 wt % of units derived from ethylene and/or a C4 to C8 alpha-olefin and which has a melting temperature less than about 105° C. and a heat of fusion less than about 75 J/g. The lamination composition is thermally laminated to the substrate such that said adhesion layer (ii) is bonded to at least one major surface of said substrate.

Abstract: Disclosed embodiments concern a microfluidic device comprising a bonding agent and two or more components. In particular disclosed embodiments, the microfluidic device is made out of the disclosed bonding agent. Also disclosed are embodiments of a method for making a microfluidic device, wherein the method includes using the disclosed bonding agent to couple two or more components together.

Abstract: A swatch assembly includes a substrate with a decorative sample thereon, and an adhesive layer at least partially covering the substrate. The adhesive layer is a reversible adhesive configured to releasably and temporarily attach the design swatch to an underlying surface, leave the underlying surface unmarked after removal, and retain an adhesion property for a plurality of adhesion cycles. A design system includes a first design swatch with a first substrate and a first adhesive layer being a reversible adhesive, and a second design swatch with a second substrate and a second adhesive layer being a reversible adhesive. A display apparatus for a design swatch includes a substrate layer, an adhesive layer being a reversible adhesive, and an attachment feature supported by the substrate layer and configured to receive a design swatch for display against an underlying surface.

Abstract: The present invention provides a laminated film comprising a polyester film having a resin layer on at least one side thereof, wherein said resin layer contains at least metal oxide particles (A) having a number average particle diameter of 3 nm or more and 50 nm or less, and an acrylic resin (B), and a component (C1) derived from an oxazoline-based compound and/or a component (C2) derived from a melamine-based compound, and wherein said acrylic resin (B) contains a monomer unit (b1), a monomer unit (b2) and a monomer unit (b3). The present invention provides a laminated film which is excellent in transparency, suppression of interference pattern upon lamination of a high refractive index hard coat layer, adhesive property to a high refractive index hard coat layer, and adhesion under high temperature and high humidity conditions (adhesion under high temperature and high humidity conditions), at a low cost.