Abstract: A method for operating a battery system connected to an electric energy system, having battery strings connected in parallel, including a battery, an inverter and a transformer Each battery is chargeable and dischargeable. Each battery has an installed, maximum charge capacity and a capacity that is available in the current operating state. During discharging the currently available capacity corresponds to a state-of-charge of the respective battery, and during charging the currently available capacity corresponds to a difference between the maximum charge capacity and the state-of-charge of the respective battery. A total charge output requested during the charging of the battery system and/or a total discharge output requested during the discharging of the battery system is distributed as part outputs over the battery strings and thus over the batteries dependent on the currently available capacities of the batteries of the battery strings connected in parallel.

Abstract: A main object of the present disclosure is to provide an active material wherein a volume variation due to charge/discharge is small. The present disclosure achieves the object by providing an active material comprising a silicon clathrate II type crystal phase, and having a composition represented by NaxSi136, wherein 1.98<x<2.54.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present application provide a case of a battery, a battery, a power consumption device, and a method and device for preparing a battery. The case includes: an electrical chamber configured to accommodate a plurality of battery cells and a bus component, where at least one battery cell of the plurality of battery cells includes a pressure relief mechanism; a thermal management component configured to accommodate a fluid to adjust temperatures of the plurality of battery cells; and a collection chamber configured to collect, when the pressure relief mechanism is actuated, emissions from the battery cell provided with the pressure relief mechanism; where the thermal management component is configured to isolate the electrical chamber from the collection chamber. According to the technical solutions of the embodiments of the present application, the safety of the battery can be enhanced.

Abstract: A battery module includes a battery column, a heat insulation pad and a side plate. The battery column includes a plurality of batteries, and the batteries are arranged in a first direction. The heat insulation pad is disposed between two adjacent batteries in the battery column. The side plate is disposed on a side surface of the battery column and extends in the first direction. At least one heat-resistant region is disposed on the side plate and corresponds to a position of the heat insulation pad. The heat-resistant region is any one of a through hole, a blind hole, and a notch or a combination of two or more of the foregoing communicated with each other. At least a portion of an orthographic projection of the heat insulation pad on the side plate is disposed within the heat-resistant region.

Abstract: A system for a venting seal for battery modules in an electric aircraft is presented. The system includes a plurality of battery modules, wherein each battery module comprises a vent conduit, a contactor configured to disengage at least a catalyst battery module as a function of a thermal event, and an electrical bridging device configured to seal off the at least a catalyst battery module as a function of an independent seal, disengage the at least a catalyst battery module from the remaining plurality of battery modules, and transfer electrical energy across the plurality of battery modules.

Abstract: Disclosed are a pouch exterior capable of easily mounting an electrode assembly at an accurate position between accommodating parts, having an integrated form to minimize sealing parts contacting the air and to increase a lifetime of a battery, capable of preventing a rupture of the pouch exterior in an assembly process, and capable of increasing an energy density of a cell, a pouch-type secondary battery using the pouch exterior, and a method of manufacturing the pouch-type secondary battery. A pouch exterior for a secondary battery, according to the present disclosure, includes two corresponding accommodating parts configured to mount an electrode assembly therebetween and symmetrically formed at both sides by disposing a protruding part therebetween, and is folded along two folding lines outside a center pan of the protruding part by vertically mounting a side surface of the electrode assembly on the protruding part, such that folded parts surround side edges of the electrode assembly.

Abstract: A device for detecting a thermal runaway of a battery module with a number of cells includes a current acquisition module that is configured to capture a set of currents, and a temperature acquisition module that is configured to capture a set of temperatures. The device includes a state of charge capturing module that is configured to capture a set of states, and a resistance calculation module that is configured to derive a set of resistances. The device includes a temperature prediction module that is configured to calculate a set of temperature predictors, and a runaway prediction module that is configured to calculate a set of runaway predictors. A warning module that is configured to set a warning indicator when at least one runaway predictor value of the set of runaway predictors exceeds a predefined threshold value.

Abstract: The present application discloses a battery management system, a processing device, a battery management method, and a battery management and control system.

Abstract: Aspects of the present disclosure are directed to a method for refueling an electric vehicle, the method comprising: detecting, by one or more sensors, a lock signal as a function of installing a battery pack into the electric vehicle; and enabling the battery pack, in response to installing the battery pack, wherein enabling the battery pack comprises a contactor. Aspects of the present disclosure may also be direct to a system for refueling an electric vehicle.

Abstract: A system includes a stack of battery cells within a container. An interior space of the container is filled with a coolant in direct contact with the cells. There need be no intervening containers between the coolant in the interior space of the container, and the cells. A method can include detecting a thermal runaway event in one or more of the cells, and admitting some of the coolant at a first pressure into the one or more cells at a second pressure lower than the first pressure.

Abstract: Electrolytes and electrolyte additives for energy storage devices comprising metal sulfide compounds are disclosed. The energy storage device comprises a first electrode and a second electrode, wherein at least one of the first electrode and the second electrode is a Si-based electrode, a separator between the first electrode and the second electrode, an electrolyte, and at least one electrolyte additive selected from a metal sulfide compound.

Abstract: This disclosure details exemplary battery pack designs for use in electrified vehicles. Exemplary battery packs may include an enclosure assembly that houses one or more battery arrays. The battery arrays may be efficiently arranged relative to one another inside the enclosure assembly to establish an open channel within the enclosure assembly. Coolant lines and/or wiring lines may be positioned within and/or routed through the open channel in order to maximize battery internal component volume without increasing the overall footprint of the enclosure assembly.

Abstract: An electrochemical direct heat to electricity converter includes a primary thermal energy source; a working fluid; an electrochemical cell comprising at least one membrane electrode assembly including a first porous electrode, a second porous electrode and at least one membrane, wherein the at least one membrane is sandwiched between the first and second porous electrodes and is a conductor of ions of the working fluid; an energy storage reservoir; and an external load. The electrochemical cell operates on heat to produce electricity. When thermal energy available from the primary thermal energy source is greater than necessary to meet demands of the external load, excess energy is stored in the energy storage reservoir, and when the thermal energy available from the primary thermal energy source is insufficient to meet the demands of the external load, at least a portion of the excess energy stored in the energy storage reservoir is used to supply power to the external load.

Abstract: A vehicle includes a traction battery having a plurality of cells arranged in arrays and grouped into a plurality of cooling zones. A thermal management system includes a plurality of distinct circuits each associated with one of the zones. The thermal management system is configured to provide individual heating or cooling to each of the circuits to independently control temperatures of the zones. A controller is programmed to, in response to one of the zones exceeding a first threshold temperature and another of the zones being less a second threshold temperature, command the thermal management system to provide cooling to the circuit associated with the one of the zones and command the thermal management system to provide heating to the circuit associated with the another of the zones.

Abstract: Systems and methods that provide improved cooling for batteries are disclosed. A battery system according to the present disclosure may include a cooling plate, one or more battery cells coupled to one surface of the cooling plate, and one or more battery cells coupled to the opposite surface of the cooling plate. The cooling plate and corresponding batteries may be included in a battery module, and multiple battery modules electrically connected may make up a battery pack. The cooling plates may comprise channels for cooling fluid, which may be provided to the plates in parallel from a cooling fluid source. Cooling the battery cells at the ends of the cells, where they are coupled to the cooling plate, may advantageously provide one or more of improved energy density, thermal management, and safety.

Abstract: The present solution provides a multifunctional metal-organic (MOF) interface that can be applied between battery cells, battery modules or battery packs and provide thermal isolation and active cooling, as necessary, while also providing absorption for mechanical stress of EV battery. The present solution can include a battery cell that can have an outer surface. A multifunctional material can be coupled with the outer surface of the battery cell. An opening that extends through the multifunctional material can provide thermal convection when the heat is moved through the opening. The multifunctional material can provide thermal insulation when the fluid is not moved through the opening. The multifunctional material can insulate the battery cell from mechanical stress.

Abstract: The disclosure relates to a temperature management system for an energy system of a motor vehicle. The temperature management system includes an energy storage system, a conductivity element, and an ambient interface. The ambient interface includes a first surface directed to an environment of the energy system and a second surface opposite to the first surface. The conductivity element is arranged between the second surface of the ambient interface and the energy storage system. The conductivity element is switchable between an isolating mode with a first lower thermal conductivity and a conductive mode with a second higher thermal conductivity. The conductivity element includes a voltage sensitive material. The voltage sensitive material is switchable between the first and the second thermal conductivity depending on an applied voltage. The voltage sensitive material includes a piezoelectric material.

Abstract: Improved battery systems have been developed for lithium-ion based batteries. The improved battery systems consist of two-additive mixtures in an electrolyte solvent. Such battery systems are prepared by assembling a positive electrode and a negative electrode in the sealed cell, removing residual water from the sealed cell, filling the sealed cell with a nonaqueous electrolyte under an inert atmosphere, vacuum-sealing the sealed cell, carrying out a formation process comprising charging and discharging the sealed cell until the sealed cell achieves an initial capacity. The nonaqueous electrolyte includes lithium ions, a first nonaqueous solvent comprising a carbonate solvent, a second nonaquaeous solvent comprising methyl acetate, and an additive mixture of a first operative additive of either vinylene carbonate or fluoroethylene carbonate and a second operative additive of 2-furanone. Gas formation is suppressed in the battery system during the formation process.

Abstract: A vehicle, and a balancing device and method of controlling a state of charge of a reference electrode in a battery. The balancing device includes a measurement circuit and a charging circuit. The measurement circuit is configured to obtain a measurement of a reference voltage of the reference electrode. The charging circuit is configured to adjust the reference voltage based on the measurement. The state of charge of the reference electrode is controlled based on the reference voltage.

Abstract: A degassing system of a pouch for a secondary battery is provided. In the degassing system, after inhaling gas regardless of the size of a cell pocket, the gas may be processed, and the convenience of work may be increased by setting the period of degassing time or the amount of gas to be discharged according to the size of a pouch, and an abnormality in a suction line for degassing may be automatically detected according to a comparison value by comparing the amount of discharged gas with a reference value preset by each pouch size.

Abstract: A rechargeable battery assembly has a first battery unit with a first terminal and a second terminal; a second battery unit which is serially connected to the first battery unit and which has a first terminal and a second terminal; and a differential amplifier with an inverting input, a non-inverting input, and an output at which an amplified difference between the signal at the inverting input and the signal at the non-inverting input is produced. The non-inverting input of the differential amplifier is connected to the second terminal of the first battery unit and to the first terminal of the second battery unit. The inverting input of the differential amplifier is coupled to the first terminal of the first battery unit and to the second terminal of the second battery unit. The output of the differential amplifier is connected to the second terminal of the second battery unit.

Abstract: A method of controlling a fan speed for a battery unit includes determining power discharge and a current temperature of a battery unit and obtaining a relationship between fan speed for the battery unit and temperature of the battery unit based on the power discharge and the current temperature of the battery unit. The method further includes identifying a minimum fan speed based on the relationship between fan speed and temperature and a maximum operating temperature of the battery unit and controlling the fan by setting the speed of the fan to the minimum fan speed.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a system and method for energy generation from salinity gradients using asymmetrically porous electrodes. In certain embodiments, an energy generation system includes at least one pair of asymmetrically porous electrodes positioned within a chamber in selective fluidic communication with a freshwater source (e.g., a river) and a saltwater source (e.g., an ocean). Asymmetry between a first average percent volume per unit pore-width of a first electrode and a second average percent volume per unit pore-width of a second electrode creates differing interfacial potentials between the first electrode and the second electrode when such electrodes are immersed in freshwater and saltwater. By cyclically immersing the electrodes in freshwater and saltwater, energy is harvested from Gibbs free energy from mixing saltwater and freshwater. Such a system does not require a membrane or an external charge source. Methods of generating energy using asymmetrically porous electrodes are also provided.

Abstract: A power storage device includes a power storage module, a conductive plate, and a sealing member. The power storage module includes an electrode laminate and a sealing body. The sealing body includes a plurality of resin portions. Metal plates at laminate ends of the electrode laminate each have an exposed surface exposed from the resin portion. The exposed surface includes a contact region and a non-contact region. The sealing member includes a first sealing portion. The first sealing portion is provided along an inner edge of the resin portion to be in contact with the resin portion. The first sealing portion adheres to the conductive plate and the non-contact region and fills a portion between the conductive plate and the non-contact region. The first sealing portion seals a portion between the conductive plate and the exposed surface.

Abstract: A battery is provided having heat transfer bars that directly transfer heat between the interior layers of a battery cell and the case that encloses the battery cell. The battery does not transfer significant heat from its interior layers to the posts of the battery that reside outside of the battery case. A temperature-controlled power system also is provided that uses multiple, active thermoelectric devices paired with multiple batteries to provide individual temperature control of the individual batteries forming the power system. The multiple, active thermoelectric devices preferably transfer heat to a single radiator on each side of the power system. A method of transferring heat from a battery interior using conductive, active, and convective heat transfer is also described.

Abstract: An electrochemical pretreatment method of a vanadium positive electrode for a lithium secondary battery, which can improve the lifetime characteristics of the positive electrode and the battery by inhibiting the leaching of vanadium when charging and discharging the lithium secondary battery using, for instance, vanadium oxide (V2O5) as a positive electrode, and a vanadium positive electrode for a lithium secondary battery pretreated thereby. The electrochemical pretreatment method of the vanadium positive electrode for a lithium secondary battery includes a) a step of discharging the lithium free vanadium positive electrode at a voltage of 1.9 V or more; b) an electrochemical pretreatment step of maintaining the discharged vanadium positive electrode of a) at an onset potential value or a potential value having a maximum current through a potentiostat; and c) a step of charging and discharging the pretreated vanadium positive electrode of b) at a voltage range of 2.1V to 4.0V.

Abstract: A battery assembly including a battery pack having a battery pack housing, an upper modular housing portion coupled to the battery pack housing positioned at a first end of the battery pack housing, a lower modular housing portion coupled to the battery pack housing positioned at a second end of the battery pack housing, and a handle formed as part of the upper modular housing portion. The battery assembly further includes multiple battery cells disposed within the battery pack housing, a mating feature including multiple ports electrically connected to the multiple battery cells and structured to supply power from the multiple battery cells through the ports and is structured to selectively connect the battery assembly with a receptacle of at least one of a piece of power equipment and a charging station. The mating feature is located on the first modular housing portion.

Abstract: A power supply unit for an aerosol inhaler includes: a power supply that is able to discharge power to a load for generating an aerosol from an aerosol source; and a control unit that is configured to control the power supply. The control unit acquires a deteriorated state or a failure state of the power supply based on an internal resistance of the power supply.

Abstract: A detecting device detects at least one battery characteristic of at least one battery cell of a battery plane of a battery stack. A carrier has at least one electrical lead element and at least one contact element having a contact section for contacting a mating contact section of the at least one battery cell. The contact element has a sensor section for detecting the at least one battery characteristic of the battery cell. The sensor section is connected by data-communicating to the at least one line element for forwarding the at least one detected battery characteristic. Furthermore, the invention relates to a battery stack having at least one battery plane with at least one battery cell and a detection device.

Abstract: Provided are a method and a system for optimizing a BMS model. The method includes: creating a BMS model based on test data of a battery; selecting sample vehicles from real driving data of vehicles equipped with this type of battery through active learning approach, and giving a corresponding weight to each of the selected sample vehicles; optimizing the BMS model based on the data of the selected sample vehicles.

Abstract: Provided in embodiments of the disclosure are a battery heat adjustment circuit and method, a storage medium and an electronic device. The circuit includes a battery pack, the battery pack including at least two battery blocks, and each battery block including one or more battery cells; a first controller, respectively connected to partial battery blocks included in the battery pack, and configured to detect a state of partial battery blocks included in the battery pack and control, based on a state detection result, partial battery blocks included in the battery pack to discharge; and a heat adjustment loop, connected to the first controller, and configured to respectively adjust, by using electric energy released by partial battery blocks included in the battery pack, heat of partial battery blocks included in the battery pack. By means of the disclosure, the problems that heating and heat balance of zones in the battery may not be simultaneously solved in the relevant art is solved.

Abstract: A system and method for providing instant games in both physical scratch-off and virtual forms wherein at least a portion of the winning value of the instant game is determined by a plurality of planar layers with the concordance of the planar layers determining value enhancements. The distribution and composition of the concordance of the plurality of planar layers is configured to ensure compliance with a predetermined prize outcome prize fund.

Abstract: A rechargeable energy storage system includes a battery pack and a battery controller. The battery pack has a voltage current temperature module and multiple battery modules. Respective battery modules have multiple battery cells and are operable to store a module identifier that encodes at least one parameter of the battery cells, receive a configuration request from the voltage current temperature module, and transfer the module identifier to the voltage current temperature module in response to the configuration request. The battery controller is in communication with the voltage current temperature module and is operable to send a status request to the voltage current temperature module, receive the plurality of module identifiers from the voltage current temperature module in response to the status request, and compare the module identifiers to determine either a match or at least one mismatch among the module identifiers of the battery modules.

Abstract: A storage device configured to store electrical energy, includes at least one storage element having an element housing which has at least one accommodating chamber and at least one element base which at least partially downwardly delimits the accommodating chamber in an installation position of the storage device. The storage device includes at least one storage means, accommodated in the accommodating chamber, configured to store electrical energy, wherein the at least one storage means comprises at least one degassing unit configured to discharge fluid, which is released in the accommodating chamber, from the accommodating chamber. The degassing unit is provided on the element base and is configured to downwardly discharge fluid from the accommodating chamber with respect to the installation position of the storage device.

Abstract: A system and method for monitoring characteristics of an electric energy device includes generating an external short from the electric energy device. The external short occurs at a known distance from a sensor and has at least one known external resistance. The received signal representing change in electromagnetic field due to the applied external short may be analyzed to determine a signal parameter that is then analyzed in comparison to a lookup table, based on the known conditions including distance, temperature and the external resistance. The output of this analyses in comparison with expected values may be utilized to identify a characteristic of the energy device.

Abstract: Bismuth-based, chloride-storage electrodes and rechargeable electrochemical cells incorporating the chloride-storage electrodes are provided. Also provided are methods for making the electrodes and methods for using the electrochemical cells to remove chloride ions from a sample. The chloride-storage electrodes, which are composed of bismuth metal, can store chloride ions in their bulk by forming BiOCl via an oxidation reaction with bismuth in the presence of an oxygen source.

Abstract: A vehicle is configured to charge other electric vehicles. The vehicle includes a battery with a number of battery cells, the battery being configured to output direct current at a first voltage. The vehicle also includes a direct current voltage converter configured to convert direct current received from the battery to a second voltage and an electrical connector in electrical communication with the direct current voltage converter, the electrical connector being configured to supply direct current at the second voltage from the direct current voltage converter to an electric vehicle. The vehicle further includes a control system configured to determine a charging voltage of an electric vehicle, and operate the direct current voltage converter to output direct current at a second voltage corresponding to the charging voltage of the electric vehicle, and a thermal management system configured to maintain the battery within a selected temperature range.

Abstract: The battery thermal management system includes a battery pack, a circulation subsystem, and a heat exchanger. The system can optionally include a cooling system, a reservoir, a de-ionization filter, a battery charger, and a controller.

Abstract: Provided is a method for determining a micro short circuit of a lithium ion secondary battery which is capable of determining the presence or absence of a micro short circuit of the lithium ion secondary battery in a short time. A relaxation process after the interruption of a discharging current or a charging current is analyzed and a voltage fluctuation component due to micro short circuit is separated and used in the determination.

Abstract: A sodium-ion conducting (e.g., sodium-sulfur) battery, which can be rechargeable, comprising a microporous host-sulfur composite cathode as described herein or a liquid electrolyte comprising a liquid electrolyte solvent and a liquid electrolyte salt or electrolyte additive as described herein or a combination thereof. The batteries can be used in devices such as, for example, battery packs.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present application provide a case of a battery, a battery, a power consumption device, and a method and device for preparing a battery. The case includes: an electrical chamber configured to accommodate a plurality of battery cells and a bus component, where at least one battery cell of the plurality of battery cells includes a pressure relief mechanism; a thermal management component configured to accommodate a fluid to adjust temperatures of the plurality of battery cells; and a collection chamber configured to collect, when the pressure relief mechanism is actuated, emissions from the battery cell provided with the pressure relief mechanism; where the thermal management component is configured to isolate the electrical chamber from the collection chamber. According to the technical solutions of the embodiments of the present application, the safety of the battery can be enhanced.

Abstract: A battery module includes a unit module stack formed by stacking a plurality of unit modules, each unit module having a plurality of battery cells stacked on each other; a swelling absorption pad interposed between the unit modules adjacent to each other; and a module housing configured to accommodate the unit module stack and the swelling absorption pad, wherein the swelling absorption pad has a coolant channel formed to extend along a longitudinal direction thereof.

Abstract: Disclosed is a battery system comprising a battery pack having a plurality of cells, each of the plurality of cells each having a cell temperature; a battery management system coupled to the battery pack and designed to obtain temperature plurality of temperatures from the battery pack wherein the battery management system is configured to output a single battery pack temperature value. Further disclosed is a battery system comprising a battery pack having a plurality of cells, each of the plurality of cells each having a cell state of charge; a battery management system coupled to the battery pack and designed to obtain a plurality of state of charges from the battery pack, wherein the battery management system is configured to output a single battery pack state of charge value.

Abstract: Provided is a rechargeable battery comprising an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte disposed between the anode and the cathode, a protective housing that at least partially encloses the anode, the cathode and the electrolyte, a heat-spreader element disposed at least partially inside the protective housing and configured to receive heat from an external heat source at a desired heating temperature Th to heat up the battery to a desired temperature Tc for battery charging. Preferably, the heat-spreader element does not receive an electrical current from an external circuit (e.g. battery charger) to generate heat for resistance heating of the battery. Charging the battery at Tc enables completion of the battery in less than 15 minutes, typically less than 10 minutes, and more typically less than 5 minutes without adversely impacting the battery structure and performance.

Abstract: An apparatus for degassing a battery cell includes: a gas suction portion providing negative pressure; a first tubular member connected to the gas suction portion, and having at least one suction port formed in a radial direction; a second tubular member connected to the gas suction portion, and provided to be coupled to the first tubular member; and a hemispherical cover coupled to the first tubular member and the second tubular member, respectively, wherein the hemispherical cover includes a first cover coupled to the first tubular member and a second cover coupled to the second tubular member, when the first tubular member and the second tubular member and are coupled, the first cover and the second cover may be disposed such that openings face each other, and the suction port may be disposed between the first cover and the second cover.

Abstract: Alkaline electrochemical cells are provided, wherein a long-chain surfactant is included in at least one component of the cell in order to delay anode shutdown. Methods for preparing such cells are also provided.

Abstract: This disclosure details exemplary battery pack designs for use in electrified vehicles. Exemplary battery packs may include an enclosure assembly that houses one or more battery arrays. The battery arrays may be efficiently arranged relative to one another inside the enclosure assembly to establish an open channel within the enclosure assembly. Coolant lines and/or wiring lines may be positioned within and/or routed through the open channel in order to maximize battery internal component volume without increasing the overall footprint of the enclosure assembly.

Abstract: An electrochemical cell management system comprising an electrochemical cell and at least one controller configured to control the cell such that, for at least a portion of a charge cycle, the cell is charged at a charging rate or current that is lower than a discharging rate or current of at least a portion of a previous discharge cycle. An electrochemical cell management method. An electrochemical cell management system comprising an electrochemical cell and at least one controller configured to induce a discharge of the cell before and/or after a charging step of the cell. An electrochemical cell management method. A electrochemical cell management system comprising an electrochemical cell and at least one controller configured to: monitor at least one characteristic of the cell and, based on the at least one characteristic of the cell, induce a discharge and/or control a charging rate or current of the cell.

Abstract: A frequency converter includes a storage element for storing electrical energy and a detector connected to the storage element and including a pressure sensor and a temperature sensor. The detector detects a physical variable in immediate vicinity of the storage element and provides a signal in accordance with an electrical resistance of the detector when a predefinable change over time of the physical variable is exceeded, with the electrical resistance representing an output of the detector. A housing encloses or substantially encloses the detector and the storage element. Communicating with the detector is an evaluation facility to detect the predefinable change over time of the physical variable. The evaluation facility and/or the detector is/are connected to a higher-level security system designed to decouple and/or to divert the electrical energy from the storage element when the predefinable change over time of the physical variable is exceeded.

Abstract: An apparatus estimating a state of charge (SOC)-open circuit voltage (OCV) profile, including: a storage unit storing: a beginning of life (BOL) positive electrode (PE) half-cell SOC-OCV profile and available range (AR), a BOL negative electrode (NE) half-cell SOC-OCV profile and AR, and a BOL full-cell SOC-OCV profile and total capacity (TC), and a control unit estimating a full-cell SOC-OCV profile at middle of life (MOL), including: an AR determination module for: calculating an MOL full-cell TC while a secondary battery is fully charged/discharged at MOL, and determining the MOL PE and NE ARs so a ratio of the MOL to the BOL full-cell TCs equals a ratio of the MOL to the BOL PE ARs and a ratio of the MOL to the BOL NE ARs, and a profile management module for: estimating, as an MOL full-cell SOC-OCV profile, a differential profile, and updating the BOL full-cell SOC-OCV profile.