Abstract: The present invention is related to a tire pressure display device and its detection method. The tire pressure display device includes a main module, multiple tire pressure detection modules and a vehicle audio module, wherein the main module includes a CPU and a receiver. By the composition of the above elements and the detection method, the tire pressure display device may actively report the location and tire pressure of tires during pumping up, synchronously execute broadcasting with image and voice, and directly correct errors and detect if the tire pressure detection module is break down for warning.

Abstract: A device for measuring the tire pressure in a pneumatic tire of a vehicle, having an electronic system housing which has an electronic system for measuring values, acted on by a tire valve, for the tire pressure, wherein the electronic system for measuring values is assigned a receiver arranged outside the pneumatic tire, and wherein the electronic system housing is arranged in the region of the rim well of a rim for the pneumatic tire and is indirectly or directly connected to the tire valve, wherein at least one spring element which is operatively connected to the rim well is provided on the electronic system housing.

Abstract: A piezoelectric generator includes a piezoelectric element, a spring element, a mass element, and at least one stop. The piezoelectric element, the spring element, and the mass element form a system which can oscillate. The stop limits the oscillation of the system which can oscillate, at least on one side. The stop is formed from a ductile material or has a coating of a ductile material.

Abstract: To provide a rim assembly to which even a small tire can be mounted, a tire testing machine, and a rim assembly replacement method. The rim assembly having an upper rim and a lower rim in a pair to which a tire to be tested is mounted, includes: a pin provided on the lower rim; a pin receiving portion that is provided on the upper rim and engageable with the pin; and a groove portion having a recessed groove with a recessed section that can house at least a part of a tip of the pin, formed in a surface of the upper rim on a side of the lower rim.

Abstract: A compact, easy to use tire tread gauge has a window that displays an indication of the condition of an automobile tire and whether it needs to be replaced because of tread wear.

Abstract: A device for changing the rotational angle position of a pneumatic tire relative to a rim, on which the pneumatic tire is fitted to the rim, includes a manipulating device with a gripper adapted to be rotated by a positionable rotary drive mechanism and having radially adjustable gripper fingers with oppositely facing lift-off devices. Via the gripper it is possible to load a wheel into a clamping fixture, and following unseating of the tire beads from the clamped rim the pneumatic tire can be rotated relative to the rim through a computed angular difference.

Abstract: A system and method of estimating a load bearing on a vehicle tire includes an inflation pressure measuring sensor attached to the tire for measuring a tire cavity inflation pressure level; and one or more piezofilm deformation measuring sensors mounted to one or both of the tire sidewalls. The deformation measuring sensor generates within the tire footprint a deformation signal having signal power level indicative of a level of sidewall deformation within the footprint contact patch. Power-to-load maps adjusted for tire inflation pressure are generated and stored for the tire, the maps correlating a range of load levels to a range of signal power levels whereby operatively enabling a load level to be identified for each signal power level on an inflation pressure adjusted basis.

Abstract: A tire work station and system for selectively holding a tire having work performed thereon in a side orientation or a front orientation. The tire work station comprises a work platform mounted to a vertically adjustable pedestal having a first support system and a second support system. The first support system comprising a pair of tread rollers inclined at a first inclined angle A1 and further forming a second angle A2 with a pair of sidewall rollers. The sidewall rollers spaced apart to define a passageway for the tire in its front orientation. The second support system mounted between the pair of tread rollers, comprising a tread support surface at a first distance from a top surface of the work platform lower than a support surface of the pair of tread rollers at a second distance from the top surface of the work platform.

Abstract: A valve stem connectible to a tire pressure sensor includes a valve stem body and a grommet attached to the valve stem body. The grommet includes a first flange and a second flange extending radially outward from the valve stem body. A retention member attached to the valve stem body includes a base member and a standoff extending from the base member. The standoff is selectively moveable between a first position in which a distal end of the standoff is disposed at a first radial distance from a longitudinal axis of the valve stem body, and a second position in which the standoff is disposed at a second radial distance from the longitudinal axis, the first radial distance being greater than the second radial distance. An outer peripheral edge of the second flange is disposed at a third radial distance that is less than the first radial distance.

Abstract: A tire condition detecting device according to the present invention includes: an electronic component including a sensor configured to detect a tire condition; and a casing configured to house the electronic component. The casing includes a casing main body configured to house the electronic component and having an opening surface formed thereon, and a lid unit configured to cover the opening surface. An inside of the casing main body having the opening surface covered by the lid unit is filled with a sealant. Accordingly, tire conditions such as inner pressure and temperature of a tire can be surely detected and a breakdown of an electronic component can be prevented even in an environment where water content such as a coolant is injected in the tire.

Abstract: Disclosed is a tire mountable apparatus and methodology for mounting devices within a tire. In certain embodiments a signal generator may be mounted to the tire to generate signals based on changes in the radius of curvature of a tire. A piezoelectric sandwich and/or a substrate is/are provided having a length and width based at least in part on tire dimensions and positioned in the tire such that the longer length dimension is positioned laterally with respect to the width of the tire. The sandwich and/or substrate is/are sized such that the width dimension provides substantially no response to changes in the circumferential radius of curvature of the tire so that the length dimension defines the primary bending direction while the width dimension provides a strain free mount for associated devices.

Abstract: Apparatus and method for tire temperature measurement is disclosed. The apparatus includes a thermocouple having a measurement junction and a pair of first and second conductive leads. The measurement junction is mounted in a passage provided in the tire. The pair of first and second conductive leads extend through the passage in the tire and exit the tire at an interface. A patch is mounted to the tire at the interface. The pair of first and second conductive leads extend from the interface into a passage provided in the patch. The first and second conductive leads are surrounded by the patch at the interface where the first and second conductive leads exit the surface of the tire.

Abstract: A tire pressure monitor mount includes a carrier (20) adapted to temporarily suspend a tire pressure monitor (36) between the sidewalls (16) of a tire (10) prior to installation of the tire (10) on a wheel (62). Upon installation of the tire on the wheel (62), the carrier (20) is fixed in place thereby suspending the tire pressure monitor (36) between the sidewalls (6) and in spaced relation to the rim (66) where the tire pressure monitor (36) is less likely to be impacted and/or damaged by debris/chemicals within the tire (10).

Abstract: A method for measuring inflation pressure of a vehicle tire involves measuring a compressive stress. The tire includes a rubber mass, referred to as an interior rubber, delimited by an internal surface in contact with air inside the tire and an external surface in contact with a carcass ply of the tire. The compressive stress in the interior rubber of the tire, between the internal and external surfaces of the interior rubber, is measured and the inflation pressure is deduced from this compressive stress.

Abstract: A wheel monitoring system that includes a tracking filter apparatus for tracking a signal that has a varying main frequency. The tracking filter apparatus has an adjustable filter and a filter controller arranged to measure the amplitude of the filtered signal and to compare amplitude against a reference value. The filter controller adjusts the cut off frequency of the filter if the measured amplitude differs from the reference value by an amount that exceeds a threshold value. The filter controller adjusts the cut off frequency such that the main frequency lies within the roll off region of the filter's frequency response. The system may be used to track signals that are produced by shock sensors in a wheel mounted monitoring device.

Abstract: A method for determining the tread depth of a vehicle tire, with the tire being mounted on a vehicle, the tire being rolled over or placed on a measuring station, the tread of the tire being optically sensed transversely to the rolling direction of the tire on at least one measuring line, a ray fan extending from a light source being reflected at the tire surface and a signal of the reflected ray fan being recorded by a sensor, and the signal of the reflected ray fan being evaluated by way of a triangulation method, is characterized in that the signal is recorded in a non-orthogonal manner to the tire surface.

Abstract: A method and system for determining the potential friction between a tire and a rolling surface wherein: the tire is rotated on the rolling surface so as to subject a crown portion of the tire to an acceleration radial component; data are obtained which are representative of the acceleration radial component to which the crown portion is subjected during at least one tire revolution; starting from the data, data are selected which are representative of at least one transition region of the acceleration radial component; the selected data are processed so as to obtain information correlated with the steepness of transition of the at least one transition region; and the potential friction is estimated on the basis of the information correlated with the steepness of transition.

Abstract: A tire module for sensing wheel and/or tire state variables is provided. The module includes at least one acceleration switch which determines a wheel state variable and/or a tire state variable. A method for sensing wheel state variables and/or tire state variables is also provided. In the method, a characteristic variable which is a measure of the length of the contact area of the tire or the contact area run-through time is determined by an acceleration switch.

Abstract: A monitoring system is disclosed, which includes a base station and at least one sensor unit that is separate from the base station. The at least one sensor unit resides in a dormant state until it is awakened by the triggering of a vibration-sensitive switch. Once awakened, the sensor may take a measurement, and then transmit to the base station the measurement. Once data is transmitted from the sensor to the base station, the sensor may return to its dormant state. There may be various sensors for each base station and the various sensors may optionally measure different quantities, such as current, voltage, single-axis and/or three-axis magnetic fields.

Abstract: A tire inspection apparatus arranged with a plurality of cameras located at relatively displaced circumferential positions and set for the respective shooting positions different from each other in the axial direction of the tire. Thus the images of the inner circumferential surface of the tire are shot by the plurality of cameras as the tire is rotated circumferentially relative to the plurality of cameras. During this operation, markers are inserted at the same time in the images shot by all of the cameras. The images are synthesized using these markers as reference positions in aligning the shot images in accordance with the relative displacements of the cameras in the circumferential direction.

Abstract: Next-generation intelligent tire systems, such as active and adaptive tire systems and methods, are disclosed. Various embodiments of the invention can sense actual tire, road and driving conditions and characteristics, and/or respond to externally controlled influences, and dynamically adapt thereto, thereby improving vehicle and passenger safety.

Abstract: A tire testing apparatus for testing a tire comprises a loading means for the tire (17), a measuring head (20, 22, 24) which is movable relative to the tire (17), and lower bearing elements (7) on which the tire (17) can be positioned in vertical position. To improve such tire testing apparatus, the tire testing apparatus comprises upper bearing elements (8) which are movable relative to the lower bearing elements (7) and which together with the lower bearing elements (7) form a holder for the tire (17). (FIG.

Abstract: A device for inspecting a tire (10), in particular by means of an interferometric measuring method, is provided with a measuring head, which is used to scan the tire in order to produce a measured result. The device is also equipped with a location element, which allows the measuring head to be located and aligned in a monitoring position. In addition, the device is provided with a control and display unit, which allows the location element to be controlled and the measured result to be displayed. To achieve the simple control of the measuring head and a reliable evaluation of the measured result, the control and display unit has at least one display field for displaying the monitoring position or the monitoring direction of the measuring head in relation to the tire.

Abstract: A tire performance indicator for a tire includes at least one tread wear indicator region structured and arranged in a tread region of the tire and at least one performance symbol guide structured and arranged approximate a sidewall region of the tire.

Abstract: A tire inspection machine includes an incoming conveyor adapted to transport tires to the machine and also align the tires in a transverse direction. An inspection table of the machine includes a table conveyor system that is responsive to a controller. The table and table conveyor are together arranged to permit scanning of both sidewall portions of a tire disposed thereon. A sensor detects a longitudinal position of the tire and stops the table conveyor when the tire is longitudinally aligned. A controller operates the table conveyor based on the longitudinal position of the tire.

Abstract: Systems and methods are disclosed that provide improved non-destructive testing of pavements and in particular non-destructive testing of pavements using rolling wheel deflectometer systems having more than four sensors. The additional sensors more accurately detect pavement deflections under load by compensating for the influence the load deflection basin can have on sensors beyond those at the wheel load. The sensors should be spaced with equal distances from the rolling weight and can have a distance between adjacent sensors that is greater than the equivalent thickness of the pavement being measured.

Abstract: A tire monitor assembly includes a rubber ply having a first side affixable to an interior surface of a tire. A pedestal extends from a second side of the rubber ply, wherein the pedestal has a top surface and at least one sidewall. The pedestal has a groove disposed in the at least one sidewall that extends along a perimeter of the pedestal, wherein the pedestal has a cavity disposed in the top surface, extending towards the rubber ply. The assembly further includes a tire monitoring device and a fastener connected to the tire monitoring device and further connected to the pedestal such that the fastener is disposed in at least one of the cavity and the groove.

Abstract: Embodiments relate to unidirectional TPMS utilizing information from a corresponding vehicle system in order to correlate with vehicle speed information to be used in a tire localization methodology. In an embodiment, the vehicle system is an anti-lock brake system (ABS), and the vehicle speed can be used in a localization scheme that reconstructs a +/?1 g ripple with waveform, amplitude, frequency and phase parameters. Because the waveform is known to be sinusoidal (due to the wheel rotation), the amplitude is known to be 2 g peak-to-peak (due to the gravitational +/?1 g), the frequency depends on vehicle speed (which can be estimated from centrifugal force measurements), and an algorithm is discussed herein for determining the phase by correlation, the +/?1 g ripple can be reconstructed and the wheels localized therefrom.

Abstract: A tire valve for a vehicle comprises a metal housing (1) and an elastic housing (2) around the metal housing (1). The metal housing (1) has a cylindrical portion (13) corresponding to a rim opening (201). The metal housing (1) has an annular flange (6) above the cylindrical portion (13), and has an annular lower flange (12) under the cylindrical portion (13). The elastic housing (2) has a cylindrical elastic portion (21) around cylindrical portion (13), and has a tapered portion (22) around the annular flange (6). The lower end of the elastic housing (2) is placed around the annular lower flange (12).

Abstract: A method carried out in a wheel unit of a tire pressure monitoring system comprises detecting, using a controller in the wheel unit, increases and decreases in loading of a tire on a wheel associated with the wheel unit during acceleration and deceleration. Front/rear position of the wheel unit on a vehicle mounting the tire pressure monitoring system is determined, using the controller in the wheel unit, based on the loading and unloading of the tire and wheel during acceleration and deceleration. Rotation direction of the wheel in the wheel unit is determined and the controller in the wheel unit determines left/right position of the wheel unit on the vehicle based on the rotation direction of the wheel. An indication of the front/rear and left/right position of the wheel on the vehicle and an identification unique to the transmitting wheel unit are transmitted.

Abstract: A tire uniformity machine includes an apparatus for receiving and rotating a tire. The apparatus includes opposed spindles for receiving, inflating and rotating a tire, and a load wheel applied to the rotating tire to obtain tire test results. A spindle alignment assembly is associated with the opposed spindles to align the spindles with one another each time a tire is received. At least one characterizing device is associated with components of the apparatus to characterize forces of the opposed spindles and the characterized forces are used in adjusting tire test results.

Abstract: A tire uniformity machine includes an apparatus for receiving and rotating a tire. The apparatus includes opposed spindles for receiving, inflating and rotating a tire, and a load wheel applied to the rotating tire to obtain tire test results. A spindle alignment assembly is associated with the opposed spindles to align the spindles with one another each time a tire is received. At least one characterizing device is associated with components of the apparatus to characterize forces of the opposed spindles and the characterized forces are used in adjusting tire test results.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for monitoring and wirelessly signaling data that contains information on the pressure states prevailing in tires of wheels of a vehicle. In the method, electronic modules that are arranged in the wheels wirelessly transmit the data to control device which is arranged in the vehicle. No data is transmitted during a first mode associated with a standstill state of the vehicle, while the respective electronic module transmits the data to the control device in the form of telegrams, during at least one other mode associated with another state of the vehicle. The respective electronic module at least temporarily transmits n telegrams containing the data per time unit to the control device, n being a function of time.

Abstract: A method is described for monitoring and wirelessly signaling data that contains information on the pressure states prevailing in tires of wheels. In the method, electronic modules that are arranged in the wheels wirelessly transmit the data to a control device which is arranged in the vehicle. No data is transmitted during a first mode associated with a standstill state of the vehicle, while the respective electronic module transmits the data to the control device in the form of telegrams during at least one other mode associated with another state of the vehicle, the transition from a first mode into at least one other mode being determined by means of at least one acceleration sensor.

Abstract: An apparatus for transmitting tire pressure signals includes a transmission buffer and a transmitter. The transmission buffer is configured to store tire pressure monitoring data. The transmitter is configured to transmit a signal including the tire pressure monitoring data. The signal includes a burst that includes plurality of frames and each of the frames includes the tire pressure monitoring information. A plurality of pause spaces is disposed between at least some of the frames in the burst.

Abstract: Systems and methods facilitate the monitoring of tire pressure, the detection/determination of wheel speed, or a combination thereof. A system is provided comprising a hub cap, a target coupled to the hub cap, and at least two displacement sensors configured to measure a displacement between each displacement sensor and the target. The target has a variable thickness, and the target comprises a hollow vessel in fluid communication with a tire.

Abstract: A tire force detection apparatus estimates the force exerted on a tire at the contact point of the tire in a vehicle that includes: a tire/wheel assembly having a wheel and a tire held on an outer circumferential portion of the wheel; and a wheel support member that rotatably supports the wheel via a wheel support portion. The tire force detection apparatus includes: an elastic body disposed between the wheel and the wheel support portion, the elastic body having column portions that each abut, at opposite ends thereof, the wheel and the wheel support portion and a plate-shaped portion that is integrated with the column portions and extends around the column portions; stress detectors that detect stress applied to the elastic body by detecting a strain of the plate-shaped portion; and an electronic circuit device that calculates the force exerted on the tire, based on the stress detected.

Abstract: A component including a surface subject to wear by an electrically conductive wear counterface (50). The component comprises a substrate (10); one or more material layers (32) overlying the substrate (10); a wear surface layer (16) overlying the one or more material layers (32); a first pair of spaced apart and electrically open wear sensor conductors (12/14) disposed in the substrate (10), in the one or more material layers (32), or in the wear surface layer (16); a first wear warning electrical circuit (68/69/70/74) for communicating with the first pair of conductors (12/14) for providing a first wear warning; and wherein when the wear counterface (50) has worn overlying layers, the wear counterface (50) interconnects the first pair of conductors (12/14) to activate the first wear warning circuit (68/69/70/74).

Abstract: A method is described for determining a vehicle tire tread depth using at least one sensor situated in or on the vehicle tire, the tire tread depth being determined as a function of a tire contact area detected by the sensor.

Abstract: A method for simulating the behavior of a tire mounted on a vehicle in running conditions on the ground, wherein a mechanical model is provided for essentially computing the longitudinal (Fx) and transverse (Fy) stresses transmitted by the tire between the ground and the vehicle in accordance with dynamic parameters related to the physical conditions of the tire running and use and in accordance with physical tire-specific parameters. The mechanical model is set and solved in an iterative manner, under the assumption that the tire in contact with the surface of the ground has an adherence contact area and a sliding contact area and under the assumption that there is a unique x-coordinate point b that is indicative of the transition between the two contact areas.

Abstract: A method of fabricating a substantially rigid hardened wear surface for a tire tread wear testing apparatus is provided, the method comprising making a cast of a road surface on which tread wear of the tire is to be tested, providing a layer of adhesive mixed with at least one aggregate and configured for hardening to create the substantially rigid hardened wear surface, while the layer of adhesive is unhardened: (a) coating the layer of adhesive onto a road wheel of the tire tread wear testing apparatus, and (b) stamping an impression of the cast into the layer of epoxy adhesive for producing the wear surface adapted for emulating one or more surface roughness characteristics of the road surface.

Abstract: A system and related method for improving tire uniformity includes providing at least one set of test tires constructed with one or more process elements provided at known relative angular locations. At least one uniformity parameter, such as radial or lateral run-out, balance, mass variation, radial lateral or tangential force variation, is measured for at least one harmonic of interest for each test tire. Respective rectangular coordinates are determined for each measured uniformity parameter and harmonic of interest for each tire. A form of the determined rectangular coordinates (e.g., the rectangular coordinates themselves and/or the log of the residuals squared) is analyzed for each tire to identify optimized relative angular locations for each process element that reduce dispersion (or dispersion and mean) of the measured uniformity parameter. New tires are built with the one or more process elements positioned in the identified optimized relative angular locations.

Abstract: Disclosed is a multi-component force measurement spindle unit that accurately measures forces and moments applied to a tire in a tire testing machine. The multi-component force measurement spindle unit of a tire testing machine includes: a spindle shaft on which a tire can be mounted; an inner sleeve that rotatably supports the spindle shaft via a bearing part; an outer sleeve arranged on an outside of the inner sleeve along an axial center direction of the spindle shaft; a multi-component force measurement sensor that connects an end of the inner sleeve and an end of the outer sleeve to each other and is capable of measuring a load acting on the outer sleeve from the inner sleeve; and a cooling part that cools the inner sleeve.

Abstract: An assembly includes a nozzle having a curved contact surface curvedly and downwardly extending from two opposite sides of a linear top ridge of the nozzle, a tire pressure sensor having a connection groove with a curved contact surface complementary in shape to and slidable relative to the curved contact surface of the nozzle, and a bolt for fastening the nozzle with the tire pressure sensor. The curved contact surface of the nozzle is slidably movable relative to the curved contact surface of the tire pressure sensor along a specific direction reciprocally so as to adjust a relative connection angle between the sensor and the nozzle and the nozzle is prohibited to move in the connection groove along other directions. Therefore, the work of using the bolt to fasten the tire pressure sensor to the nozzle can be done easily.

Abstract: An apparatus for changing rim sets at a testing station of a tire uniformity testing system that includes a storage unit for storing a plurality of rim set assemblies. A transfer arm is reciprocally movable and includes a gripper mechanism for gripping a rim set assembly and moving it from a storage position to a position at which rims forming part of the rim set assembly are aligned with opposed spindles at the testing station. The rim set assembly includes a bracket having structure engageable by the transfer arm and at least one of the rims forming part of the assembly includes a locking member rotatable between a first position and a second position. The bracket includes a structure for immobilizing the rim to inhibit relative rotation between the rim and the bracket and further includes a lever mechanism for moving the locking member from its first position to its second position in order to engage retaining members forming part of the bracket.

Abstract: To effectively suppress a shift of a rotating axis of an upper chuck with respect to a rotating axis of a lower chuck due to a separating force. A tire testing device (1) includes: vertical frames (30a, 30b) which are supported by a lower frame (20); a beam (40) which bridges between the vertical frames (30a, 30b) and is movable in the vertical direction; an upper chuck (45) which is attached to the center of the beam (40), the center corresponding to the center of the beam in the longitudinal direction; and a lower chuck (25) which is attached to the lower frame. When viewed from the vertical direction, a rotating axis of an upper rotating member (47) is positioned at the center of a straight line formed by connecting supporting points where each of the vertical frames (30a, 30b) support the beam (40).

Abstract: A wheel position determination system and method to count wheel revolutions in a wheel unit of a tire monitoring system. An indication of the count is transmitted, optionally along with an indication of a left/right side position of the wheel on the vehicle, and an identification unique to the transmitting wheel unit, to a central controller of the tire monitoring system. In the central controller of the tire monitoring system, the count is compared with wheel speed information for the vehicle, such as from an ABS system, to determine if one wheel on each side of the vehicle is rotating at a different speed. Based at least in part upon a determination that each wheel speed is unique, a determination of wheel location may be made.

Abstract: An interior tire power generation apparatus includes a piezoelectric section having an inorganic piezoelectric body of a perovskite type oxide represented by General Formula (PX) below; a pair of electrodes for extracting an electric charge generated in the piezoelectric section when strained by an external force exerted on the tire; and an energy storage unit for storing the extracted electric charge. (Bix, A1-x) (By, C1-y)O3 ??(PX) where, A is an A-site element, other than Pb, with an average ionic valence of 2, B is a B-site element with an average ionic valence of 3, C is a B-site element with an average ionic valence of greater than 3, and each of A, B, and C is one or a plurality of types of metal elements. O is oxygen. B and C are of different compositions. 0.6?x?1.0, x-0.2?y?x.

Abstract: A tire pressure gauge includes a holder, an air intake seat, and a detection device coupled with the air intake seat. The holder and air intake seat have respectively a first positioning ring and a second positioning ring. A fastening and unfastening tool of the tire pressure gauge includes an outer barrel and an inner barrel held in the outer barrel. The outer barrel has a first anchor portion to latch the first positioning ring. The inner barrel has a second anchor portion to latch the second positioning ring. The outer barrel and inner barrel respectively drive the holder and air intake seat to be fastened to an air nozzle of a vehicle tire, and the holder and air intake seat are butted tightly to allow the tire pressure gauge to be securely installed on the air nozzle of any type of vehicles through the fastening and unfastening tool.

Abstract: The invention relates to a powered mobile test device for measuring loads supported by a running tire, said device being composed of a rigid frame carried by at least two carrying wheels to which a torque is applied, and having an axle which is fixed to the frame and which carries a test wheel for measuring the loads supported by said tire. According to the invention, the axle is connected to the frame by a loading actuator, a torque is applied to the test wheel, said torque applied to the test wheel is in the opposite direction to those applied to the carrying wheels, and a linkage system between the test wheel and the carrying wheels transmits at least some of the power developed by the braking torque applied to the test wheel or by the braking torques applied to the carrying wheels.