Abstract: Slurry compositions and chemically activated CMP methods for polishing a substrate having a silicon carbide surface using such slurries. In such methods, the silicon carbide surface is contacted with a CMP slurry composition that comprises i) a liquid carrier and ii) a plurality of particles having at least a soft surface portion, wherein the soft surface portion includes a transition metal compound that provides a Mohs hardness ?6, and optionally iii) an oxidizing agent. The oxidizing agent can include a transition metal. The slurry is moved relative to the silicon carbide comprising surface, wherein at least a portion of eth silicon carbide surface is removed.

Abstract: A method of chemical-mechanical fabrication (CMF) for forming articles having tilted surface features. A substrate is provided having a patterned surface including two different layer compositions or a non-planar surface having at least one protruding or recessed feature, or both. The patterned surface are contacted with a polishing pad having a slurry composition, wherein a portion of surface being polished polishes at a faster polishing rate as compared to another portion to form at least one tilted surface feature. The tilted surface feature has at least one surface portion having a surface tilt angle from 3 to 85 degrees and a surface roughness<3 nm rms. The tilted surface feature includes a post-CMF high elevation portion and a post-CMF low elevation portion that defines a maximum height (h), wherein the tilted surface feature defines a minimum lateral dimension (r), and h/r is ?0.05.

Abstract: A lightweight, high strength and corrosion resistant composite metallic material is disclosed herein. The composite metallic material typically comprises a high-to-weight ratio, low density core material; and a corrosion resistant protective refractory metal layer. The method for making the composite metallic material comprises the steps of surface activating the core material and forming a refractory metal on the surface of the surface activated core material by physical, chemical or electrochemical processes. Such a composite material is suitable for making biomaterials, corrosion resistant equipment and industrial electrodes.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method (1) of manufacturing a silicon-metal composite micromechanical component (51) combining DRIE and LIGA processes. The invention also relates to a micromechanical component (51) including a layer wherein one part (53) is made of silicon and another part (41) of metal so as to form a composite micromechanical component (51). The invention concerns the field of timepiece movements.

Abstract: Refurbishing used or damaged engineering components is performed using a subtractive surface engineering process to remove material from worn or damaged critical surfaces. The method involves initially performing the process on the component to remove a first quantity of material from the surfaces, inspecting the surface of the component to determine the extent of damage and subsequently further performing the process to remove a further quantity of material if necessary.

Abstract: A method of preparing a thin film on a substrate is described. The method comprises forming an ultra-thin hermetic film over a portion of a substrate using a gas cluster ion beam (GCIB), wherein the ultra-thin hermetic film has a thickness less than approximately 5 nm. The method further comprises providing a substrate in a reduced-pressure environment, and generating a GCIB in the reduced-pressure environment from a pressurized gas mixture. A beam acceleration potential and a beam dose are selected to achieve a thickness of the thin film less than about 5 nanometers (nm). The GCIB is accelerated according to the beam acceleration potential, and the accelerated GCIB is irradiated onto at least a portion of the substrate according to the beam dose. By doing so, the thin film is formed on the at least a portion of the substrate to achieve the thickness desired.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing blades for surgical and other uses from either a crystalline or polycrystalline material, preferably in the form of a wafer, comprises preparing the crystalline or polycrystalline wafers by mounting them and machining trenches into the wafers. The methods for machining the trenches, which form the bevel blade surfaces, include a diamond blade saw, laser system, ultrasonic machine, a hot forge press and a router. When a router is used, through-holes are drilled in the wafer to define the starting locations of the trenches. After the trenches are formed, the wafers are placed in an etchant solution which isotropically etches the wafers in a uniform manner, such that layers of crystalline or polycrystalline material are removed uniformly, producing single or double bevel blades, with each bevel having one or more facets. Nearly any bevel angle can be machined into the wafer which remains after etching.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method and an arrangement for restoring strength and wear resistant of a metallic matrix ceramic (1) comprising a metallic binder (2) and ceramic filler (3) particles, which metallic matrix ceramic (1) has been exposed for long term high temperature and pressure cycling, for example in a gas exhaust nozzle (6), whereby micro cracks (4) are developed in the outer layer (5) of the metallic binder (2) According to the invention this is achieved by virtue of the fact that the outer layer (5) of the metallic binder (2), partly or fully, is removed from the MMC part (1) by a chemical operation, where after the outer layer (5) is compressed by a compression operation for achieving a dense outer layer (5), in which filler (3) particles are close to each other.

Abstract: The invention provides a chemical-mechanical polishing composition comprising alpha alumina, fumed alumina, silica, an oxidizing agent that oxidizes nickel-phosphorous, oxalic acid, optionally, tartaric acid, optionally, a nonionic surfactant, optionally, a biocide, and water. The invention also provides a method of chemically-mechanically polishing a substrate comprising contacting a substrate with a polishing pad and the chemical-mechanical polishing composition, moving the polishing pad and the polishing composition relative to the substrate, and abrading at least a portion of the substrate to polish the substrate.

Abstract: Chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) systems comprising apparatus and methods which allow the physical and chemical characteristics of a CMP slurry to be monitored during the polishing process, both on the pad and in the fresh slurry, are provided. The methods and apparatus of the invention also furnish the CMP operator with real-time information about the polishing process, which can provide insight into various chemical and physical mechanisms involved in chemical-mechanical polishing. The data provided by the sensors also make available valuable information about the stability and reproducibility of the particular CMP process being observed.

Abstract: A metal and resin composite in which a metal and a resin, especially a shaped base made of an ordinary steel material and a resin composition can be strongly joined to and integrated with each other; and a method for producing the composite. The surface of a shaped ordinary steel material is treated by chemical etching or the like to form a thin layer of a natural oxide of iron, substantially completely covered with ultra-fine irregularities, onto which hydrazine, ammonia or a water-soluble amine is chemically adsorbed. The resulting ferrous material shaped article 1 is inserted into an injection mold 10 and a specific resin composition 4 is injected thereinto. The surface of the ferrous material formed-article 1 may have a thin layer of a metal oxide or metal phosphate. The above injection yields a composite 7 in which an ordinary steel material is strongly joined to a resin.

Abstract: A strip-form silicon carbide furnace heating element is provided having a higher radiating surface area to volume ratio than a conventional tubular element.

Abstract: A metal implant, in particular a dental implant, with a hydrophilic surface for at least partial insertion into a bone, and a method for the production of said implant are described. A particularly advantageous hydrophilic surface for improved osteointegration properties is made available if it is briefly treated, at least in some areas, in a weakly alkaline solution. These excellent osteointegration properties can be achieved in a method in which, optionally after a preceding mechanical surface modification by material removal and/or chemical surface modification, at least the areas exposed of this surface exposed to bone and/or soft tissue are chemically modified in an alkaline solution.

Abstract: Provided is a textured silicon substrate for a magnetic disk, comprising a magnetic film in which magnetic anisotropy can be attained and high recording density can be achieved, while ensuring the flying stability of a head by controlling the surface roughness of the substrate through texturing. Especially, provided is a surface-treated silicon substrate for a magnetic disk, comprising a texture formed on a surface of a silicon substrate comprising an oxide film of 0 to 2 nm thickness, and a magnetic recording medium comprising the surface-treated silicon substrate. Also provided is a method for manufacturing a surface-treated silicon substrate for a magnetic disk, comprising steps of: removing or reducing an oxide film on a surface of a silicon substrate; and forming a texture on the surface of the silicon substrate having the oxide film removed or reduced using a free abrasive-containing slurry and a tape; and a magnetic recording medium comprising the silicon substrate.

Abstract: According to one aspect of the present invention, provided is glass for use in substrate for information recording medium, which comprises, denoted as molar percentages, a total of 70 to 85 percent of SiO2 and Al2O3, where SiO2 content is equal to or greater than 50 percent and Al2O3 content is equal to or greater than 3 percent; a total of equal to or greater than 10 percent of Li2O, Na2O and K2O; a total of 1 to 6 percent of CaO and MgO, where CaO content is greater than MgO content; a total of greater than 0 percent but equal to or lower than 4 percent of ZrO2, HfO2, Nb2O5, Ta2O5, La2O3, Y2O3 and TiO2; with the molar ratio of the total content of Li2O, Na2O and K2O to the total content of SiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, HfO2, Nb2O5, Ta2O5, La2O3, Y2O3 and TiO2 ((Li2O+Na2O+K2O)/(SiO2+Al2O3+ZrO2+HfO2+Nb2O5+Ta2O5+La2O3+Y2O3+TiO2)) being equal to or less than 0.28.

Abstract: To provide a silica glass crucible, wherein there are no problems of generating a sinking and buckling when said crucible is used for pulling up silicon single crystal at a high temperature. The silica glass crucible used for pulling up the silicon single crystal, wherein at least an outer surface of a wall part of the crucible is covered with fine grooves having a length of less than 200 ?m, a width of less than 30 ?m and a depth of from more than 3 ?m to less than 30 ?m. Preferably, said fine groves are formed by carrying out a sand-blast treatment and a hydrofluoric acid etching and exist on more than 10% of the outer surface of the crucible, and a sliding frictional coefficient of the outer surface of the crucible to a carbon at 1500 degree C. is more than 0.6.

Abstract: In an embodiment, a chemical mechanical polishing method for a substrate having a first layer and a stepped portion. A surface of the first layer is positioned above an upper face of the stepped portion. A polishing process for selectively removing the stepped portion is performed on the first layer by using a first slurry composition that has a self-stopping characteristic so that the first layer is changed into a second layer having a substantially flat surface. A second polishing process is performed using a second slurry composition that does not have the self-stopping characteristic, until the upper face of the stepped portion is exposed.

Abstract: A liquid drop discharge head includes a chip 21 that is formed by separation of a silicon wafer 20. The silicon wafer 20 has a first direction and a second direction which are mutually intersected. The chip 21 is separated from the silicon wafer 20 by etching the wafer along a separation line 22 parallel to the first direction of the wafer and by dicing the wafer 20 along a separation line 23 parallel to the second direction of the wafer.

Abstract: There are provided a method of processing an amorphous material which is capable of forming surface projections of uniform height in desired positions on the amorphous material, and a magnetic disk substrate using the amorphous material. A predetermined pressure is applied to selected parts of a surface of an amorphous material using fine particles having a hardness higher than that of the amorphous material to form high-density compressed layers, and a surface layer of the amorphous material is removed using a treatment agent that has a different removal capacity in the compressed layers and a remaining uncompressed layer, thus making the compressed layers project out. For example, the treatment agent may be an etching solution having a different etching rate in the compressed layers and the uncompressed layer.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus are provided for polishing barrier layer materials. In one embodiment, a composition is provided for removing at least a barrier material from a substrate surface, including includes a base composition, a silica abrasive, a solvent, a pH between about 7 and about 10, and one or more components selected from the group of a metal passivating compound, an oxidizer, and an alumina abrasive. The composition may be used to chemical mechanical polishing process a substrate surface having a ruthenium-based barrier and one or more material selected from the group of a polysilicon layer, a dielectric layer, or metal layer.

Abstract: Millimeter to nano-scale structures manufactured using a multi-component polymer fiber matrix are disclosed. The use of dissimilar polymers allows the selective dissolution of the polymers at various stages of the manufacturing process. In one application, biocompatible matrixes may be formed with long pore length and small pore size. The manufacturing process begins with a first polymer fiber arranged in a matrix formed by a second polymer fiber. End caps may be attached to provide structural support and the polymer fiber matrix selectively dissolved away leaving only the long polymer fibers. These may be exposed to another product, such as a biocompatible gel to form a biocompatible matrix. The polymer fibers may then be selectively dissolved leaving only a biocompatible gel scaffold with the pores formed by the dissolved polymer fibers.

Abstract: A method for superfinishing a high density carbide steel component using chemically accelerated finishing is provided. The high density carbide steel component is vibrated in a vessel containing a plurality of media, with active chemistry being added to the vessel at a low flow rate. An active chemistry composition is also provided, consisting of one or more conversion coating agents having preferably a phosphate radical, and one or more chelating agents preferably including citric acid.

Abstract: The invention is directed to a chamfering apparatus for a silicon wafer to chamfer outer edge of a silicon wafer by using a chamfering grindstone, the chamfering apparatus including at least: a holder holding and rotating a silicon wafer; a chamfering grindstone chamfering the outer edge of the silicon wafer held by the holder; and a control apparatus for controlling a chamfered shape by controlling a relative position of the outer edge of the silicon wafer and the chamfering grindstone by numerical control, wherein the control apparatus controls and changes the relative position of the outer edge of the silicon wafer and the chamfering grindstone at the time of chamfering depending on the circumferential position of the silicon wafer held by the holder, a production method, and an etched silicon wafer.

Abstract: The present invention relates to compositions for chemical mechanical polishing (CMP—also referred to as chemical mechanical planarization) for fabrication of an advanced optical, photonic, or microelectronic device, wherein the composition is a microemulsion.

Abstract: An aqueous chemical-mechanical polishing composition for polishing metal containing substrates comprising an abrasive particle consisting essentially of a primary particle modified with an aluminosilicate layer, and wherein the abrasive particle has a zeta potential measured at pH 2.3 of about ?5 mV to about ?100 mV. The composition can be used to polish the surface of a tungsten containing substrate.

Abstract: The inventive chemical-mechanical polishing system comprises a polishing component, a liquid carrier, and a polyether amine. The inventive method comprises chemically-mechanically polishing a substrate with the aforementioned polishing system.

Abstract: Components entirely of ceramic with etched surfaces wherein the etched surface has a surface roughness value or at least about 100 microinches (about 2.54 microns) Ra, and methods of forming such.

Abstract: An electrode for forming an electrochemical cell with a substrate and a method of forming said electrode. The electrode comprises a carrier (1) provided with an insulating layer (7) which is patterned at a front side. Conducting material in an electrode layer (4) is applied in the cavities of the patterned insulating layer and in contact with the carrier. An connection layer (5) is applied at the backside of the carrier and in contact with the carrier. The periphery of the electrode is covered by the insulating material.

Abstract: An object of the present invention is to provide a method for manufacturing a porous material in which complicated and fine through portions, recessed portions, and the like have been patterned. It is to provide a patterned porous molded product or nonwoven fabric, in which a plated layer has been selectively formed on the surfaces of the through portions and the recessed portions. With the invention, a mask having through portions in a pattern is placed on at least one side of the porous molded product or the nonwoven fabric. A fluid or a fluid containing abrasive grains is sprayed from above the mask, thereby to form through portions or recessed portions, or both of them, to which the opening shape of each through portion of the mask has been transferred, in the porous molded product or the nonwoven fabric.

Abstract: The present invention provides a wafer manufacturing method and a wafer polishing apparatus which enable control of sags in a periphery of a wafer and improvement of nanotopology values thereof that is strongly required recently, and a wafer. In a polishing process for making a mirror surface of the wafer, a back surface of the wafer is polished to produce a reference plane thereof.

Abstract: Systematic and effective methodology to clean capacitively coupled plasma reactor electrodes and reduce surface roughness so that the cleaned electrodes meet surface contamination specifications and manufacturing yields are enhanced. Pre-cleaning of tools used in the cleaning process helps prevent contamination of the electrode being cleaned.

Abstract: The present invention provides a method for producing an abrasive composition, which can control dishing, a method for polishing a substrate using the abrasive composition, and a method for producing a substrate. In the method for producing an abrasive composition, two kinds of preliminary compositions (A) and (B) having different compositions are mixed in different mixing ratios to produce plural kinds of abrasive compositions, wherein a composition containing (a) an abrasive grain, (b) an oxidizing agent, (c) one or more acids selected from the group consisting of amino acids, organic acids and inorganic acids, and (d) a surfactant is used as the preliminary composition (A); and a composition containing (a) an abrasive grain and (b) an oxidizing agent is used as the preliminary composition (B). The preliminary composition (B) may contain the foregoing acid (c) and surfactant (d).

Abstract: Process for preparing a thin layer of a nanoporous dielectric material with homogeneous porosity in which the following successive steps are performed: a first thin layer of a first oxygen-free material, including Si, C and optionally one or more other atom(s) chosen from H, N and F is deposited on a substrate, under conditions so that said first thin layer has a composition making it possible to generate a gas in a subsequent foaming treatment; on the first layer, a second thin layer so-called crust of a second material including Si and at least one other atom chosen from O, C, N, F and H is deposited under conditions so that said second thin layer has a composition that does not make it possible to generate a gas in the subsequent foaming step, and a sufficient density to limit or prevent the spread, diffusion, of the gas generated in the first layer during the subsequent foaming treatment; the first layer and second layer assembly is treated under conditions so that a gas is generated in the first layer

Abstract: The invention provides methods of polishing a noble metal-containing substrate with one of two chemical-mechanical polishing compositions. The first chemical-mechanical polishing composition comprises (a) an abrasive comprising ?-alumina, (b) about 0.05 to about 50 mmol/kg of ions of calcium, strontium, barium, or mixtures thereof, and (c) a liquid carrier comprising water. The second chemical-mechanical polishing composition comprises (a) an abrasive selected from the group consisting of ?-alumina, ?-alumina, ?-alumina, ?-alumina, diamond, boron carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, titanium nitride, and mixtures thereof, (b) about 0.05 to about 3.5 mmol/kg of ions of calcium, strontium, barium, magnesium, zinc, or mixtures thereof, and (c) a liquid carrier comprising water.

Abstract: The invention relates to a marker structure for optical alignment of a substrate and provided thereon. The marker structure has a first reflecting surface at a first level and a second reflecting surface at a second level. A separation between the first level and the second level determines a phase depth condition. The marker structure further has an additional structure. The additional structure is arranged to modify the separation during manufacture of the marker structure. The invention further relates to a method of forming such a marker structure.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for removing material from solids by liquid jet-guided etching. The method according to the invention is used in particular for cutting, microstructuring, doping of wafers or also the metallisation thereof.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a process for producing a structure having holes at prescribed positions. The structure is produced through steps of (A) providing an impressing member having protrusions, and a substrate, (B) forming a layer, on the substrate, from a material having a less strength than the impressing member, (C) forming depressions by impressing the impressing member on the layer corresponding to protrusions of the impressing member, (D) etching the layer to bare at least a part of the surface of the substrate, and (E) anodizing the substrate to form holes on the substrate.

Abstract: A flattening method, by utilizing the advantages of the CARE method and making up for the disadvantages, can perform removal processing of a surface of a workpiece at a sufficient processing rate and can provide a processed surface having enhanced flatness without leaving damage in the processed surface. A flattening method comprises at least two surface removal steps and at least two cleaning steps, the final surface removal step being a catalyst-referred etching step comprising immersing a workpiece in a processing solution containing at least one of hydrohalic acid, hydrogen peroxide water and ozone water, and bringing a surface of a catalyst platen into contact with or close proximity to a surface to be processed of the workpiece to process the surface, said catalyst platen having in a surface a catalyst selected from the group consisting of platinum, gold, a ceramic solid catalyst, a transition metal, glass, and an acidic or basic solid catalyst.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing an electronic component includes preparing an element substrate having a function section for providing a function of an electronic component, and an external-connection electrode; bonding a low-sandblast-resistant case plate to the element substrate through a high-sandblast-resistant adhesive layer; forming, by sandblast processing, a hole in the case plate above the external-connection electrode so that the adhesive layer is exposed to the outside; removing, by etching, an adhesive layer portion that is exposed in the hole; forming an electrode film so as to be electrically connected to the exposed external-connection electrode; and forming, by mechanical machining, a projection having a leading end surface on which a terminal electrode resulting from the electrode film is defined.

Abstract: Methods for processing a substrate utilizing a backside layer are presented including: receiving a substrate, the substrate including a front side and a backside; forming the backside layer on the backside of the substrate; and performing at least one processing operation on the front side of the substrate, wherein the backside layer protects the backside of the substrate during the performing the at least one processing operation. In some embodiments, methods further include cross-linking the backside layer such that the backside layer is stabilized. In some embodiments, methods further include: functionalizing the backside layer, where the functionalizing alters a chemical characteristic of the backside layer, and where the functionalizing includes a functional group such as: a hydroxyl group, an amino group, a mercapto group, a fluorine group, a chlorine group, an alkene group, an aryle group, and a carboxy group.

Abstract: In this etching method, since an etching gas is introduced before introduction of free radicals into a processing chamber, the etching gas has been adsorbed on the surface of substrates when the free radicals are introduced. Accordingly, the free radicals react with the etching gas adsorbed on the surface of the substrates, and the reaction proceeds uniformly on the surface of the substrate. As a result, nonuniform etching does not occur on the surface of the substrate. Moreover, since the reaction between the etching gas and the free radicals occurs on the surface of the substrate, an intermediate product produced according to the reaction between the etching gas and the free radicals reacts with an etching object promptly. Therefore, the intermediate product is not exhausted from the processing chamber 12 excessively, and hence the etching efficiency is high.

Abstract: A chemical mechanical polishing slurry containing multiple oxidizers and nano abrasive particles (including engineered nano diamond particles) suitable for polishing multilayer substrate with tungsten and Ti/TiN barrier layers. The slurry contains no metallic catalyst and has low total abrasive particle content. The absence of metal ions can be advantageous for certain applications as certain metal ions may present contamination issues. A low total abrasive content may also lower the total defect counts, reduce the slurry waste treatment burden, and simplify the post CMP clean process.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is an inner tube of glass-like carbon for CVD apparatus and a process for production thereof. The inner tube has its surface roughened without increase in metal impurities which cause particles. It has improved adhesion to CVD deposit film and also has a high degree of roundness. The surface roughness (on both the inner and outer surfaces) is 0.1-10 ?m measured according to JIS B0601. The concentration of metal impurities (iron, copper, chromium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum) in the surface is less than 50×1010 atoms/cm2.

Abstract: This invention relates to compositions and methods for removing overfilled substrates, preferably at a relatively high removal rates Advantageously, a composition according to the invention can contain an oxidizer, preferably a per-type oxidizer such as a peroxide, periodic acid, and peracetic acid, and may also optionally contain an abrasive.

Abstract: A slurry composition for polishing metal includes a polymeric polishing accelerating agent, the polymeric polishing accelerating agent including a backbone of hydrocarbon and a side substituent having at least one of a sulfonate ion (SO3?) and a sulfate ion (OSO3?), and an acidic aqueous solution.

Abstract: The present invention provides an aqueous CMP slurry composition that comprises abrasive particles and Aspartame. The CMP slurry composition according to the invention is selective for polishing silicon dioxide in preference to silicon nitride from a surface of an article by chemical mechanical planarization. Furthermore, as more Aspartame is added to the slurry, the silicon dioxide rate is either not greatly affected or increases and the silicon nitride rate stays extremely low. In addition to offering selectivity of silicon dioxide to silicon nitride polishing, the present invention provides a method of using Aspartame as a polish accelerant in silicon dioxide polishing.

Abstract: The present invention provides ?-alumina powders comprising ?-alumina particles of which at least 80% of the ?-alumina particles have a particle size of less than 100 nm. The invention also provides slurries, particularly aqueous slurries, which comprise ?-alumina powders of the invention. The invention further provides methods of manufacturing ?-alumina powders and ?-alumina slurries of the invention and methods of polishing using same.

Abstract: Method for polishing copper by chemical-mechanical planarization. The method of the present invention includes dissolving MoO3 in an oxidizing agent and deionized water to form a first slurry; filtering the first slurry; adding supplemental ceramic/metal oxide nano-particles to the first slurry after filtering, forming an aqueous slurry; introducing the aqueous slurry between the copper and a polishing pad; and, polishing the copper by moving the polishing pad and the copper relative to one another.

Abstract: To provide a polishing compound that is capable of minimizing formation of scratches on an object to be polished, such as a resin substrate or a metal wiring, and polishing at a high removal rate. To further provide a polishing method that is capable of minimizing formation of scratches on a resin substrate or a metal wiring, and improving the throughput. The polishing compound T comprises an oxidizing agent, an electrolyte and an aqueous medium, wherein ions formed from the electrolyte comprise ammonium ions, at least one type of organic carboxylate ions selected from the group consisting of polycarboxylate ions and hydroxycarboxylate ions, and at least one type of ions selected from the group consisting of carbonate ions, hydrogencarbonate ions, sulfate ions and acetate ions.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for cleaning a web-based chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP) system. Specifically, a fluid spray bar is coupled to a frame assembly which may be mounted on a CMP system. The fluid spray bar will move along the frame assembly. As the fluid spray bar traverses the length of the frame assembly, a cleaning fluid is sprayed onto the web in order to clean the web between planarization cycles.