Abstract: Method and apparatus for generating a nearly mono-energetic beam of atoms at velocities on the order of several km/sec (energies of 1-10 eV) and for achieving modification of the surface properties of a target by the beam, including surface erosion, reaction with the beam species, cleaning and coating, all over a large area. A gas or gas mixture is forced through a nozzle throat into a previously evacuated expansion nozzle resulting in the acceleration of the gas in a confined flow. Laser radiation is applied to the gas flow to cause breakdown and dissociation of the gas into an atomic plasma. The plasma is allowed to expand within the nozzle cone reaching a high velocity in the desired range. The beam is generated within a vacuum chamber to maintain the purity of the gas components and prevent collisional effects. The beam is used to modify the properties of a target material placed in the path of its flow and its atoms may react with surface components to form a molecular coating.

Abstract: A coated substrate manufactured by applying a layer of a material to the substrate and generating thermal and pressure waves in the layer by exposing the layer to high intensity, short duration laser radiation, and the process of manufacturing such a coated substrate. The laser radiation is applied in an intensity range that creates an instantaneous surface vaporization of the layer material that in turn drives a pressure wave into the layer. The pressure wave interacts with the layer-substrate interface to create bonding between them of varying strengths and qualities depending on the intensity and duration of the initial laser pulse. A thermal wave is created in some regimes of operation, or results from compressional heating of the layer by the pressure wave, and is of sufficient energy to contribute to the bonding at the interface.

Abstract: A process for making chlorine gas and concentrating caustic soda comprising:(1) feeding a brine to the anolyte compartment solution and a dilute NaOH solution to the catholyte compartment of an electrolysis cell comprising a cation-transporting membrane, thereby generating chlorine at the anode, hydrogen at the cathode, and concentrating NaOH in the catholyte solution;(2) coupling the membrane electrolysis cell to a cation-transporting membrane alkaline fuel cell by providing at least some of the hydrogen generated in the electrolysis cell to the anode of the fuel cell, and splitting the catholyte flow from the catholyte compartment of the electrolysis cell so that it feeds into both the catholyte chamber and the anolyte chamber of the fuel cell in an unequal amount with a greater proportion of the catholyte going into the anion chamber;(3) concentrating the NaOH in the fuel cell by providing an oxygen source to the catholyte chamber of the fuel cell, and using the oxygen and the hydrogen to generate a curren