Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention are directed to water treatment systems and methods offering improved efficiency, longevity and versatility. More specifically, water treatment systems and methods configured in accordance with the present invention provide for dynamic bypass of one or more water treatment stages by at least a portion of water being treated. Dynamic bypass reduces the amount of work expended by water treatment system components to treat a given volume of water. Thus, by adjusting such work expended based on a target water quality, the water treatment system can conserve power, extend system up-time, reduce usage of system consumables, potentially remediate a fault in a treatment stage under certain conditions, avoid the need for designing different systems for different conditions, and support automation of system operation.

Abstract: A process for removing iodine using gold particles includes contacting a solution including iodine, with gold particles. The iodine is adsorbed onto the gold particles and then removed. A device for removing iodine using gold particles includes gold particles in a stationary phase and is configured to contact a solution including iodine, with gold particles, to thus adsorb the iodine onto the gold particles and remove the iodine.

Abstract: Described is a baffle comprising a continuous outer edge and an interior portion enclosed by the outer edge and connected to the outer edge. The interior portion comprises one or more teeth each having a tip directed towards the centre of the baffle, a base adjacent to the outer edge, and a tooth edge joining the tip to the base, wherein at least a portion of the tooth edge defines at least a portion of an aperture extending from a first face to a second face of the baffle.

Abstract: A device for the treatment of fluids has a flow-through housing, a cover, an inlet, a reactor chamber with inner walls, an outlet and UV LED radiation sources directed into the reactor chamber, and also a power supply. The device achieves a high purifying performance with less technical complexity and less installation space and needs only little electrical power. The interior of the reactor chamber has a flow-related design. The radiation sources are arranged in the fluid on or in an inner wall and a rotating fluid vortex is imparted to a fluid flowing through by the flow-related design. The radiation sources radiate radially from the outside inward and/or laterally onto the fluid vortex. At least a partial stream of the fluid in the fluid vortex passes a number of times by the radiation sources before leaving the reactor chamber.

Abstract: The present application relates to a fuel flow system. In particular, the application relates to a fuel flow system for an aircraft. The fuel flow system has a fuel conduit having a fuel inflow and a fuel outflow along which a fuel/water mix is configured to flow from the fuel inflow to the fuel outflow. The fuel conduit is fluidly communicable with a fuel tank. A peripheral conduit surrounds at least part of the fuel conduit. A water-permeable member is disposed between the fuel conduit and the peripheral conduit. The water-permeable member enables water from the fuel/water mix to flow through the water-permeable member from the fuel conduit into the peripheral conduit, but at least substantially prevents liquid fuel from the fuel/water mix from doing so.

Abstract: Electrocoagulation (EC) reactors having pellet flow circuits are disclosed. In one embodiment, the EC reactor includes a reactor vessel having a first inlet and an outlet through which a contaminated feed stream is received and discharged, respectively. An EC reaction chamber is located within the reactor vessel, fluidly coupled between the first inlet and the outlet, and configured to be loaded with consumable EC pellets. The EC reactor further includes an EC pellet flow circuit around which the consumable EC pellets circulate as the contaminated feed stream flows through the EC reaction chamber. First and second electrodes are coupled to the reactor vessel and positioned to generate an electrical field. The consumable EC pellets are exposed to (e.g., pass through or circulate within) the electrical field to induce coagulation of contaminants within the contaminated feed stream as the feed stream flows through the EC reaction chamber.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an elongate microreactor (1) for desalinating a saline fluid (2), comprising at least one compartment (C1) for migrating ions, at least one compartment (C2) for separating ions and at least one compartment (C3) for collecting fluid, characterised in that first and second cathode electrodes (11A, 11B) and first and second anode electrodes (12A, 12B) each have a first surface (11F, 11G, 12F, 12G) that is in contact with the air and a second surface (11E, 11H, 12E, 12H) opposite said first surface, respectively, said second surface being in direct contact with a plastic wall (13B, 13C, 13A, 13D) that is in direct contact with the saline fluid.

Abstract: A mobile water re-use system can include a chemical treatment apparatus, at least one weir tank in fluid communication with the chemical treatment apparatus, and two or more settling tanks in fluid communication with each other and at least one of the settling tanks in fluid communication with the weir tank. The weir tank can have a first end, a second end, an internal chamber, and a plurality of baffles that induce turbulent flow of fluid through the internal chamber. The settling tanks can provide, promote, facilitate, result in, and/or induce laminar flow of fluid through at least a portion of the internal chamber. Weir tanks, settling tanks, and method of treating flowback and produced water are also described.

Abstract: The present invention generally relates to a novel process in which thin stillage is processed to produce algae oil and protein rich biomass as well as other energy rich byproducts. In accordance with a preferred embodiment, thin stillage is removed from an evaporator during the evaporation process to produce mid-stillage. This mid-stillage is preferably routed to a new process where it is directed to a pre-treatment centrifuge to remove suspended solids, sludge and corn oil. Thereafter, the mid-stillage is preferably cooled and then directed to a fermentation tank where the mid-stillage is subject to a batch fermentation process with algae “seed” fed from an algae inoculation system. Once the batch is harvested, the oil-rich algae/mid-stillage is then preferably heated to rupture the cells and liberate the oil.

Abstract: As a measure of water integrity in water treatment and distribution systems, stabilized hydrogen peroxide is used as the secondary disinfectant. The concentration of hydrogen peroxide is monitored throughout the system and, if needed, additional hydrogen peroxide is injected into the system to maintain the level at established standard. An apparatus and method for measuring hydrogen peroxide concentration in water to an accuracy of 0.1 mg/L within water treatment and distribution systems comprises a colorimetric assay method to determine hydrogen peroxide concentration. The assay is monitored spectophotometrically at a desired wavelength. Each sample is corrected relative to a control sample and hydrogen peroxide concentration determined with respect to a standard curve.

Abstract: Methods, kits, cartridges, and compounds related to generating chlorine dioxide by exposing ClO2? to at least one of a manganese porphyrin catalyst or a manganese porphyrazine catalyst are described. Methods, kits, cartridges, and compounds related to decomposed cyanide ions and hydrogen cyanide for water decontamination.

Abstract: An ozone sparkling water supply apparatus includes a water supply and an ozone generator, wherein the ozone generator is communicated with the water supply via a first pipe. The ozone generator includes a main processor, a sensor electrically connected to the main processor and a fluid pressure switch communicated with the main processor via a second pipe, wherein the sensor and the fluid pressure switch correspond to each other. The fluid pressure switch starts the ozone generator for providing ozone into the water supply such that the water supply is capable of providing ozone sparkling water when the ozone is mixed into the water in the water supply.

Abstract: A floating equipment, for injection of a gas into liquid effluents or waste water, and more particularly of a gas rich in oxygen into a basin from the surface, comprising the following elements: a driving device, intended to be disposed over the liquid, provided with a vertical output shaft (8), equipped at its end with a propeller (6) immersed in the liquid a pre-mixing device (5) comprising an injection device (7) positioned above or below a mobile aerator (9) with inclined blades, the propeller being situated at the end of the shaft, under the pre-mixing reactor.

Abstract: A sewage treatment system uses a multi-stage process to treat waste materials. Sewage is contained in a first tank, from which liquid waste is filtered and transferred to a second tank, where the first tank retains solid waste. The second tank may contain a plurality of chambers, with the chambers connected using ports for fluid communication. Liquid waste in the second tank undergoes aerobic digestion, where an aeration device may aid in the digestion process. The second tank may also include a UV light source to reduce bacteria. The treated liquid from the second tank may be clean enough to be discharged directly into a leach field which would not meet standards for conventional leach fields.

Abstract: A method is presented for biological removal of contaminants like sulfide from ground waters and industrial waters. A portion of the bioreactor effluent water is recycled to the bioreactor and the sulfide oxidizing bacteria by biological oxidation oxidizes sulfides in the water to produce soluble sulfates. The present invention uses a packed bed bioreactor configuration that uses packing material to maximize the concentration of sulfide oxidizing bacteria.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for the treatment of organic matter, in particular sewage sludge, where the organic matter is first fed to a disintegration system. The organic matter is then subjected to thermal hydrolysis in the disintegration system to form disintegrated matter. The disintegrated matter is fed to a digester in which the disintegrated matter is at least partially digested such that digested sludge is formed, where at least part of the digested sludge obtained is recirculated via a recirculation line to a point upstream of the disintegration system. The invention further relates to a device for the treatment of organic matter, in particular sewage sludge, comprising a disintegration system, a digester downstream thereof, and a recirculation line for at least partially digested disintegrated matter, said recirculation line extending from a point downstream of the digester to a point upstream of the thermal disintegration system.

Abstract: An apparatus and a method for producing glass products from a glass melt, avoiding bubble formation, are disclosed, wherein the apparatus includes a crucible and an internally component for processing the glass melt, and wherein, for heating the glass melt, the apparatus comprises an AC generator which energizes the crucible or stirring crucible via electrical connection elements. The component or stirring system is connected via a current-limiting choke having a variable impedance with the power supply elements. The impedance of the current-limiting choke is adjusted so that a AC density existing in the glass melt lies between a lower limit value and an upper limit value. By means of a choke and by adjusting the impedance it can be achieved that the AC load of the system can be minimized and that simultaneously the water decomposition reaction at the precious metal surfaces can positively be influenced.

Abstract: A blow head mounting arrangement for use to facilitate installation and removal of a blow head from a blow head mounting member. The blow head has a first engagement member for removable engagement with a second engagement member to removably attach the blow head to the blow head mounting member. Once engaged, the blow head is retained on the blow head mounting member by rotating the blow head into a locked position in which it is retained until it is rotated in the opposite direction by a locking mechanism.

Abstract: The disclosure relates to apparatuses for producing a glass ribbon, the apparatuses comprising a melting vessel, a forming vessel, and a volatile filtration system configured to receive at least a portion of a vapor comprising at least one volatilized component from the forming vessel, the volatile filtration system comprising a transfer vessel operating at a first temperature above a condensation point of the vapor and a quenching chamber operating at a second temperature below a solidification temperature of the volatilized component. Also disclosed herein are methods for producing a glass ribbon using such apparatuses and volatile filtration systems.

Abstract: A glass tempering furnace and a method for heating a glass sheet. The glass sheet is heated in the glass tempering furnace by blowing heating air on the top surface of the glass sheet, and the blowing distance of the heating air from the top surface of the glass sheet is adjusted.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a device (1) for cutting a plate (70) of a pre-determined thickness, preferably a glass plate. The device foresees: —A frame (10, 31); —A support device (12, 20) for a cutting utensil connected to the frame. In accordance with the invention, the support device (12, 20) is mobile according to an extraction/retraction motion with respect to the frame (10). Further, a hinged lever system (32, 33, 34) is further foreseen, having a feeler element (50), said hinged lever system being kinematically coupable with said support device (12, 20) in such a way as to bind it in a pre-determined initial position with respect to the frame and so that, when said feeler element is pressed against a surface (70), an operation of the hinged lever system is determined which conducts the support device, starting from said initial position, to an extraction motion.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for separating substrates are disclosed, as are articles formed from the separated substrates. A method of separating a substrate having first and second surfaces includes directing a beam of laser light to pass through the first surface and, thereafter, to pass through the second surface. The beam of laser light has a beam waist located at a surface of the substrate or outside the substrate. Relative motion between the beam of laser light and the substrate is caused to scan a spot on a surface of the substrate to be scanned along a guide path. Portions of the substrate illuminated within the spot absorb light within the beam of laser light so that the substrate can be separated along the guide path.

Abstract: One of embodiments relates to an optical fiber in which an alkali metal element is efficiently doped to its core to suppress transmission loss from increasing. A mean concentration or a concentration distribution of the alkali metal element is adjusted such that 0.48 or less is obtained as an weighted value obtained by weighting a distribution of field intensity of guided light at a wavelength of 1550 nm, with respect to a radial direction distribution of a ratio ID2/I?3 of an intensity ID2 of Raman scattering light by a silica three-membered ring structure and an intensity I?3 of Raman scattering light by a Si—O stretching vibration, in a cross-sectional region having a diameter of 20 ?m.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention relate to glass compositions, glass fibers formed from such compositions, and related products. In one embodiment, a glass composition comprises 58-62 weight percent SiO2, 14-17 weight percent Al2O3, 14-17.5 weight percent CaO, and 6-9 weight percent MgO, wherein the amount of Na2O is 0.09 weight percent or less.

Abstract: The invention relates to a fibrous mat facer for preparing a gypsum board, to a gypsum board comprising said mat facer and to a system comprising said gypsum board. The fibrous mat comprises at least one ply of a non-woven fabric, and a binder composition, wherein the binder composition represents from 10 to 40 wt % of the total weight of the mat. The binder composition comprises a copolymer comprising a co-monomer unit of a vinyl ester of an alpha branched aliphatic monocarboxylic acid, said copolymer being present in an amount from 25 to 100 wt % of the binder composition weight.

Abstract: The present invention, relates, to a process, for producing structured coatings, in which a coating composition comprising at least one inorganic binder, at least one oxide pigment which, after addition of a mixture consisting of 15 ml of 1 M oxalic acid and 15 ml of 20% aqueous hydrochloric acid based on 1 g of substance, under standard conditions, leads to a temperature rise of at least 4° C., and at least one solvent is applied to a substrate, the resulting coating composition film is partially coated with a photoresist and the substrate coated with the coating composition and the photoresist is treated with an acid, to the structured layers obtainable by the process and to the use thereof.

Abstract: Certain example embodiments of this invention relate to articles including anti condensation coatings that are exposed to an external environment, and/or methods of making the same. In certain example embodiments, the anticondensation coatings may be survivable in an outside environment. The coatings also may have a sufficiently low sheet resistance and hemispherical emissivity such that the glass surface is more likely to retain heat from the interior area, thereby reducing (and sometimes completely eliminating) the presence condensation thereon. The articles of certain example embodiments may be, for example, skylights, vehicle windows or windshields, IG units, VIG units, refrigerator/freezer doors, and/or the like.

Abstract: Provided are methods of forming a chemically strengthened glass-based article. Certain methods comprise: providing a glass-based substrate comprising a first surface and a second surface opposing the first surface defining a thickness (t), a length dimension, a width, and a weight; and ion exchanging a plurality of alkali ions into the glass-based substrate to form a non-zero alkali metal oxide concentration that varies along at least a substantial portion of the thickness (t). The ion exchanging comprises immersing a glass-based substrate in a molten salt bath comprising at least about 90% by weight KNO3, and less than about 10% by weight NaNO3 for a time in the range of 70% to 130% of the ion exchange time that produces a peak central tension (CT) with the same molten salt bath composition and temperature. Also provided are ion exchanged glass-based articles prepared by said methods.

Abstract: Disclosed herein are methods for ion exchanging, e.g., chemically strengthening, a substrate, the methods comprising applying a first electrode to at least one first region on a first surface of the substrate and applying a second electrode to at least one second region on an opposing second surface of the substrate, wherein the substrate comprises mobile ions, e.g., metal ions chosen from alkali metal ions, alkaline earth metal ions, transition metal ions, and combinations thereof; applying voltage between the first and second electrodes sufficient to cause the mobile ions to migrate away from the at least one first region on the first surface; and treating the substrate by ion exchange, e.g., chemically strengthening the substrate. Also disclosed herein are substrates, e.g., glass, glass-ceramic, and ceramic substrates, produced by the methods disclosed herein.

Abstract: A laminated glass article having a core layer made from a glass that is not ion-exchangeable, and a clad layer made from a glass that is ion-exchangeable. The laminated glass article has a maximum compressive stress in the clad layer from about 0.05 GPa to about 0.7 GPa, and a compressive stress at an inner surface of the clad layer directly adjacent to the core layer from about 20% to about 45% of a compressive stress at an outer surface of the clad layer. A slope of a stress profile in the clad layer is substantially linear. Methods for manufactured such a laminated glass article also are disclosed.

Abstract: A glass includes, as represented by mole percentage based on oxides, from 60% to 68% of SiO2, from 8 to 12% of Al2O3, from 12 to 20% of Na2O, from 0.1 to 6% of K2O, from 6.4 to 12.5% of MgO, and from 0.001 to 4% of ZrO2. In the glass, a total content of B2O3, P2O5, CaO, SrO, and BaO is from 0% to 1%. The glass satisfies 2×Al2O3/SiO2?0.4 and 0<K2O/Na2O?0.3.

Abstract: A method for integrally forming a non-metal part and a metal part. The method comprises the following steps: A, arranging a non-transparent non-metal part in a mold; B, arranging a metal part on the periphery of the non-metal part in the mold, the metal part being a continuous structure located on the periphery of the non-metal part; C, heating the metal part so that the metal part is formed into semi-solid metal defined in a mold cavity; D, extruding the semi-solid metal through the mold, so that the semi-solid metal is combined with the periphery of the non-metal part in a seamless mode; and E, quickly cooling the semi-solid metal located on the periphery of the non-metal part, so that the semi-solid metal is formed into amorphous metal combined with the periphery of the non-metal part in a seamless mode.

Abstract: A fuel made from co-products derived from a lignocellulosic biomass fermentation process is used to fuel a cement production process. Filter cake and syrup co-products are mixed and dried, then burned in a cement kiln to create the temperatures needed for cement production.

Abstract: A method for recycling electronic waste may method comprise receiving electronic waste from an electronic waste-generating entity, separating components of the electronic waste into valuable recyclable material, hazardous material, and disposable non-hazardous material, creating a plurality of building material units comprising the disposable non-hazardous material, and sending at least a portion of the plurality of building material units back to the electronic waste-generating entity.

Abstract: The presently disclosed and/or claimed inventive concept(s) relates generally to a stone paint formulation. More particularly, the presently disclosed and/or claimed inventive concept(s) relates to a stone paint comprising a composition A and a composition B. The composition A comprises a latex emulsion, a rheology modifier, a coalescing agent, a biocide, a neutralizing agent and a solvent. The composition B comprises a sand. Additionally, the presently disclosed and/or claimed inventive concept(s) relates to a method of making the stone paint formulation by using the rheology modifier. The stone paint of the presently disclosed and/or claimed inventive concept(s) has enhanced resistance to water-whitening.

Abstract: A partition for a building structure comprises a support frame and a plasterboard affixed to the support frame. The support frame comprises a plurality of elongate timber members. The plasterboard comprises a gypsum matrix having fibres embedded therein in an amount of at least 1 wt % relative to the gypsum, as well as a polymeric additive that is present in an amount of at least 1 wt % relative to the gypsum.

Abstract: The invention concerns a batch for the production of a refractory magnesia-carbon product or a refractory alumina-magnesia-carbon product, a process for the production of a refractory magnesia-carbon product or a refractory alumina-magnesia-carbon product, a refractory magnesia-carbon product or a refractory alumina-magnesia-carbon product as well as the use of a magnesia-carbon product or a refractory alumina-magnesia-carbon product.

Abstract: A sintered body of the present invention contains yttrium oxyfluoride. The yttrium oxyfluoride is preferably YOF and/or Y5O4F7. The sintered body of the present invention preferably contains 50% by mass or more of yttrium oxyfluoride. The sintered body of the present invention has a relative density of preferably 70% or more and an open porosity of preferably 10% or less. Furthermore, the sintered body of the present invention has a three-point bending strength of preferably 10 MPa or more and 300 MPa or less.

Abstract: A method may include oxidizing a surface of a silicon-containing substrate to form a layer including silica on the surface of the silicon-containing substrate. The method also may include depositing, from a slurry including at least one rare earth oxide, a layer including the at least one rare earth oxide on the layer including silicon. The method additionally may include heating at least the layer including silica and the layer including the at least one rare earth oxide to cause the silica and the at least one rare earth oxide to react and form a layer including at least one rare earth silicate.

Abstract: Carbon-on-carbon (C/C) manufacturing techniques and the resulting C/C products. One aspect of the manufacturing techniques disclosed herein utilizes two distinct curing operations that occur at different times and/or using different temperatures. The resulting C/C products are substantially non-porous, even though the curing operation(s) substantially gasify a liquid carbon-entrained filler material that saturates a carbon fabric that makes up the C/C products.

Abstract: A method according to the invention for producing a connection between two surfaces or surface sections of two ceramic parts comprises: provision of a first ceramic part and of a second ceramic part; provision of an active brazing solder material on at least one surface section of at least one of the ceramic parts; and heating the active brazing solder in a vacuum brazing process. The whole active brazing solder material is provided for connecting the first and the second ceramic part by a sputtering method, wherein at least one surface section of at least one of the ceramic parts, preferably of the two ceramic parts, is layered with a layer sequence of individual components of the active brazing solder material, wherein the average strength of the layers of an individual component of the active brazing solder is no more than 0.5%, in particular not more than 0.2%, preferably not more than 0.1% and especially preferably not more than 0.05% of the strength of the joining region.

Abstract: An asphalt processing system is formed from a heating chamber, a transfer system and an induction heating system. A plurality of paddles, conveyor flights, or conveyor belts having a U-shaped blade move the asphalt through the system while concurrently mixing the material to ensure consistent temperatures through the asphalt cement. The asphalt is heating using one or more induction heating systems to quickly heat the asphalt to between 300° F. and 350° F. The system can include a convection system designed to collect air from the heating chamber, further heat it, and recirculate the air to enhance the asphalt heating. A water condenser can be employed to remove moisture during air recirculation, reducing moisture content in the asphalt cement. The asphalt cement is optionally then modified by addition of one or more rejuvenation oils. This system is particularly useful for recycled asphalt pavement, but can be used for all asphalt products.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method of producing a fertilizer composition from a feedstock that includes alcoholic beverages, waste product derived from the production of alcoholic beverages, or mixtures of the same. The feedstock is subjected to distillation to remove most of the ethanol and pH adjustment using a base. The invention also relates to a method of imparting flavor to a plant starting with the same feedstock, subjecting the feedstock to distillation and pH adjustment, and adding a flavorant to the resultant liquid before fertilizing the plant. The invention also relates to a method of producing a solid or liquid and solid foodstuff suitable for fish, bovine, swine, and the like for increasing dietary efficiency and reducing environmentally harmful solid and gaseous output.

Abstract: A bark-based composition having at least 70% by volume of bark is defibrated in order to make cultivation media having water availability that is greater than or equal to 250 mL/L.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of enhancing growth conditions for plants by growing the plants in soil containing, in proximity to the plant roots, both a phosphorus source and at least two strains of the fungus Penicillium, particularly P. bilaiae, more particularly strains NRRL 50162 and NRRL 50169.

Abstract: Various embodiments of the present technology provide methods and systems for soil enrichment. The systems may comprise a bioreactor system coupled to an initial treatment system for the cultivation of a live microorganism culture containing organic nutrients on an agriculturally effective scale. The systems may be automated and/or portable for practical applications onto target fields. The live microorganism culture may be delivered onto the soil of the target fields, enriching the soil with the organic nutrients that become bioavailable to crops growing in the soil. The soil enrichment system may provide a sustainable approach to agriculture that may efficiently enhance the natural processes of the native soil of any crop.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing a pelletised mineral product, the method comprising: in a first mixing step, forming a first mixture by mixing the evaporite mineral with non- gelatinised starch under conditions that are insufficient to substantially gelatinise the starch; in a second mixing step, forming a second mixture by mixing the first mixture under conditions that are sufficient to substantially gelatinise the starch comprised within the first mixture; and forming the second mixture into pellets.

Abstract: Aspects of the present invention include an apparatus for delivering substances to plants, comprising a grow pod, having at least one chamber for receiving at least one substance, whereby the grow pod is dissolved in a solute to form a solution, whereby the solution is delivered to at least one plant. Aspects of the present invention include a method of delivering substances to plants, comprising the steps of using a grow pod, having at least one chamber for receiving at least one substance; dissolving the grow pod in a solute to form a solution; and delivering the solution to at least one plant. Aspects of the present invention include an apparatus for delivering substances to plants, comprising at least one substance beneficial for plant growth bound and dissolved in a solute to form a solution, whereby the solution is delivered to at least one plant.

Abstract: Solvents useful with thiophosphoric triamide urease inhibitors, that provide stable solution of a thiophosphoric triamide, such as for distribution (in low or high concentrations) onto a fertilizer or other liquid or solid material that contains urea.

Abstract: A method for gas atomization of oxygen-reactive reactive metals and alloys wherein the atomized particles are exposed as they solidify and cool in a very short time to multiple gaseous reactive agents for the in-situ formation of a protective reaction film on the atomized particles. The present invention is especially useful for making highly pyrophoric reactive metal or alloy atomized powders, such as atomized magnesium and magnesium alloy powders. The gaseous reactive species (agents) are introduced into the atomization spray chamber at locations downstream of a gas atomizing nozzle as determined by the desired powder or particle temperature for the reactions and the desired thickness of the reaction film.