Abstract: A method comprising generating a mechanical signal in a mammal, the mechanical signal having a frequency no more than 50,000 Hz, transmitting the mechanical signal through the musculoskeletal system in the mammal, and sensing the mechanical signal from the musculoskeletal system. A method of triggering an internal event comprising generating a mechanical signal internal or external to a mammal, transmitting the signal through the musculoskeletal system of the mammal, detecting the mechanical signal, and triggering an event in response to the mechanical signal. A method of drug delivery comprising generating a mechanical signal internal or external to a mammal, transmitting the signal through the musculoskeletal system of the mammal, detecting the mechanical signal, and delivering the drug in response to the mechanical signal.

Abstract: Embodiments of the invention provide a system, apparatus and methods for measurement of biometric data of a diver. In many embodiments, the system includes a mouthpiece having a sensor device comprising a light emitter and detector configured to emit and detect light at a wavelength having an absorbance correlated with a level of a blood gas saturation e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, CO2. The emitter is positioned to emit light onto oral tissue of the diver and the detector positioned to detect light which is received from the oral tissue either by transmittance of light through the oral tissue or by reflection of light from the tissue. The target oral tissue can include one or both of gum or buccal tissue. Such embodiments allow data to be collected without having to wear additional sensors or measurement devices and allow for measurement of blood gas levels as the diver breaths through their mouthpiece.

Abstract: A method for neurological analysis and treatment is described. In one embodiment, a server sends a request to a wearable device for sensor data of a patient. The server receives sensor data from the wearable device, and sends instructions to the wearable device to present a cognitive test based on the sensor data. The server receives from the wearable device, results of the cognitive test, compares the results against a baseline, and determines an assessment of the user. A notification may be sent to the wearable device based on the assessment. A wearable device for use in the analysis and treatment is also described.

Abstract: In one embodiment, a system (200) comprising a wearable base (104) and a detachable health-parameter sensor apparatus (108) detachably coupled to the base, the detachable health-parameter sensor apparatus automatically and repeatedly monitoring one or more health parameters of a user, and responsive to determining a need for truer readings, instructing the user to locate the health-parameter sensor apparatus to another location on the user.

Abstract: A method for at least one of characterizing, diagnosing, and treating a condition associated with microbiome-derived functional features in at least a subject, the method comprising: receiving an aggregate set of biological samples from a population of subjects; generating at least one of a microbiome composition dataset and a microbiome functional diversity dataset for the population of subjects; generating a characterization of the condition based upon features extracted from at least one of the microbiome composition dataset and the microbiome functional diversity dataset; based upon the characterization, generating a therapy model configured to correct the condition; and at an output device associated with the subject, promoting a therapy to the subject based upon the characterization and the therapy model.

Abstract: A method for at least one of characterizing, diagnosing, and treating a condition associated with microbiome-derived functional features in at least a subject, the method comprising: receiving an aggregate set of biological samples from a population of subjects; generating at least one of a microbiome composition dataset and a microbiome functional diversity dataset for the population of subjects; generating a characterization of the condition based upon features extracted from at least one of the microbiome composition dataset and the microbiome functional diversity dataset; based upon the characterization, generating a therapy model configured to correct the condition; and at an output device associated with the subject, promoting a therapy to the subject based upon the characterization and the therapy model.

Abstract: A method for at least one of characterizing, diagnosing, and treating a condition associated with microbiome-derived functional features in at least a subject, the method comprising: receiving an aggregate set of biological samples from a population of subjects; generating at least one of a microbiome composition dataset and a microbiome functional diversity dataset for the population of subjects; generating a characterization of the condition based upon features extracted from at least one of the microbiome composition dataset and the microbiome functional diversity dataset; based upon the characterization, generating a therapy model configured to correct the condition; and at an output device associated with the subject, promoting a therapy to the subject based upon the characterization and the therapy model.

Abstract: An eavesdropping arrangement for acquiring a measured physiological variable of an individual includes a receiver and a communication interface in a housing separate from the receiver. The communication interface is positioned along a communication link between a first sensor, which is configured to measure aortic blood pressure and to provide a signal representing measured aortic blood pressure, and a central monitoring device configured to monitor the measured aortic blood pressure. The communication interface includes a connection to the communication link that permits the communication interface to eavesdrop on the signal representing measured aortic blood pressure such that information representing measured aortic blood pressure is sent to the receiver while allowing the central monitoring device to receive and use the signal representing measured aortic blood pressure.

Abstract: An optical sensor module includes a light emitter that radiates light to a target object, a light receiver that receives light from the target object, a deformable substrate on which the light emitter and the light receiver are provided, and a reinforcing plate that reinforces the strength of the substrate.

Abstract: The present disclosure generally relates to improvements to systems and methods for measuring the dynamic properties of scattering particles within a medium, including fluid flow. Specifically, the present disclosure relates to systems and methods for time-resolved diffuse correlation spectroscopy. This disclosure provides systems and methods for determining dynamics in a target medium. The systems and methods can utilize time-resolved diffuse correlation spectroscopy.

Abstract: A system and method for non-invasively estimating an absolute blood flow of a vascular region in a subject using optical data are provided. In some aspects, the method includes acquiring optical data from the vascular region using one or more optical sensors placed about the subject, and determining, using the optical data, an index of blood flow and. a blood volume associated with the vascular region. The method also includes computing a blood inflow and a blood outflow using the index of blood flow and the blood volume, and estimating an absolute blood flow using the blood inflow and blood outflow. The method further includes generating a report indicative of the absolute blood flow of the vascular region.

Abstract: A laser based vascular illumination system utilizing a FPGA for detecting vascular positions, processing an image of such vasculature positions, and projecting the image thereof onto the body of a patient.

Abstract: The invention consists of a device and method for the prediction of left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) and other cardiac hemodynamic parameters using systolic time intervals in patients with narrow QRS, right bundle branch block, left bundle branch block, right ventricular and/or left ventricular cardiac pacing and in the presence of arrhythmia, such as atrial fibrillation. The device has three inputs: the ECG, a peripheral pulse and a phonocardiogram. Timing parameters are obtained from these signals to calculate a systolic function index, used for the prediction of ejection fraction. Given the invention's features it would be now possible to assess cardiac performance and specifically left ventricular ejection fraction in ambulatory patients as well as during invasive procedures such as the implant of cardiac rhythm management devices.

Abstract: Improved apparatus and methods for monitoring, diagnosing and treating at least one medical respiratory condition of a patient are provided, including a medical data input interface adapted to provide at least one medical parameter relating at least to the respiration of the patient, and a medical parameter interpretation functionality (104, 110) adapted to receive the at least one medical parameter relating at least to the respiration (102) of the patient and to provide at least one output indication (112) relating to a degree of severity of at least one medical condition indicated by the at least one medical parameter.

Abstract: A tube for a blood pressure cuff includes a hollow and long shape, and plural projection portions projecting toward a center of a regular polygon in correspondence with vertices of the regular polygon which inscribes in an outer circumference and has 5 or more angles, in a shape of an inner circumference in a cross section perpendicular to a longitudinal direction of the cuff tube.

Abstract: In some embodiments, a device to measure a shape of cyclic variation of heart rate (CVHR) comprises a processor to detect CVHR from time series data of cardiac or pulse wave inter-beat interval, heart rate, or pulse rate; acquire at least one shape property index with respect to a waveform of the detected CVHR; and evaluate health risk based on the at least one shape property index. The CVHR appears periodically in the time series data. The at least one shape property index is selected from the group consisting of an amplitude of the CVHR (ACV), a slope, a ratio of the ACV to a duration, and an area. The health risk is inversely correlated with an intensity of a heart rate response determined from the at least one shape property index.

Abstract: According to an aspect, there is provided an apparatus for measuring the blood pressure, BP, of a user, the apparatus comprising a volume-clamp BP monitoring device that comprises a first pressure device for applying pressure to a first part of the body of the user, a first photoplethysmogram, PPG, sensor for obtaining a first PPG signal from the first part of the body of the user, and a control unit that is configured to analyse the first PPG signal and to control the pressure of the first pressure device; wherein the control unit is configured to adjust the pressure of the first pressure device to maintain the first PPG signal at a constant level and to determine the BP of the user from the pressure of the first pressure device; and a second sensor, separate from the first PPG sensor, for measuring a physiological characteristic of the user in a second part of the body of the user, wherein the second part of the body is separate from the first part of the body; wherein the apparatus is configured to analyse

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a blood pressure measuring device including: a pressure measuring tool 110; a fastening member 120 configured to fasten the pressure measuring tool 110 in rest position onto a skin region covering an anastomotic region of a shunt blood vessel 201; and a control circuit 130 configured to receive an input signal from the pressure measuring tool 110 and to process the input signal to calculate a pressure inside the anastomotic region of the shunt blood vessel 201.

Abstract: A physiological monitoring device controls an optical signal acquisition system within a number of discrete operating states, each providing values for controllable parameters such as illumination intensity for a light source and the gain for an optical detector. Using this technique, a small number of operating states may be defined, such as operating states that are known to work well within expected use scenarios. This approach advantageously facilitates optimal or near optimal operation across a range of most likely use cases while avoiding complex or continuous optimization problems. The list of operating states may further be prioritized so that a best operating state can be selected based on, e.g., signal quality or environmental conditions.

Abstract: A two-state wearable device may include a wearable band (e.g., a watch band) and a display module (e.g., a watch face). In a “detached” state, the wearable band and display module act as separate devices, and the display module can be charging its battery while the wearable band gathers sensor data (e.g., sleep tracking data) and provides a vibrating/audio alarm clock function. In an “attached” state, the wearable band and display module act together as a single device, meaning that the data collected by the wearable band during the “detached” state is sent to and stored at the display module, and that sleep settings input at a user interface of the display module impact the wearable band's alarm function. The display module may also use its newly-recharged battery to recharge the wearable band's battery so that it can be used the next night.

Abstract: A system, device and method for automatically and remotely acquiring sensor data from a wearable patch mounted on a patient. An example device implemented as a wearable patch includes a sensor assembly comprising a plurality of sensors configured to detect a corresponding plurality of sensory modalities and generate electrical signals representing the sensory modalities. A signal converter receives the electrical signals from the plurality of sensors and converts the signals to sensor data signals comprising a data representation of at least one of the electrical signals. A communications interface communicates the sensor data signals to a sensor data processing system.

Abstract: A microangiography method and system based on full-space modulation spectrum splitting and angle compounding is disclosed. Label-free three-dimensional optical coherence tomography angiography is realized by combining the three-dimensional space resolution capability of an optical coherence tomography and the motion recognition capability of a dynamic scattering technology. Probe light of different incident angles is encoded with a transverse scanning modulation spectrum in a spatial frequency domain, incident angle-resolved sub-angiograms which are independent of one another are obtained by splitting the modulation spectrum, and an angiogram with multiple space angles compounded is realized. Conjugate mirror images are removed from a depth (z) domain, a complex-valued OCT interference spectra are reconstructed, the full-space modulation spectrum is obtained in the spatial frequency domain, and the overlap of the modulation spectrum conjugate mirror images is avoided.

Abstract: In an aspect, a neurological data collecting apparatus is described. A plurality of electronically interconnected interface panels configured to selectively display stimuli and accept input is provided. An interface panel frame supports the plurality of interface panels and aggregates the plurality of interface panels into a user interface screen 6 that extends into the user's peripheral vision when the user is standing within a predetermined distance from the user interface screen. A supporting stand is connected to the user interface screen. The supporting stand includes a height adjustment mechanism for adjusting the height of the user interface screen to eye level of the user. A control unit electronically connects the user interface screen to a computer.

Abstract: A myocardial excitation complementation/visualization apparatus includes an acquiring section that acquires intracardiac electrocardiograms of a subject, the intracardiac electrocardiograms being recorded by a recording unit having a plurality of electrodes, a processing section that performs a computation for completing and visualizing a state of excitation in a myocardium of the subject based on the intracardiac electrocardiograms, and a displaying section that displays the state of excitation in the myocardium of the subject based on an output of the processing section. The processing section includes a first generating section, a correcting section, a second generating section, and a third generating section. The displaying section displays a change of the state of excitation in the myocardium of the subject based on the visualized data.

Abstract: A catheter adapted or high density mapping and/or ablation of tissue surface has a distal electrode matrix having a plurality of spines arranged in parallel configuration on which a multitude of electrodes are carried in a grid formation for providing uniformity and predictability in electrode placement on the tissue surface. The matrix can be dragged against the tissue surface upon deflection (and/or release of the deflection) of the catheter. The spines generally maintain their parallel configuration and the multitude of electrodes generally maintain their predetermined relative spacing in the grid formation as the matrix is dragged across the tissue surface in providing very high density mapping signals. The spines may have free distal ends, or distal ends that are joined to form loops for maintaining the spines in parallel configuration.

Abstract: Provided herein are methods and devices for the detection, quantification, and/or monitoring of characteristics in samples. The disclosed methods and devices can be used, for example, to identify the presence and location of atrial fibrillation indicators with high spatial resolution. The disclosed methods and devices can even be used to identify the presence and location of atrial fibrillation indicators using non-simultaneously collected data.

Abstract: The present invention includes a responsive neural stimulator having electrodes, a filter, a processor, a recording medium, an extractor for extracting instantaneous voltage amplitudes of biased oscillatory activity with asymmetrically distributed peak/trough amplitudes, and a neural stimulator connected to the processor configured to apply neural stimulation via the neural stimulator when a predetermined state of neuronal excitability is detected, a state of relatively higher neuronal excitability corresponding to a relatively lower instantaneous voltage amplitude extracted by the extractor.

Abstract: A remotely-interfaceable electrocardiography patch is provided. A flexible backing is formed from an elongated strip of material. A pair of electrocardiographic electrodes are exposed on a contact surface of the flexible backing for capturing electrocardiographic signals. A non-conductive receptacle is adhered to an outward-facing surface of the flexible backing and includes a plurality of electrical pads. A flexible circuit has a pair of circuit traces electrically coupled to the pair of electrocardiographic electrodes and a pair of the electrical pads. A wireless transceiver communicates samples of the electrocardiographic signals.

Abstract: A method and system for multi-electrode monitoring of an internal electrical impedance of a biological object, using placing two arrays of electrodes on opposite sides of the biological object, wherein each of said two arrays comprise at least two spaced apart electrodes; performing session of measurements comprising imposing an alternating electrical current between pairs of said electrodes and obtaining voltage signals representative of a voltage drop thereon; calculating values of skin-electrode resistance for all said electrodes; comparing said calculated values of skin-electrode resistance therebetween, wherein result of the comparison exceeding a predetermined threshold value being representative of a potential failure in at least one of said electrodes.

Abstract: An apparatus and method is provided for detecting body composition and for correlating body composition with cognitive efficiency. The apparatus comprises: at least two sensors to sense a potential difference of a human body region; a computing device electrically coupled to the at least two sensors, wherein the computing device is to: detect a body hydration level according to the sensed potential difference; and notify a user if the body hydration level reaches a predetermined threshold.

Abstract: An apparatus for determining cardiac performance in the patient includes a plurality of electrodes adapted to be placed in the patient and in communication with a heart chamber of the patient for measuring conductance and blood volume in the heart chamber of the patient; and a processor for determining instantaneous volume of the ventricle based on measurement of complex admittance at a plurality of frequencies to identify mechanical strength of the chamber, the processor in communication with the electrodes. A method for determining cardiac performance in a patient.

Abstract: Radiofrequency (RF) coil unit and a housing for the RF coil unit is provided. The RF coil unit can include a substantially annular body having a concave indent along a longitudinal direction along the substantially annular body such that when a head of the patient is inserted into an interior of the substantially annular body, at least a portion of the head of the patient is viewable and accessible from a location exterior to the substantially annular body. The housing for the RF coil unit can include a channel to receive the RF coil unit of a MRI device. The housing can enclose regions with high voltages (e.g., 1000 Volts) and/or separate these regions from patient body parts by, for example, including insulating material, thereby enhancing a safety of the patient.

Abstract: In a method and MR apparatus for planning at least one MR measurement of an MR examination on a patient, the patient is positioned on a patient support within an examination room. A position of the patient support against movement of the patient support is secured within a patient receiving area of the MR scanner. Planning of the least one MR measurement of the MR examination for a first region of the patient to be examined takes place on the basis of the secured position of the patient support.

Abstract: Apparatus and method for imaging a patient in an MRI system. This includes a frame, and at least one assembly that includes a patient-interface positioner connected to a reference position on the frame, a first lockable joint on the positioner; and a patient interface connected to a patient-proximal end of the positioner by a second joint, wherein the first patient-interface is moveably positioned to a selected pitch angle, a selected yaw angle, and a selected one of a plurality of distances relative to the reference position on the frame. The first lockable joint is configured to be tightened to yieldably hold the first patient-interface at the selected pitch and yaw angles, and at the selected one of the plurality of distances, relative to the reference position. Optionally a second substantially similar patient-interface and assembly are provided. The earpiece(s) optionally include audio transducer(s) and/or RF coil(s).

Abstract: Method and system for determining the current position of a selected portion of a medical catheter inserted into a tubular organ of the body of a patient, the method comprising the procedures of inserting a medical positioning system (MPS) catheter into the tubular organ, acquiring a plurality of mapping positions within the tubular organ, displaying a mapping position representation of the mapping positions, constructing a mapping path according to the mapping positions, inserting the medical catheter into the tubular organ until the selected portion reaches the initial position, displaying an operational image of the tubular organ, a path representation of the mapping path, and an initial position representation of the initial position superimposed on the operational image, registering the selected portion with the initial position, measuring a traveled length of the medical catheter within the tubular organ from the initial position, and estimating the current position.

Abstract: Devices and methods obtain and use endovascular electrograms in a number of clinical applications and settings. In one embodiment, methods for triggering analysis of an endovascular ECG waveform are based on the detection of a peak in a skin-based ECG waveform in order to determine a location of an indwelling medical device, such as a catheter. In another embodiment, the position of a catheter or other medical device within the vasculature can be determined by analysis of the energy profile of a detected P-wave. In yet other embodiments, magnetic connecting devices are used for establishing an operable connection through a sterile field.

Abstract: Ingestible devices capable of delivering a dispensable substance, such as, for example, a therapeutic agent, as well as related components, systems and methods, are disclosed. A removably attachable storage reservoir configured to be used with an ingestible device and capable of storing dispensable substance, such as, for example, a therapeutic agent, as well as related components, systems and methods, are also disclosed.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for detecting body vital signs through the use of a Bioelectric Impedance Spectroscopy (BIS), either by (a) direct contact with the person (such as through one or more of their fingers) or (b) measurement of reflections from a field projected into the person's body. The techniques may be implemented using the projected capacitive touch array in a device such as the screen of a smartphone or tablet computer, or the touchpad of a laptop computer.

Abstract: There is provided a method for dynamically determining a breath related parameter, which includes averaging a breath related parameter over a first period of time, calculating a breath related value over a second period of time and adapting the duration of the first period of time according to the calculated breath related value.

Abstract: Systems and methods for anatomical alignment are disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the systems and methods can provide accurate and continuous intraoperative validation of anatomical alignment, e.g., of the spine, hips, pelvis, and/or shoulders. An exemplary system can include a sensor and marker arrangement for measuring coronal imbalance. Another exemplary system can include a sensor and marker arrangement for shoulder or pelvic leveling. Yet another exemplary system can include a mechanical frame for establishing a simulated ground plane and projecting a plumb line from the simulated ground plane.

Abstract: An activity tracking system includes a sensor device and a display device. The sensor device is configured to be carried by the user and includes at least one sensor configured to obtain the activity data for the user. The display device includes a display screen. The display device is configured to receive the activity data obtained by the sensor device and display the activity data about a circular axis on the display screen. The circular axis is provided as a solitary closed loop circular axis with respect to a defined center point. The activity data includes first data on one side of the circular axis and mutually exclusive second data on an opposite side of the circular axis. The first data includes a first start time and a first end time, the first end time occurring in a selected day and the first start time occurring in a previous day.

Abstract: A method includes obtaining test data during a plurality of joint tests, the test data being indicative of respective motion during each test, each test being implemented by a robotic testing apparatus that applies, during each test, a respective force oriented in a respective plane. Respective primary data indicative of respective movement in a respective degree of freedom disposed within the respective plane for each test is generated based on the test data. Secondary data indicative of concomitant movement during a first test of the plurality of tests is generated based on the test data, the concomitant movement being in a secondary degree of freedom other than the respective degree of freedom disposed within the respective plane for the first test, the concomitant movement arising from the respective applied force. A joint condition is determined based on the primary data for each test and the secondary data.

Abstract: A motion display system includes: a detector that detects an acceleration of a body part of a test subject; an imager that generates a moving image by imaging a motion of the test subject; an identifier that is attached to the test subject to determine a position of the body part within the moving image; a superimposer that superimposes a motion trajectory of the body part generated based on the acceleration detected by the detector on a position of the body part determined based on the identifier within the moving image generated by the imager in synchronization with the moving image; and a display that displays the moving image on which the motion trajectory is superimposed by the superimposer.

Abstract: An analyzed motion of a moving system is assessed to estimate an aspect of the moving system. The aspect is estimated using a relationship formed between the aspect and motion data of the moving system. The relationship may be formed with a predictive algorithm which analyzes a plurality of motions of the moving system to form the relationship.

Abstract: A respiratory effort sensing apparatus (2) includes a flexible belt member (8) having a first buckle member (12A) and a second buckle member (12B), and a wearable respiratory monitoring recording device (6). The monitoring device includes: (i) a processing apparatus (34) structured to be selectively operable in a sleep mode and an active mode, and (ii) buckle detection circuitry (46) structured to detect that both buckle members are operatively coupled to the respiratory monitoring recording device and in response thereto generate a buckle detection signal. The processing apparatus is structured to, in response to receiving the buckle detection signal, automatically: (a) move from the sleep mode to the active mode, and (b) generate data indicative of a respiratory effort of a patient over time based on an effort-based signal generated by the respiratory effort sensing apparatus in response to changes in volume of a body part of the patient.

Abstract: The device is an ultra-low power, non-invasive in-vivo blood analyte sensor system incorporating multiple sensors including a carbon base and/or carbon base material coated with metallic nanoparticles and/or metallic nanoparticle nanoprobes, as a modified Clark electrode sensor system, that detects hydrogen peroxide concentrations, pH, and/or glucose concentrations (and other analytes) in bodily secretions (e.g. tears, saliva, sweat). The device consists of multiple chemoreceptive sensors, a microprocessor, a signal amplifier, signal filtering, error correction algorithms, analog-to-digital converter and wireless electromagnetic data transmitter to a remote device for further processing and/or data storage (e.g. on a server, on a cloud-based storage system, etc) and/or visual representation via software. The method involves applying the nanoprobe sensor array to skin tissue and the resulting electrical impulses correlate with glucose concentration within liquids such as tears, saliva, blood, etc.

Abstract: A physiological sensor has light emitting sources, each activated by addressing at least one row and at least one column of an electrical grid. The light emitting sources are capable of transmitting light of multiple wavelengths and a detector is responsive to the transmitted light after attenuation by body tissue.

Abstract: An apparatus for detecting an analyte, and method of operating and forming the same. In one embodiment, the apparatus includes a pedestal formed on a semiconductor substrate and a mid-infrared (“IR”) transparent semiconductor waveguide formed on the pedestal. A refractive index of the pedestal is less than the mid-IR transparent semiconductor waveguide. The apparatus also includes a detector configured to detect an analyte couplable to the mid-IR transparent semiconductor waveguide.

Abstract: An on-body wearable bio-fluid collection and sensing device including an interface or interface surface comprising at least one biocompatible material for contacting a bodily part; at least one inlet for receiving the bio-fluid, at least one outlet for evacuating the bio-fluid, a plurality of semiconductor sensors configured to analyze the received bio-fluid, at least one reference electrode for biasing a bio-fluid gate of at least one of the semiconductor sensors, and at least one micro-fluidic or nano-fluidic channel in fluid communication with the at least one inlet, the at least one outlet and the at least one reference electrode; the at least one micro-fluidic or nano-fluidic channel includes the plurality of semiconductor sensors.

Abstract: A device for on-demand sweat extraction and analysis is realized as a printed circuit comprising a microcontroller, an iontophoresis circuit, a sensing circuit, and an electrode array having iontophoresis electrodes for sweat induction and sensing electrodes connected for sweat sensing. The sensing electrodes are positioned between the iontophoresis electrodes. The iontophoresis electrodes are preferably crescent-shaped and comprise a layer of agonist agent hydrogel loaded with sweat stimulating compounds. The iontophoresis circuit has a programmable current source for iontophoresis current delivery, and the sensing circuit includes two signal conditioning paths, where each of the paths includes an analog front-end to amplify a sensed signal and a low-pass filter to minimize high frequency noise and electromagnetic interference. The iontophoresis circuit and the sensing circuit are electrically decoupled for independent functionality.