Abstract: A gas sensor comprises an electrically conductive housing including a shelf member and a chamber containing an electrolyte. A conductive cathode mounted on the shelf member has a plurality of holes therein and a conductive tail element. A gas permeable membrane overlying the cathode prevents electrolyte from escaping the chamber but allows gas to permeate the membrane. An anode within the chamber is in electrical contact with the electrolyte and the conductive housing. The tail element is adapted to be connected to the anode through an electrical circuit including the conductive housing.

Abstract: A method of measuring localized corrosion, using a multi-electrode array sensor. The method eliminates the effect of internal current in corroded electrodes, and thus provides a more accurate corrosion measurement. In one embodiment, the potential of a common node of the sensor is adjusted so that the sensor's most cathodic current is close to zero.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method of producing a 3-D microscope flow-through cell, consisting of an upper and a lower substrate between which is located a flow channel, an electrode structure penetrating the flow channel and connected with external contacts and with through-connections at the ends of the flow channel for the connection of fluid inlets and outlets. The invention provides a method of producing 3-D microscope micro flow-through cells that are suitable for the reversible assembly of microscope flow-through cells for the ?m-volume range. According to the invention, this is obtained in that a base substrate is first provided with access holes and a flow channel, the flow channel being made of a sandwich of a material non-elastic inside and elastic outside, in that the flow channel for the purpose of a fluid-tight channel closure, is pressed against a second cover glass in order to provide a reversibly sealable flow channel.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to devices and methods for carrying out and/or monitoring biological reactions in response to electrical stimuli. A programmable multiplexed active biologic array includes an array of electrodes coupled to sample-and-hold circuits. The programmable multiplexed active biologic array includes a digital interface that allows external control of the array using an external processor. The circuit may monitor, digitally control, and deliver electrical stimuli to the electrodes individually or in selected groups.

Abstract: A method for electronically detecting an electrostatic based biological binding event. This same binding event can be detected optically via complicated experimental setups. A balanced coil system is incorporated into a hand held unit with a plug-in chip. The chip may further be made to act like an array with a different surface molecule for detection of different bio-molecules.

Abstract: A sensory apparatus including a substrate including a plurality of sensors to obtain an analyte profile, the sensors including an ion-selective sensor capable of measuring ion content and a chlorine sensor capable of measuring chlorine content, is disclosed. A method of generating an analyte profile, including measuring, directly or indirectly, properties including free chlorine concentration, pH, calcium ion concentration, carbonate ion concentration, and bicarbonate ion concentration, concurrently on a contiguous sample, is also disclosed.

Abstract: The invention is a redox control and monitoring platform that is to be used in conduction with another detection scheme. The platform includes a portion of an electrochemical control. The electrochemical control can be operated to control and measure the redox environment of a sample. The electrochemical control can be provided in a multiplicity of test regions to allow high throughput analysis of a multiplicity of samples. The present method and system allows the determination of the effect of the change in redox environment on the binding or other activity of the species in the sample that is directly affected by the redox environment.

Abstract: A process and a device are provided for monitoring the hydrogen concentration in a gas with at least one device, which comprises an electrochemical gas sensor and a bipotentiostat, e.g., for use in internal combustion engines with hydrogen, in fuel cells and in the petrochemical industry. The electrochemical gas sensor used has two working electrodes (3) and (4), with which the hydrogen and oxygen concentrations are determined in the gas in different steps due to the application of a voltage by a bipotentiostat (5-18). In an additional, optional step, a voltage in the range of ?1,100 mV to ?800 mV is applied to a working electrode (4), so that hydrogen is formed at the working electrode (4) and the functional surface of the working electrode (4) as well as the sensitivity of the working electrode (3) to hydrogen can be checked.

Abstract: An apparatus and method of determining a potential at a surface of a sample in a polar liquid, for example, across an electrical double layer, includes the step of immersing the sample in a polar solution to form a potential gradient at the surface. A tip of a scanning probe microscope probe is then positioned in the solution generally adjacent the surface. During operation, the method includes measuring a potential of the probe. Relative scanning movement between the sample and the probe may be provided, and, in one mode of operation, a feedback signal is generated based on the measured potential. In that case, the tip may be moved generally orthogonal to the surface in response to the feedback signal to maintain a generally constant separation therebetween. The polar solution may have an associated ionic concentration, and the ionic concentration can be modified to tune the operation of the SEPM.

Abstract: A method of addressing and driving an electrode array includes the step of addressing one or more electrodes within the array using a plurality of row and column lines. In one aspect of the method, a value corresponding to a voltage is stored in a local memory associated with each electrode. The addressed electrodes are then driven at the voltages corresponding to the stored values. In another aspect of the method, a driving element associated with each addressed electrode is selectively coupled with a voltage line so as to charge the electrode with the voltage on the voltage line. The device and methods may be used in the synthesis of biopolymers such as oligonucleotides and peptides.

Abstract: A myocyte culture pacing apparatus operating in conjunction with a standard culture dish that permits long term maintenance of cultured myocyte cells over a period of several weeks The device includes a base unit for receiving the culture dish, and an electrode unit for placement atop the culture dish which can receive the cover of the culture dish. The electrode unit has a first and a second planar conductive electrodes extending into each well of the culture dish. The electrodes are planar and extend across the width of the well and are connected to electrical connector for connection to an external electronic unit, which supplies the a variety of electrical pulse regimes to pace the myocyte cultures. The electronic unit permits the type, frequency, duration, voltage and the current of the pulses to be varied in accordance with the desired pacing regime.

Abstract: Chemical sensors for detecting the activity of a molecule or analyte of interest is provided. The chemical sensors comprise and array or plurality of sensors that are capable of interacting with a molecule of interest, wherein the interaction provides a response fingerprint. The fingerprint can be associated with a library of similar molecules of interest to determine the molecule's activity and diffusion coefficient.

Abstract: A counter electrode for use in an electrochemical cell suitable for analysis of an electroplating composition, the counter electrode comprising a conductor; a sheath disposed about the conductor; an electrolyte disposed within the sheath; and an optionally porous element on the sheath, the porous element providing signal communication between the electrolyte and an analyte.

Abstract: An addressable biologic electrode array includes an array of electrodes disposed on a support, the array of electrodes being selectively addressed and driven using a memory associated with each electrode of the array, the driven electrodes being driven at one of a plurality of stimulus levels by a source of electrical current or voltage external to the array.

Abstract: A biologic electrode array is formed on a semiconductor substrate. A matrix of electrode sites is disposed on the semiconductor substrate. A matrix of optical detectors is disposed beneath the electrode sites in the semiconductor substrate, wherein each electrode site is associated with a corresponding optical detector. The optical detectors are coupled to detection circuitry formed on the semiconductor substrate. The electrode sites may include slitted electrodes, punctuated electrodes, or optically transparent electrodes.

Abstract: A multiple electrode includes a plurality of micro-electrodes provided on a substrate, and a wiring portion for providing an electrical signal to the micro-electrodes or extracting an electrical signal from the micro-electrodes. Each micro-electrode has porous conductive material on its surface, and the impedance of the micro-electrode is 50 k? or less. Preferably, the porous conductive material is gold, and formed by the passage of current at a current density of 1.0 to 5.0 A/dm2 for 10 to 360 sec. The multiple electrode may include micro-electrodes provided on a substrate in the form of a matrix, a lead line connected to the micro-electrodes, and an electrical junction connected to an end of the lead line.

Abstract: Electrochemical monitoring system and method are provided for online determination of hydrogen peroxide concentration in slurries, e.g., a chemical mechanical polishing slurry. The monitoring system includes an electrochemical cell fluidly coupled to receive a slurry including hydrogen peroxide. The cell includes at least a working electrode made up of tungsten, a reference electrode and a counter electrode. The system further includes a potentiostat electrically coupled to the working electrode to supply a desired potentials in increments to the working electrode and measure current flow between the working electrode and the counter electrode. The amount of passive current established between the working electrode and the counter electrode over a selected time window is indicative of the concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the slurry.

Abstract: A fluid-type multiple electrochemical system. The system includes a substrate for an electric circuit having a plurality of electrode parts formed at regular intervals. The electrode parts each include a reference electrode and an auxiliary electrode. Also provided is a fluid-type substrate having a fluid injection part, a fluid ejection part and a plurality of fluid storages. The fluid storages are formed at the same regular intervals as the electrode parts of the substrate and are connected with each other through fluid passages. The system also includes a sensor substrate having a plurality of unit sensors formed at the same regular intervals as the electrode parts of the substrate. Each unit sensor has an electrode part, an electrode pad for supplying power voltage simultaneously, and an electrode wiring.

Abstract: A digital electrochemical sensor is provided with a sensor electrode array (1-4) and an operating electronic unit integrated on a chip for processing electrical signals received therefrom. The operating electronic unit includes a potentiostat circuit and a microprocessor, which receives and further processes the signals processed by the operating electronic unit. To provide an electrochemical sensor which can be operated more simply and with higher precision during installation and in operation the potentiostat circuit is a digital circuit, whose controller function is controlled by the microprocessor (20), and for the microprocessor (20) to be also integrated on the chip of the operating electronic unit.

Abstract: The invention relates to the analysis of the performance and properties of electrochemical processes, and specifically, to electrolytic solutions and electrode processes. The invention discloses a device and a method for obtaining qualitative and quantitative information for the kinetics of the electrode reactions, the transport processes, the thermodynamic properties of the electrochemical processes taking place in the cell. When a deposition reaction takes place, the device provides also valuable information about the relationship between the current density and deposit properties including but not limited to the deposit color, luster, and other aspects of its appearance. The device disclosed herein typically is comprised of a multiplicity of cathodic or anodic regions where one or more electrochemical reactions take place simultaneously, but at a different rate.

Abstract: An apparatus is provided for receiving and aligning a multiple electrode pair array and a multiple well plate used in electroporation. The apparatus includes a housing which includes a bottom housing portion and a pair of side housing portions which project upward from the bottom housing portion. A pair of board-reception structures are adjacent to the inner portions of the side housing portions. Multiple well plate engaging and disengaging means, supported by the housing, are provided for engaging a multiple well plate with a multiple electrode pair array and for disengaging a multiple well plate from a multiple electrode pair array. Preferably, the multiple well plate engaging and disengaging means include a multiple well plate lifting and lowering assembly. The multiple well plate lifting and lowering assembly can include lifting/lowering handles located outside the housing.

Abstract: A method of addressing and driving an electrode array includes the step of addressing one or more electrodes within the array using a plurality of row and column lines. In one aspect of the method, a value corresponding to a voltage is stored in a local memory associated with each electrode. The addressed electrodes are then driven at the voltages corresponding to the stored values. In another aspect of the method, a driving element associated with each addressed electrode is selectively coupled with a voltage line so as to charge the electrode with the voltage on the voltage line. The device and methods may be used in the synthesis of biopolymers such as oligonucleotides and peptides.

Abstract: The use of impedance measurements to detect the presence of pathogens attached to antibody-coated beads. In a fluidic device antibodies are immobilized on a surface of a patterned interdigitated electrode. Pathogens in a sample fluid streaming past the electrode attach to the immobilized antibodies, which produces a change in impedance between two adjacent electrodes, which impedance change is measured and used to detect the presence of a pathogen. To amplify the signal, beads coated with antibodies are introduced and the beads would stick to the pathogen causing a greater change in impedance between the two adjacent electrodes.

Abstract: An electrochemical deposition and testing system consisting of individually addressable electrode arrays, a fully automated deposition head, and a parallel screening apparatus is described. The system is capable of synthesizing and screening millions of new compositions at an unprecedented rate.

Abstract: A hand-held portable drug monitoring system to detect and quantitate cocaine and other organic drugs in saliva, sweat, and surface wipes by using an ion selective electrode or an array of ion selective electrodes. The ion selective electrode has a cast membrane reference electrode and a sensing electrode with a hydrophobic polymer, a plasticizer, and an ionophore selective for the organic drug to be tested. The ion selective electrode can be connected to a converter that coverts a voltage reading from the ion selective electrode to a quantitative drug concentration level. Also disclosed is the related method of using an ion selective electrode to detect an organic drug in saliva, sweat, and surface wipes, the method of testing electrical contact in an ion selective electrode, and the method of making a cast membrane reference electrode.

Abstract: In an improved amperometric gas sensor, the structure, composition, and electrode potential are adjusted so as to prevent or minimize any unwanted reactivity at the counter and/or reference electrode of any analyte or interfering component of the matrix that may cross over thereto. The sensor is preferably structured so that the product of the analyte reaction at a first working electrode can be reconverted to the original analyte at a counter electrode or at a second working electrode and then reacted again at the first working electrode, with such back-and-forth reactions repeating many times, so as to yield an amplification of the analyte signal.

Abstract: A gas concentration sensor includes a sensor element consisting of a pump cell, a monitor cell, and a sensor cell. These cells are heated by a heater and maintained in an activated condition. A sensor control unit measures a weak element current flowing in a sensor element in accordance with the concentration of a specific gas component and intermittently supplies electric power to the heater. The sensor control unit is electrically connected via electric cables to the gas concentration sensor. The weak element current cables and the heater cable are banded together. The electric cables have a shielding layer that is provided outside a core wire through which the element current flows and is fixed to the ground potential.

Abstract: A spacer forming method for a biosensor that has a biosensor possessing a capillary sampling channel and electrical connecting tracks for the use of a specific portable meter. A pair of electrodes is printed on an insulating base plate to be the transducer of the electrochemical biosensor by means of the screen-printing technology. The advanced thick-film printing technology is employed to construct the spacer component of the sampling channel that precisely controls the volume of a sample solution. Therefore, the spacer forming method reduces the usage of adhesive that otherwise causes a serious problem during a continuous punching procedure. Furthermore, the embedded switch pad on the biosensor is introduced to be instead of a micro switch in a connector of the portable meter.

Abstract: A cartridge for analyzing a bodily fluid for use with an analytical device includes a base structure, a sensor arrangement, a pump arrangement, and a pump control arrangement configured to selectively operate the pump when the cartridge is operatively positioned in the analytical device. A system for analyzing a bodily fluid includes an analytical device with a cartridge-receiving receptacle and a cartridge operatively and removably mounted in the cartridge-receiving receptacle. The cartridge includes a sensor arrangement and a pump. The analytical device includes a pump control arrangement to selectively operate the pump. A method of analyzing bodily fluid includes inserting a cartridge into an analytical device, dispensing a sample into the cartridge, sensing the fluid with the cartridge, and allowing the analytical device to automatically pump a calibration fluid over sensors in the cartridge.

Abstract: The system concerns an electrode system for an electrochemical sensor, comprising, arranged on a conductive substrate (10), a plurality of micro-discs (22) electrically connected to the substrate and a generating electrode (20) insulated from the substrate by an insulating layer (14) and including a plurality of orifices (24) concentric with said micro-discs. A conductive layer (12) and connections (26, 28) enable to connect the electrodes to power sources. The generating electrode enables to modify locally, at the micro-discs, the concentrations of species present in solution opposite said electrodes.

Abstract: An electrochemical sensor based on a three-electrode method containing a reference electrode, comprising: A working electrode 2, a counter electrode 3 and a reference electrode 4 formed on an insulating substrate 1; an examining electrode 8 provided to examine an electric potential of the reference electrode 4; a combining layer 20, an immobilized enzyme layer 21 and a diffusion-limiting layer 22 made of a fluororesin provided on voltmeter is provided on these electrodes, between the examining electrode 8 and the reference electrode 4 so that the electric potential of the reference electrode can be examined; to detect an abnormality in the reference electrode immediately after its occurrence, recover a high reliability of measured value by removing the abnormality quickly, make it possible to conduct a continuous measurement for a long time and furthermore try to reduce a running cost.

Abstract: This invention relates to a strip for analyzing a sample. The strip includes two insulating layers, a spacer layer, and a conducting circuit. The spacer layer is disposed between the two insulating layers, and configured to define, together with the two insulating layers, an adsorption port, a sample chamber, a capillary for delivering a sample from the adsorption port to the sample chamber through the capillary, and a vent for facilitating delivery of the sample into the sample chamber. The conducting circuit, also disposed between the two insulating layers, includes a working electrode, a counter electrode, conducting wires, and connectors. A test agent, reactive to an analyte in a sample, is in association with the electrodes.

Abstract: Chemical sensors for detecting the activity of a molecule or analyte of interest is provided. The chemical sensors comprise and array or plurality of sensors that are capable of interacting with a molecule of interest, wherein the interaction provides a response fingerprint. The fingerprint can be associated with a library of similar molecules of interest to determine the molecule's activity and diffusion coefficient.

Abstract: This invention relates to a novel class of vapor sensors with tunable properties. More particularly, this invention relates to vapor sensors modified by the addition of a compatible small molecule of low volatility, i.e., a plasticizer. In certain aspects, the invention relates to a sensor for detecting an analyte in a fluid comprising: an organic polymer; a plasticizer combined with the organic polymer; and detector operatively associated with the organic polymer.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a sensor array and related testing apparatus for rapidly detecting the presence and/or concentration of constituents in samples, particularly biological molecules in fluid samples, including associated testing methods. The invention can be adapted such that a plurality of the sensors each detect a different constituent so that the invention can rapidly detect multiple constituents in a single sample. The sensors may be arranged in an array and connected by a plurality of micro channels that are fed from a main channel into which the sample is introduced. Positive pressure can be applied to the main and micro channels by a micro-pump. Alternately, it can be adapted to detect one or more constituents in a plurality of separate samples. A plurality of sensors are provided, each comprising electrochemical cells comprising an anode, a cathode and a reference electrode separated from each other by one or more filters within which an electrolyte is suspended.

Abstract: The present invention relates to electrochemical cells including a first working electrode 32, a first counter electrode 34, a second working electrode 36, and a second counter electrode 38, wherein the electrodes are spaced such that reaction products from the first counter electrode 34 arrive at the first working electrode 32, and reaction products from the first and second counter electrodes 34, 38 do not reach the second working electrode 36. Also provided is a method of using such electrochemical cells for determining the concentration of a reduced or oxidized form of a redox species with greater accuracy than can be obtained using an electrochemical cell having a single working and counter electrode.

Abstract: The inventive biosensor has three electrodes, the first electrode having a retaining area for retaining probe molecules which bind with the macromolecular biopolymers. The second electrode and the third electrode are configured in such a way that the redox process is part of a redox recycling system on said second and third electrodes.

Abstract: Electrokinetic devices having a computer for correcting for electrokinetic effects are provided. Methods of correcting for electrokinetic effects by establishing the velocity of reactants and products in a reaction in electrokinetic microfluidic devices are also provided. These microfluidic devices can have substrates with channels, depressions, and/or wells for moving, mixing and monitoring precise amounts of analyte fluids.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to devices and methods for carrying out and/or monitoring biological reactions in response to electrical stimuli. A programmable multiplexed active biologic array includes an array of electrodes coupled to sample-and-hold circuits. The programmable multiplexed active biologic array includes a digital interface that allows external control of the array using an external processor. The circuit may monitor, digitally control, and deliver electrical stimuli to the electrodes individually or in selected groups.

Abstract: An electrochemical gas sensor, which has a substantially more compact design and is manufactured with a considerably reduced manufacturing effort. A conical, calotte-shaped, hemispherical or cylindrical outer housing is provided with gas admission openings (3, 203). A cover (8, 208) as well as a layer structure is provided with, from the outside to the inside, the diffusion membrane (4, 204) with the electrodes (5, 6, 7; 205, 206, 207) applied thereto in a planiform manner, a layer (11, 211) consisting of a mat material or a porous body, which accommodates the electrolyte, and an electrolyte space (10, 210), which is filled at least partially with the electrolyte.

Abstract: A biologic electrode array assembly is formed on an integrated circuit chip that includes an array of electrodes. At least one metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) switch is coupled to at least one of the electrodes within the array. A voltage line is provided that is selectively connected to the at least one electrode via the MOS switch. A voltage source is coupled to the voltage line. In one preferred aspect of the invention, the MOS switch is a CMOS switch. In another aspect of the invention, an addressable memory is associated with the at least one electrode located within the array.

Abstract: A miniaturized gas sensor including film type electrodes, and a solid ionomer electrolyte, for the detection of toxic gases, i.e., carbon monoxide, and other oxidizable or reducible gases and vapors is described. The all-solid planar sensor cell has two or more film type electrodes arranged on a non-conductive planar surface of a supportive material. The electrodes are discrete and in intimate contact with the same solid polymer ionomer membrane. The sensor cell contains no liquid electrolyte and is operated in a potentiostatic or potentiodynamic mode. The unique feature of the sensor cell is that high sensitivity to a select gas or vapor is achieved by a novel three-phase contact area design for a sensing electrode which is easily accessible to the gas sample via small diffusion openings or holes that penetrate through the solid polymer ionomer membrane layer above the sensing electrode.

Abstract: The present invention relates to devices comprising electrosensors containing capture reagents, their preparation thereof, and their use for detecting, preferably, quantitative measurement, of analyte in a liquid sample. In particular, the invention relates to an enzyme electrosensor, e.g., electroimmunosensor, device for electrochemical detection and preferably, real-time measurement, which is suitable for use at point-of-care settings by unskilled personnel.

Abstract: A compact, long-lived oxygen sensor having an aqueous electrolyte and three gas diffusion electrodes, a working electrode, a reference electrode and a counter electrode. A porous, hydrophobic means is employed in conjunction with the counter electrode to allow air pressure in the sensor to be balanced with atmospheric pressure. The working and reference electrodes are further protected from contact with flow of electrolyte from the reservoir by a separator, so that the current output is fairly independent of sensor movement.

Abstract: Disclosed is a microchip-based differential-type potentiometric oxygen gas sensor, which comprises a working electrode and a reference electrode. The working electrode is composed of a cobalt-plated electrode, a buffered hydrogel, and an ion sensitive gas permeable membrane while the reference electrode is composed of an oxygen non-sensitive silver chloride electrode and the same ion-selective gas-permeable membrane of working electrode. By taking advantage of the corrosion potential, the microchip-based oxygen gas sensor can accurately and quickly detect the content of dissolved oxygen in a sample solution. With this structure, the oxygen gas sensor is applied to a microchip-based all potentiometric multi-sensor capable of detecting two or more ions and gas species on a single chip.

Abstract: Disclosed is an electrochemical sensor comprising a work electrode and a reference electrode, said sensor adapted to measure the characteristics of a liquid under test, based on the relative electric potential difference and electric current between the work electrode and the reference electrode both immersed in the liquid under test, said work electrode comprising a substrate that reacts to the liquid under test for generating an electric potential according to the concentration of the liquid under test, and said reference electrode comprising a substrate that reacts to the liquid under test for generating a fixed electric potential. According to the present invention, at least one of the work electrode and the reference electrode comprises said substrate coated with a function film for serving to generate the electric potential through the intervention of the film between said substrate and the liquid under test.

Abstract: A sensor (1) for measuring O2 concentrations in liquids (2) has a working electrode (3), with a counterelectrode (4) and with a reference electrode (5), wherein the working electrode (3) and the counterelectrode (4) are in contact with the liquid (2). The reference electrode (5) is separated from the liquid (2) by a diaphragm (6). The reference electrode (5) measures a polarization voltage effectively acting at the working electrode (3) and is connected to a potentiostat regulating the potential between the working electrode (3) and the counterelectrode (4). The reference electrode (5), the working electrode (3) and the counterelectrode (4) are arranged coaxially to one another, wherein the working electrode (3) and the counterelectrode (4) are arranged around the reference electrode (5).

Abstract: The present invention relates to microfabrication and utilization of microscale electrophoresis devices as well as the separation and detection of biomolecules in microscale electrophoresis devices. The device of the present invention utilizes novel fabrication and detection methods.

Abstract: An electrochemical sensor (A, A′) is specific for the detection of peroxyacetic acid in a solution which also contains hydrogen peroxide. A potential is applied between a reference electrode (120, 120′) and a working electrode (118, 118′). A read voltage (FIG. 7) is selectively pulsed across a counter electrode (122, 122′) and the working electrode. The current flowing between the working electrode and the counter electrode is dependent on the peroxyacetic acid concentration in the solution (FIG. 6). By careful selection of the read voltage, the contribution of hydrogen peroxide to the current flow is virtually negligible. The sensor effectively measures peroxyacetic acid concentrations in the range generally employed in sterilization and disinfection baths (100-3000 ppm.).

Abstract: A method for measuring a target constituent of an electroplating solution using an electroanalytical technique is set forth in which the electroplating solution includes one or more constituents whose by-products skew an initial electrical response to an energy input of the electroanalytical technique. The method comprises a first step in which an electroanalytical measurement cycle of the target constituent is initiated by providing an energy input to a pair of electrodes disposed in the electroplating solution. The energy input to the pair of electrodes is provided for at least a predetermined time period corresponding to a time period in which the electroanalytical measurement cycle reaches a steady-state condition. In a subsequent step, an electroanalytical measurement of the energy output of the electroanalytical technique is taken after the electroanalytical measurement cycle has reached the steady-state condition.