Abstract: Disclosed herein are systems and devices for detecting molecules. In some embodiments, a system for detecting molecules comprises an amplifier and a nanopore unit, wherein the nanopore unit comprises a nanopore, a sense electrode, a counter electrode, and a shield situated between the sense electrode and the counter electrode and coupled to an output of the amplifier. The shield may be recessed from a hole in the nanopore. A system or device may include an array of nanopore units that may share some components, such as a read amplifier, a digitizer, drive circuitry, control logic, and/or a multiplexer.

Abstract: An analysis method using a microchip which is provided with a capillary flow path, and a sample reservoir connected to the capillary flow path, in which the capillary flow path is filled with a first liquid for electrophoresis, and a second liquid containing a sample is stored in the sample reservoir, and including a pressurization process in which the first liquid is pressurized into the capillary flow path from a side of the capillary flow path that is opposite from the side connected to the sample reservoir, and a separation process in which a voltage is applied between the sample reservoir storing the second liquid and the capillary flow path filled with the first liquid, such that components in the sample contained in the second liquid move in the capillary flow path and the components are separated in the capillary flow path.

Abstract: Devices for detecting a molecule of interest comprising an electrokinetic focusing apparatus and a nanopore apparatus are provided. Kits and systems comprising the apparatus are also provided; as are methods of detecting molecules of interest comprising running the molecules through the electrokinetic focusing apparatus and then detecting the focused molecules as they pass through the nanopore.

Abstract: The disclosure generally relates to compositions and methods for the production of nucleic acid molecules. In some aspects, the invention allows for the microscale generation of nucleic acid molecules, optionally followed by assembly of these nucleic acid molecules into larger molecules. In some aspects, the invention allows for efficient production of nucleic acid molecules (e.g., large nucleic acid molecules such as genomes).

Abstract: A nanopore cell is disclosed. The nanopore cell includes an electrolyte well having a bottom base, a surrounding sidewall, and a hydrophobic surface above the surrounding sidewall. The nanopore cell further includes a first layer of electrode material disposed on the bottom base of the electrolyte well. The nanopore cell further includes a second layer of electrode material disposed on the surrounding sidewall of the electrolyte well and electrically connected to the first layer of electrode material. The first layer of electrode material and the second layer of electrode material are configured to jointly provide capacitive coupling when an electrolyte is placed in the electrolyte well.

Abstract: In one aspect, the inventive concepts disclosed herein are directed to a sensor assembly which contains a first planar substrate and a second planar substrate which respectively support opposing sensor arrays and contains an integrated flow path extending between the first and second substrates. Sensor assembly contains a first planar substrate having a base layer, and a conductive layer formed on a first planar surface of the base layer. Base layer may be made from, for example, ceramic, polymer, foil, or any other type of material known to someone of ordinary skill in the art. Conductive layer contains at least at least two electrically isolated electrical contacts made, for example, using a thick film approach (e.g., screen printing, rotogravure, pad printing, stenciling conductive material such as carbon, Cu, Pt, Pd, Au, and/or Nanotubes, etc.) or a thin firm approach (e.g., by sputtering, thermal spraying, and/or cold spraying conductive material).

Abstract: In a display method or device according to one embodiment of the present invention, at least two of a photonic crystal reflection mode, a unique color reflection mode and a transmittance tuning mode may be implemented to be switched to each other within the same unit pixel. In addition, a machine readable storage medium recording a computer program performing the display method is provided.

Abstract: The disclosed embodiments concern microfluidic cartridges for detecting biological reactions. In some embodiments, the microfluidic cartridges are configured to perform sequencing operations on a nucleic acid sample. In one aspect, a microfluidic cartridge includes a stack of fluidics layers defining channels and valves for processing the nucleic acid sample to be sequenced, and a solid state CMOS biosensor integrated in the stack. The biosensor has an active area configured to detect signals of biological reactions, wherein substantially all of the active area is available for reagent delivery and illumination during operation. In another aspect, a microfluidic cartridge includes: (a) a flow cell including a reaction site area encompassing one or more reaction sites; (b) fluidics channels for delivering reactants to and/or removing reactants from the reaction site area; (c) a biosensor having an active area configured to detect signals of biological reactions in the reaction site area.

Abstract: An apparatus and method to obtain electrophoretic mobility information from a dilute colloidal dispersion using electrophoretic light scattering (ELS) is disclosed. Both laser Doppler electrophoresis and phase analysis light scattering data analysis methods may be applied to a scattered light signal simultaneously. Unlike previous ELS apparatuses and methods, the disclosed apparatus and method can measure electrophoretic mobility distributions in high ionic strength media. It can detect the presence of electrochemical phenomena such as electrode polarization and electrolysis, and apply corrections to the measured electrophoretic mobility values thus providing electrophoretic mobility information about samples with greater accuracy, precision, and reliability than prior ELS implementations. Improvements to the optical configuration of the apparatus are also disclosed that increase the robustness of the apparatus.

Abstract: A nanopore measurement circuit includes a first analog memory configured to store a first electrical value corresponding to a first measurement sample of a nanopore and a second analog memory configured to store a second electrical value corresponding to a second measurement sample of the nanopore. The nanopore measurement circuit also includes a measurement circuitry configured to provide an output indicating a difference between the first electrical value of the first analog memory and the second electrical value of the second analog memory.

Abstract: In one general aspect, an electrophoretic measurement method is disclosed that includes providing a vessel that holds a dispersant, providing a first electrode immersed in the dispersant, and providing a second electrode immersed in the dispersant. A sample is placed at a location within the dispersant between the first and second electrodes with the sample being separated from the electrodes, an alternating electric field is applied across the electrodes, and the sample is illuminated with temporally coherent light. A frequency shift is detected in light from the step of illuminating that has interacted with the sample during the step of applying an alternating electric field, and a property of the sample is derived based on results of the step of detecting.

Abstract: The disclosure generally relates to compositions and methods for the production of nucleic acid molecules. In some aspects, the invention allows for the microscale generation of nucleic acid molecules, optionally followed by assembly of these nucleic acid molecules into larger molecules. In some aspects, the invention allows for efficient production of nucleic acid molecules (e.g., large nucleic acid molecules such as genomes).

Abstract: The present invention provides devices and methods for identification and/or quantitation of particles through detection of fluorescence labeled particles in an apparatus for differential charged particle mobility analysis and fluorescence detection.

Abstract: When measuring electrophoretic mobility it is customary to apply an electric field and determine the electrophoretic velocity while minimizing all other contributions to the particle movement. A method and apparatus for the measurement of mobility while the sample is flowing is disclosed. Combined with a fractionation system, this approach further enables the direct measurement of individual species' mobility within a multi-modal sample. Other advantages of this new mobility measurement approach include the ability to easily pressurize the sample to suppress electrolysis, mitigation of oxidation-reduction effects and efficient heat dissipation.

Abstract: A rectilinear beam distributor capable of maintaining visibility of visible light emitted from a guide laser is provided. In a beam distributor, a beam direction changing unit has a dichroic property that the beam direction changing unit reflects an incident beam and transmits a visible light. A guide laser is disposed so as to move with movement of the beam direction changing unit in an optical axis direction of the incident beam when oscillating the visible light so that the visible light passes through the beam direction changing unit and the optical axis thereof is identical to a reflection beam.

Abstract: A sheet-fed printing press includes a printing cylinder and a high-precision sensor system for monitoring a sheet run in the area of the printing cylinder. At least one gage, which is mounted on the printing cylinder, can be detected by the sensor system. It is particularly advantageous if the sensor system is configured to be self-calibrating. A method for calibrating a sensor system and a method for aligning a sensor system are also provided.

Abstract: A particle analysis apparatus includes: an acquisition unit that acquires a plurality of images each captured at a different time in each of which a particle moving in a predetermined direction in a medium is imaged; and a determination unit that determines, based on a movement amount of a particle due to Brownian motion in the medium, whether or not an image of a first particle included in an image captured at a first time of the plurality of images acquired by the acquisition unit and an image of a second particle included in an image captured at a second time which is different from the first time of the plurality of images acquired by the acquisition unit are images indicating the same particle.

Abstract: The present invention provides a system including: a protein having a domain that binds a membranal component; an inlet for sample flow, an Isotachophoresis (ITP) system and a flow generating means connected or coupled to the aqueous parts of the ITP. The invention also provides a method for detecting and or sorting cells with this system.

Abstract: A technique relates to an integrated nanofluidic device. A loading layer includes an inlet channel reservoir, a diverted fraction reservoir, and a passed fraction reservoir. A sorting layer is attached to the loading layer such that fluid is permitted to communicate between the loading and sorting layers, where the sorting layer includes a bank of sorting elements. The sorting layer has inlet channels and outlet channels connected to the sorting elements, and the inlet channel reservoir is connected to the inlet channels by an inlet feed hole. The diverted fraction reservoir is connected to the outlet channels by a diverted fraction outlet feed hole, and the passed fraction reservoir is connected to the sorting elements by passed fraction feed holes. The passed fraction feed holes are respectively connected to the sorting elements.

Abstract: Methods, systems and devices that generate differential axial transport in a fluidic device having at least one fluidic sample separation flow channel and at least one ESI emitter in communication with the at least one sample separation flow channel. In response to the generated differential axial transport, the at least one target analyte contained in a sample reservoir in communication with the sample separation channel is selectively transported to the at least one ESI emitter while inhibiting transport of contaminant materials contained in the sample reservoir toward the at least one ESI emitter thereby preferentially directing analyte molecules out of the at least one ESI emitter. The methods, systems and devices are particularly suitable for use with a mass spectrometer.

Abstract: The invention provides methods for enriching a milk extract for angiogenin, such methods involving separation by size, charge or immunoaffinity. The invention also provides the angiogenin enriched extract produced by the methods and provides them in pharmaceutical and neutraceutical compositions and foods for treating a variety of diseases or disorders that can be treated by angiogenin.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an apparatus for the isolation of extracellular vesicles from human fluid, and more particularly, to an apparatus comprising a channel formed on a microchip and a porous polymer monolith filter connected to the channel. The apparatus can be used to the diagnosis of disease including cancer from vesicular nucleic acid in a non-invasive manner. Capable of isolating and purifying a large quantity of vesicles from a small amount of a body fluid sample within a short time, the apparatus is expected to be advantageously and widely applied in the medical research and clinical diagnosis of disease including cancer.

Abstract: An electrophoretic mobility measurement cell includes a container having a rectangular parallelepiped internal space for introducing a sample solution, two electrodes for applying an electric field to the internal space, tubular sample injection and extraction portions in communication with the internal space, first and second caps for covering the sample injection and extraction portions and sealing the internal space, the first cap has a first side surface contacting an inner side surface of the tubular sample injection portion, the inner side surface formed so that the cross-sectional area of the tube increases with distance from the internal space, and the area of the cross section of the first side surface decreases in the direction of insertion of the first cap. The cell and electrode portions are formed integrally, the electrode portions are made disposable together with the cell, and bubbles are unlikely to remain during injection of the sample solution.

Abstract: Improved electrophoretic analysis is provided by interaction of anionic and cationic isotachophoresis (ITP) shock waves that propagate toward each other, and analysis of the resulting interaction zones. These shock wave interactions can provide qualitatively different capabilities from conventional ITP methods. Shock wave interaction can enable a single assay to identify analyte and quantify its concentration via isotachophoretic focusing followed by separation of the concentrated analytes via electrophoresis, without any mid-assay alteration of the externally imposed experimental conditions (i.e., no switching, valve operation, etc. during the measurement). As another example, shock wave interaction can enable a single assay to provide coupled ITP processes with different electrolyte concentrations (as in cascade-ITP) in a single simple system (again, without any mid-assay alteration of the externally imposed experimental conditions).

Abstract: Embodiments of analysis systems, electrophoresis devices, and associated methods of analysis are described herein. In one embodiment, a method of analyzing a sample containing an electrolyte includes sequentially introducing a leading electrolyte, a sample electrolyte, and a trailing electrolyte into a extraction channel carried by a substrate. The extraction channel has a constriction in cross-sectional area. The method also includes applying an electrical field to separate components of the sample electrolyte into stacks and to concentrate the separated components by forcing the sample electrolyte to migrate through the constriction in the extraction channel. Thereafter, the applied electrical field is removed and the separated and concentrated components of the sample are detected in a detection channel carried by the substrate.

Abstract: The invention relates to mutant forms of lysenin. The invention also relates to analyte characterisation using lysenin.

Abstract: The present invention provides a system including: a peptide nucleic acid (PNA) molecule; a DNA molecule, an RNA molecule, or a combination thereof; and an Isotachophoresis (ITP) system. Furthermore, the invention provides a method for sequence-specifically separating and/or identifying a nucleic acid molecule of interest by utilizing the system of the invention to separate and possibly label and/or detect a nucleic acid molecule of interest.

Abstract: Isotachophoresis (ITP) is exploited to control various aspects of chemical reactions. In a first aspect, at least one of the reactants of a chemical reaction is confined to an ITP zone, but the resulting product of the chemical reaction is separated from this ITP zone by the ITP process. In a second aspect, one or more reactants of a chemical reaction are confined to an ITP zone, and one or more other reactants of the chemical reaction are not confined to this ITP zone. In a third aspect, ITP is employed to confine at least one reactant of a chemical reaction to an ITP zone, and at least one reactant of the chemical reaction is delivered to the ITP zone in two or more discrete doses. These aspects are especially relevant to performing polymerase chain reactions using chemical denaturants as opposed to thermal cycling.

Abstract: A device for displacing a small volume of liquid under the effect of an electric control, including a first substrate with a hydrophobic surface provided with a first electrical conductor, a second electrical conductor positioned facing the first conductor, and a third conductor, forming with the second conductor, a mechanism for analyzing or heating a volume of liquid.

Abstract: Isotachophoresis (ITP) is exploited to control various aspects of chemical reactions. In a first aspect, at least one of the reactants of a chemical reaction is confined to an ITP zone, but the resulting product of the chemical reaction is separated from this ITP zone by the ITP process. In a second aspect, one or more reactants of a chemical reaction are confined to an ITP zone, and one or more other reactants of the chemical reaction are not confined to this ITP zone. In a third aspect, ITP is employed to confine at least one reactant of a chemical reaction to an ITP zone, and at least one reactant of the chemical reaction is delivered to the ITP zone in two or more discrete doses. These aspects are especially relevant to performing polymerase chain reactions using chemical denaturants as opposed to thermal cycling.

Abstract: Methods are provided for forming a complex comprising an analyte (or an analyte analog) from a blood-derived sample and labeling substances, and separating the complex from excess labeling substances and coexisting substances from the blood-derived sample, in a rapid, simple, convenient, and highly precise isotachophoresis (ITP) process by adding 2-(N-morpholino)ethane sulfonate (MES) salt and/or glutamate salt to the ITP sample. Methods are also provided for measuring the analyte in blood-derived samples with high precision and high sensitivity, based on the amount of the complex separated or the amount of uncomplexed labeling substance-containing molecules.

Abstract: Among other things, for use in directional motion of chiral objects in a mixture, a field is applied across the chamber and is rotating relative to the chamber to cause rotation of the chiral objects. The rotation of the objects causes them to move directionally based on their chirality. The method applies to sugars, proteins, and peptides, among other things, and can be used in a wide variety of applications.

Abstract: The present invention provides methods, devices, and kits for separating and selecting top sperm from a sperm sample of a subject. In one aspect, for example, such a method can include removing a portion of negatively charged protein from sperm in the sperm sample, immobilizing the sperm, electrophoretically separating the sperm, and selecting mature sperm based on electromotility properties.

Abstract: An apparatus for measuring information indicative of electromobility in a sample includes a light source for generating coherent light, a modulator that modulates the optical path length, particularly a reciprocatable modulator arranged for modulating a first part of the generated light, a sample cell for accommodating the measured sample for applying an electric field to the sample and for receiving a second part of the generated light for interaction with the sample in the electric field, a modulator monitor for monitoring the modulator by detecting interference between a first part of the light coming from the modulator and an unmodulated third part of the generated light, and a light detector arranged separately from the modulator monitor for detecting interference between a second part of light coming from the modulator and light received from the sample cell. The detected signal includes the information indicative of electromobility in the sample.

Abstract: A novel method for visualizing electrokinetic process zones (e.g., for isotachophoresis (ITP)) is provided. We introduce negligibly small concentrations of a fluorophore that is not focused by isotachophoresis. This non-focusing tracer (NFT) migrates through multiple isotachophoresis zones. As it enters each zone, the NFT concentration adapts to the local electric field in each zone. ITP zones can then be visualized with a point detector or camera. The method can be used to detect, identify, and quantify unknown analyte zones, and can visualize complex and even transient electrophoresis processes. This visualization technique is particularly suited to microfluidic and lab-on-a-chip applications, as typical fluorescence microscopes and CCD cameras can provide high-resolution spatiotemporal data.

Abstract: A molecule trapping method includes forming a fluid bridge between a first reservoir and a second reservoir, translocating a molecule from the first reservoir to the second reservoir through the fluid bridge, detecting when a segment of the molecule is in the fluid bridge, breaking the fluid bridge and forming an a gap between the first and the second reservoirs, thereby trapping a segment of the molecule in the gap and making measurements on the segment of the molecule.

Abstract: Methods are provided for forming a complex comprising an analyte (or an analyte analogue) from a blood-derived sample and labeling substances, and separating the complex from excess labeling substances and coexisting substances from the blood-derived sample, in a rapid, simple, convenient, and highly precise isotachophoresis (ITP) process by adding 2-(N-morpholino)ethane sulfonate (MES) salt and/or glutamate salt to the ITP sample. Methods are also provided for measuring the analyte in blood-derived samples with high precision and high sensitivity, based on the amount of the complex separated or the amount of uncomplexed labeling substance-containing molecules.

Abstract: An electrophoretic mobility measurement cell includes a container having a rectangular parallelepiped internal space for introducing a sample solution, two electrodes for applying an electric field to the internal space, tubular sample injection and extraction portions in communication with the internal space, first and second caps for covering the sample injection and extraction portions and sealing the internal space, the first cap has a first side surface contacting an inner side surface of the tubular sample injection portion, the inner side surface formed so that the cross-sectional area of the tube increases with distance from the internal space, and the area of the cross section of the first side surface decreases in the direction of insertion of the first cap. The cell and electrode portions are formed integrally, the electrode portions are made disposable together with the cell, and bubbles are unlikely to remain during injection of the sample solution.

Abstract: Techniques for enhanced isotachophoresis assays using additives with spatial gradients include forming a concentration gradient of an additive along a channel from an input port to an output port. The channel is used for isotachophoresis with ions of a leading electrolyte having a first mobility greater than a mobility of an analyte, and ions of a trailing electrolyte having a second mobility less than the mobility of the analyte. The additive is different from both the leading electrolyte and the trailing electrolyte; and the additive has a third mobility that assures the analyte will encounter the additive. The method further comprises introducing a mixture of the trailing electrolyte and a sample including the analyte. The method further comprises applying an electric field to the channel; and, measuring the analyte.

Abstract: The present invention is an apparatus and method for detecting the motion characteristics of particles in a flow channel. The apparatus includes first and second electrode groups, each having a pair of electrodes, which are arranged to be spaced apart from each other in a flow channel. The pair of electrodes function as both a drive electrode and a sensing electrode for directly applying voltage and measuring impedance between the electrodes. An operation control unit measures variation in electrical pulses generated in the first and second electrode groups, thus detecting motion characteristics of the particles. The present invention is advantageous in that it does not require complicated optical measuring instruments or analyzing instruments, and in that it can be used to easily detect the motion characteristics of particles in a flow channel merely by analyzing variation in electrical pulses without requiring preliminary information.

Abstract: An isotachophoresis method for preconcentrating and isolating a plurality n of charged analytes (Ai, with i=1 to n) contained in a sample is disclosed, wherein each one of the analytes Ai has an effective electrophoretic mobility ?Ai obeying the fully ordered relationship ?A1>?A2>etc.>?An, comprising the step of preparing a mixture of said sample and a number n?1 of spacer compounds (Sk, with k=1 to n?1) wherein each one of said spacer compounds (Sk) has an effective electrophoretic mobility ?Sk obeying the fully ordered relationship ?Ak>?Sk>?Ak+1. An axial electric field is applied along the longitudinal axis of a separation channel, thereby causing a preconcentration and separation of the analytes and spacers forming respective focused spacer zones and focused analyte zones that flow along the longitudinal axis.

Abstract: Methods are provided for forming a complex comprising an analyte (or an analyte analogue) from a blood-derived sample and labeling substances, and separating the complex from excess labeling substances and coexisting substances from the blood-derived sample, in a rapid, simple, convenient, and highly precise isotachophoresis (ITP) process by adding 2-(N-morpholino)ethane sulfonate (MES) salt and/or glutamate salt to the ITP sample. Methods are also provided for measuring the analyte in blood-derived samples with high precision and high sensitivity, based on the amount of the complex separated or the amount of uncomplexed labeling substance-containing molecules.

Abstract: Indirect detection and/or identification of analytes by ITP can be enhanced by adding a mixture of labeled carrier ampholytes (CAs) to the sample to provide a continuous range of mobility markers. Each analyte can be detected and quantified by corresponding gaps in the CA signal. This approach does not require a priori choice of fluorophores and can be readily applied (without extensive and specific design) to a wide range of analytes. Analyte identification can be expedited by computing a normalized signal integral (NSI) from the CA signals. Empirical calibrations can relate the NSI to effective mobility. Effective mobility results under two or more different pH conditions can be used to determine analyte pKa and fully ionized mobility, which are analyte properties that can facilitate analyte identification.

Abstract: Methods and devices for sequencing nucleic acids are disclosed herein. Devices are also provided herein for measuring DNA with nano-pores sized to allow DNA to pass through the nano-pore. The capacitance can be measured for the DNA molecule passing through the nano-pore. The capacitance measurements can be correlated to determine the sequence of base pairs passing through the nano-pore to sequence the DNA.

Abstract: Isotachophoresis (ITP) can be employed to simultaneously focus the target and ligand of an assay into the same ITP focus zone. The target and ligand can bind to each other in the ITP focus zone, and then the resulting bound complex can be detected (e.g., by fluorescence). The sensitivity of this approach can be greatly increased by the enhanced concentration of both target and ligand that ITP provides in the focus zone. Since ITP can be performed quickly, the resulting assay is both rapid and sensitive. Markers of bacterial urinary tract infections have been experimentally detected at clinically relevant concentrations with this approach. MicroRNA sequences have also been profiled with this approach, which is clinically relevant because MicroRNA is expected to provide useful markers for disease. In one experiment, miR-122 in human kidney and liver was detected and quantified.

Abstract: The invention provides apparatus for separation of particles and methods for using the apparatus. In an embodiment, the apparatus includes three arms extending radially from a central reservoir, each arm being associated with a separation electrode. At least one on the arms includes a separation medium. Using a sequence of driving and mobility-changing voltages, target particles can be separated from closely related particles within a sample. For example, single point mutations can be resolved from a sample containing predominantly wild type nucleic acids.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to droplet actuator systems, devices, and methods. In one embodiment, a microfluidic article of manufacture is provided. The microfluidic article of manufacture includes a first substrate; a second substrate separated from the first substrate to form a droplet operations gap; gap height setting spacers associated with the first and/or second substrate or situated between the first and second substrates; a spring forcing the second substrate against the gap height setting spacers, thereby establishing a substantially uniform gap height between the first and second substrates; and electrodes associated with the first and/or second substrate and configured to conduct droplet operations in the droplet operations gap.

Abstract: Isotachophoresis (ITP) is exploited to control various aspects of chemical reactions. In a first aspect, at least one of the reactants of a chemical reaction is confined to an ITP zone, but the resulting product of the chemical reaction is separated from this ITP zone by the ITP process. In a second aspect, one or more reactants of a chemical reaction are confined to an ITP zone, and one or more other reactants of the chemical reaction are not confined to this ITP zone. In a third aspect, ITP is employed to confine at least one reactant of a chemical reaction to an ITP zone, and at least one reactant of the chemical reaction is delivered to the ITP zone in two or more discrete doses. These aspects are especially relevant to performing polymerase chain reactions using chemical denaturants as opposed to thermal cycling.

Abstract: A method of modifying the concentration of reactants and carrying out a chemical reaction on a microfluidic device in which first and second reactants are delivered into a reaction channel combined, the second reactant different from the first reactant and capable of reacting with the first reactant. The first reactant is subjected to a stacking process, thereby producing a first stacked reactant. The second reactant is subjected to the stacking process, thereby producing a second stacked reactant. The first stacked reactant is exposed to the second stacked reactant so that the first stacked reactant and the second stacked reactant undergo a chemical reaction.

Abstract: A device for producing at least one of fluid flows and particles flows includes a substrate having a substrate surface. The substrate surface includes a matrix including a plurality of regions having at least one of a different magnitude of a surface charge, a different sign of the surface charge, and a different height above the substrate. A fluid including at least partially electrically charged particles is disposed at the substrate surface. A first control element is configured to supply a plurality of electrical voltages to a plurality of electrode pairs. The electric field exerts a first force on a component of the fluid within an electrical double layer. The component is disposed adjacent to the substrate surface. The electric field exerts a second force within the double layer and outside the double layer, the second force is exerted on the at least partially electrically charged particles.