Abstract: A pulmonary ventilation system comprising a method to determine at least one pulmonary ventilation parameter as a function of a plurality of measured anatomical distances and volume-motion coefficients, sensors for acquiring the anatomical distances, a device for determining the plurality of motion coefficients, and a device for determining the ventilation parameter based on the acquired anatomical distances and determined plurality of volume-motion coefficients. In one embodiment, the system further includes a method for acquiring base-line ventilation characteristics and a method for correlating the base-line ventilation characteristics to the ventilation parameter determined with the empirical relationship.

Abstract: A metal plate (14) is buried in a gasket (12) of a case (10) for accommodating an electric device such as an inverter. The metal plate (14) is connected to a control board (400) in the case (10), and the voltage of the metal plate (14) is determined. A reference voltage is applied to the metal plate (14), and the case (10) is grounded. When the metal plate (14) is brought into contact with the case (10) or disconnected due to a crash, the voltage of the metal plate (14) is thereby changed, and the control board (400) detects a crash, based on the change in the voltage.

Abstract: Cyclic motion of a ferromagnetic part in an environment made noisy by at least one electric source with an A.C. component is measured using at least one first magnetometer sensitive to the moving part and a sensor of an image of current in the electric source. An estimate is calculated of noise linked to the electric source on a signal measured by the first magnetometer and then subtracted from the measured signal.

Abstract: A displacement detecting apparatus of an electromagnetic actuator, including: an electromagnetic actuator including: a movable core; a drive coil which causes a displacement of the movable core; and a detection coil disposed at a position where a mutual coupling coefficient with the drive coil changes with the displacement, the actuator transmitting a drive force of the movable core to a mechanical system; a drive portion for supplying a drive current to the drive coil on the basis of a pulse width modulation signal; and a displacement detecting portion to which an output voltage of the detection coil is inputted, for outputting a displacement detection signal, wherein the displacement detecting portion includes: a sampling-signal generating portion for generating a sampling signal in synchronism with the pulse width modulation signal; and a synchronous sampling portion for outputting the displacement detection signal by sampling the output voltage in synchronism with the sampling signal.

Abstract: An electromagnetic field sensor assembly for blade tip clearance measurement in a gas turbine engine is disclosed that includes a ceramic sensor body, a multi-layered wire coil wound about a distal end portion of the sensor body for producing an electromagnetic field, a ceramic well enclosing the sensor body and the coil, and a metallic housing surrounding the well and having an open distal end.

Abstract: Absolute counters for linear segments or revolutions having a Wiegand element (WE) in the main field between two opposite excitation magnets (EM1, EM2) connected by a common ferromagnetic back connection body (14), and an additional sensor element (SE) for determining the information about the polarity and the position of the excitation magnet, wherein the output signals of the Wiegand element (WE) simultaneously supplies energy for the required counter and logic electronics, as well as having an additional sensor (ZS) for the fine resolution in the frame work of a multi-turn which also lies within the main field between the excitation magnets (EM1, EM2).

Abstract: An angular position encoder for a rotating shaft is disclosed, in particular for application on the rotor shaft in wind turbines. A materialized measure in the form of a roller chain is arranged around the circumference of the shaft. A scanning head in the form of a sensor is arranged at a distance from the materialized measure and scans the surface of the materialized measure as the shaft is rotating. A measurement value evaluation unit processes recorded measurement values to give positional and/or speed data on the shaft. A method for determination and measurement of the rotor speed or position for a rotating shaft by means of the angular position encoder is also disclosed which includes determination and measurement of the rotor speed or position, creating or mapping at least one reference pattern or map of the chain, and a comparing the pattern and an actual measurement value.

Abstract: A sensor arrangement for determining the position and/or change in position of a measurement object relative to a sensor, wherein a magnet is assigned to the measurement object, is configured, with respect to the design of an operationally reliable sensor with low production costs, such that the sensor has a first conductor and a second conductor which is arranged alongside the first conductor and such that a magnetically soft film is arranged in the area of influence of the first and second conductors, the permeability of which film changes under the influence of a magnetic field and which film influences the electromagnetic coupling between the first and second conductors. A corresponding method is specified.

Abstract: A rotation angle sensor comprises: a resolver stator including an excitation coil for receiving an excitation signal and a detection coil (a sine wave coil and a cosine wave coil) for outputting a detection signal; and a resolver rotor rotatably placed to face the stator. The resolver stator is formed on a stator flat plate. The resolver rotor is made of a flat-shaped rotor flat plate. The stator flat plate and the rotor flat plate are placed in parallel to face each other. The rotor flat plate is formed with a cutout.

Abstract: Magnetic tracking systems and methods for determining the position and orientation of a remote object. A magnetic tracking system includes a stationary transmitter for establishing a reference coordinate system, and at least one receiver. The remote object is attached to, mounted on, or otherwise coupled to the receiver. The transmitter can include a set of three mutually perpendicular coils having a common center point, or a set of three coplanar coils with separate centers. The receiver can include a set of three orthogonal coils. The position and orientation of the receiver and the remote object coupled thereto is determined by measuring the nine mutual inductances between the three transmitter coils and the three receiver coils. The magnetic tracking system provides reduced power consumption, increased efficiency, digital compensation for component variation, automatic self-calibration, automatic synchronization with no connections between transmitter and receiver, and rapid low-cost implementation.

Abstract: A method for analyzing the DC superposition characteristics of an inductance device using an electromagnetic field simulator, comprising a first step of determining an initial magnetization curve from initial magnetization to saturation magnetization, and pluralities of minor loops at different operating points, on a toroidal core made of the same magnetic material as that of the inductance device, and obtaining point-list data showing the relation between magnetic flux density or magnetic field strength and incremental permeability from the incremental permeability at each operating point; a second step of determining an operating point at a predetermined direct current on each element obtained by mesh-dividing an analysis model of the inductance device by an electromagnetic field simulator based on the initial magnetization curve of the core, allocating the incremental permeability to the operating point from the point-list data, and integrating the inductance of each element obtained from the incremental p

Abstract: A resolver comprises a first coil layer and a second coil layer each formed on a flat plate and an insulating layer formed between the first coil layer and the second coil layer. A SIN signal excitation coil includes a SIN first coil formed in the first coil layer and a SIN second coil formed in the second coil layer. A COS signal excitation coil includes a COS first coil formed in the first coil layer and a COS second coil formed in the second coil layer.

Abstract: Systems and methods for monitoring motion parameters of an object are described in the present disclosure. In an embodiment, a sensor, coupled to a housing, senses motion associated with the housing and provides a sensor output based on the sensed motion. A processing device receives the sensor output, accumulates counts associated with the sensor output, and provides an output once a threshold associated with the accumulated counts is reached. A vibrotactile device, that receives the output from the processing device, provides a haptic output in response to the output from the processing device.

Abstract: Systems and methods for shielding a metal detector head include placement of conductive shielding around the coils of the head to reduce the effects of capacitance variation between the coils and their surroundings.

Abstract: A position sensing head combines a sensing element and a simplified electronic module to enable operation with one wire, in addition to a circuit common, for providing power and transmitting a signal, while separating the sensing head from signal conditioning circuits by over 10 meters. The simplicity of the electronic module allows the use of basic electronic components that operate at more than 225° C. The signal is a variable frequency impressed onto the one wire, which can be read by a frequency meter. Another signal, such as a position or temperature, can be impressed onto the one wire at the same time as the first signal. The second signal is of a different frequency range so that it will not interfere with the first. A demodulator circuit can separate the two signals. The sensing element construction allows for locating up to three active elements measuring the same target.

Abstract: A target or rotor blade clearance measurement device is disclosed for indicating an interaction of a measurement probe with a target or rotor blade. In a preferred embodiment, the measurement device comprises a measurement probe containing a coil, a frequency source arranged to apply an input alternating signal to the measurement probe, and a frequency regulator arranged to regulate the input alternating signal at a frequency below the resonance frequency of the measurement probe. A detector is arranged to detect an output signal from the measurement probe at a frequency of the frequency source which varies in amplitude with an admittance and resonance frequency of the measurement probe. A circuit is arranged to scale the amplitude of the output signal detected by the detector according to the amplitude of the input signal provided by the frequency source.

Abstract: A motion sensor includes an amplitude difference processor coupled to receive a first signal representative of a first one of a plurality of AGC control signals and a second signal representative of a second one of the plurality of AGC control signals. The amplitude difference processor is configured to detect if a value of the first signal is representative of a different gain than a value of the second signal by a predetermined amount. In response to the detection, the AGC processor is configured to change the value of the first one of the plurality of AGC control signals to bring its value closer to the value of the second one of the AGC control signals. A method and computer-readable storage medium can use the motion sensor.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a scanner system for scanning the surface of an object, especially a vehicle wheel, the system comprises a mobile scanner including at least one sensor adapted to sense at least one position on the surface of the object and a reference system to which the sensor is sensitively adapted to provide at least one sensor signal corresponding the at least one sensed position on the surface with respect to the reference system, wherein the reference system is designed to provide a magnetic field having at least one orientation and the sensor is a magnetic sensor to be positioned within said magnetic field in proximity of or on the surface to be scanned.

Abstract: An apparatus for detecting a magnetically conductive object in a detection area has an electrical coil and at least one sensor element. The apparatus is intended to be as free of degradation processes as possible and thus requires little maintenance and is configured and set up with the highest possible degree of redundancy and measurement reliability. For this purpose, the coil is set up to form a magnetic field in the detection area and the sensor element is configured to detect a magnetic field with a field strength, the magnitude of which is greater than a predefined threshold value. The threshold value is set to be higher than the field strength present in the detection area when the magnetically conductive object is absent and lower than the field strength present therein when the object is present.

Abstract: A sensor device for height measurement, air spring comprising a sensor device for height measuring and a corresponding method allowing determining the height also under rough conditions like noisy, dusty or vibrating environments.

Abstract: The N1(s) turns of a first output winding is divided by a split ratio ? into N1a(s) turns of a lower-layer first output winding and N1b(s) of an upper-layer first output winding. The lower-layer first output winding is continuously wound around all slots as the undermost layer. A second output winding is continuously wound around all slots over the lower-layer first output winding. An upper-layer first output winding is continuously wound around all slots over the second output winding. The split ratio ? is adjusted only in the slots where the detection accuracy decreases. This equalize the contribution of the first output windings and the second output winding to the flux linkage, thereby achieving high angle detection accuracy.

Abstract: An angle measuring system includes a first component group and a second component group, the first component group being mounted in a manner allowing rotation about an axis relative to the second component group. The first component group includes a ring having a running surface and an angle scaling. The second component group has a further ring having a further running surface, as well as a sensor for scanning the angle scaling. Rolling elements are arranged between the running surfaces, the angle scaling being applied such that a geometric pattern of the angle scaling in a first region differs from a geometric pattern of the angle scaling in a second region as a function of radial runouts of the running surfaces and/or of the rolling elements.

Abstract: A CPP MR sensor interposes a tapered soft magnetic flux guide (FG) layer between a hard magnetic biasing layer (HB) and the free layer of the sensor stack. The flux guide channels the flux of the hard magnetic biasing layer to effectively bias the free layer, while eliminating instability problems associated with magnetostatic coupling between the hard bias layers and the upper and lower shields surrounding the sensor when the reader-shield-spacing (RSS) is small.

Abstract: A sensing device includes: a magnetic field generating coil that generates an alternating magnetic field in a sensing-target region; a signal inducing coil in which is induced an electric signal corresponding to the alternating magnetic field generated by the magnetic field generating coil; an amplifier that amplifies a third electric signal obtained from the difference between a first electric signal induced in the signal inducing coil in a state where a sensing-target magnetic body is present in the sensing-target region and a second electric signal induced in the signal inducing coil in a state where the magnetic body is not present in the sensing-target region; and a sensing unit that senses, on the basis of the third electric signal amplified by the amplifier, the magnetic body passing through the sensing-target region by sensing a change in the magnetic field resulting from magnetization reversal of the magnetic body.

Abstract: Magnetic tracking systems and methods for determining the position and orientation of a remote object. A magnetic tracking system includes a stationary transmitter for establishing a reference coordinate system, and at least one receiver. The remote object is attached to, mounted on, or otherwise coupled to the receiver. The transmitter can include a set of three mutually perpendicular coils having a common center point, or a set of three coplanar coils with separate centers. The receiver can include a set of three orthogonal coils. The position and orientation of the receiver and the remote object coupled thereto is determined by measuring the nine mutual inductances between the three transmitter coils and the three receiver coils. The magnetic tracking system provides reduced power consumption, increased efficiency, digital compensation for component variation, automatic self-calibration, automatic synchronization with no connections between transmitter and receiver, and rapid low-cost implementation.

Abstract: An induction detecting type rotary encoder includes: a stator; a rotor configured to be rotated with respect to a rotary shaft; a first transmitting coil; a second transmitting coil; a first receiving coil; a second receiving coil; a first magnetic flux coupling body; and a second magnetic flux coupling body. The first transmitting coil is disposed between the first and second receiving coils. A distance between the second transmitting coil and the rotary shaft is larger than that of the second receiving coil and the rotary shaft. The first magnetic flux coupling body forms a first track for causing a periodic change for each rotation. The second magnetic flux coupling body forms a second track for causing a periodic change for each rotation. The second magnetic flux coupling body has a pattern of which an inner peripheral side is substantially continuous in a circumferential direction.

Abstract: A television includes at least two ports (e.g. HDMI ports). The television polls the ports before presenting a user interface that displays some or all of the ports and before toggling between any two of the ports. The polling ascertains whether a device is connected to each of the ports and whether the device is powered. The television modifies the display and/or toggling based on the current state of each port. For example, in toggling, ports that are not connected and ports that are connected to inactive devices are skipped. In another example, when displaying a list of ports, only those ports that are connected to devices appear in the list.

Abstract: Disclosed are a position sensor unit and a valve arrangement comprising such a position sensor unit, wherein a sensor housing of the position sensor unit is fixed in position with respect to a housing of an actuating magnet or a valve by an adjusting nut and a counter nut. The counter nut is mounted on the sensor housing and supported at the housing.

Abstract: An improved system for magnetic position tracking of a device includes a magnetic transmitter, a magnetic sensor, a computing system and a polarity inverter. The magnetic transmitter includes at least one transmitter coil that outputs a transmitted magnetic field having a time derivative component. The magnetic sensor includes at least one sensor coil that has coil terminals having a polarity, and the sensor coil is responsive to the time derivative component of the transmitted magnetic field and outputs a sensor signal. The computing system computes position and angular orientation data of a device based on the sensor signal and the polarity inverter is configured to connect to the coil terminals and to cause the polarity of the coil terminals to be reversed according to a switching signal.

Abstract: Systems and/or methods are provided for a dual-channel inductive proximity sensor. The sensor can include a sensing element which includes a core having a first cavity and a second cavity, a first coil accommodated within the first cavity of the core, and a second coil housed within the second cavity of the core. Each coil can be independently driven by oscillators to generate respective magnetic fields. The magnetic fields can be monitored to determine whether detection of a target object occurs.

Abstract: A non-contact sensor includes a substrate having a groove, two pattern coils arranged on opposite sides of the groove, a detected object connected to the shift lever and moved in cooperation with the shift lever along the groove, and a signal processing circuit that calculates a movement amount of the shift lever based on an output value provided from the pattern coils.

Abstract: A level sensor, particularly an electromagnetic pushing and knocking-type object detector, comprising: a magnetic swinging rod, an electromagnet that is disposed on one side of the magnetic swinging rod, and an electronic module that controls the electromagnet in driving the magnetic swinging rod to swing, and amplifies, processes, and time-delay outputs the swinging signals of the magnetic swinging rod, which swinging signals are collected by the electromagnet, said magnetic swinging rod is suspended with a suspension device on one side of a main housing, and the electromagnet, which is composed of an electromagnet iron core and an electromagnet coil, is disposed inside the main housing.

Abstract: The N1(s) turns of an output winding is divided by a split ratio ? into N1a(s) turns of an output winding (1a) and N1b(s) turns of an output winding (1b). The output winding (1a) is continuously wound around all slots as the undermost layer. Output winding 2, which is different in phase by 90 degrees from the output winding (1a), is continuously wound around all the slots over the output winding (1a). An output winding (1b) is continuously wound around all the slots over output winding 2. This equalizes the contribution of the output winding and output winding 2 to the flux linkage, thereby achieving high angle detection accuracy.

Abstract: A simple position determination is enabled by a device and a method to determine the position of a local coil in a magnetic resonance apparatus, wherein at least one signal emitted by at least one transmission coil is received by the local coil and is evaluated with a position determination device in order to determine the position of the local coil.

Abstract: A transducer has a magnetic field concentrating member a first coil to couple with a first portion of the magnetic field concentrating member positioned adjacent the first coil and a second coil to couple with a second portion of the magnetic field concentrating member positioned adjacent the second coil, the second portion being spaced along the magnetic field concentrating member from the first portion. The transducer comprises a resonator having a coil wound around a portion of said magnetic field concentrating member which is located between said first and second portions. The transducer is arranged so that the electromagnetic coupling between the resonator and at least one of the first and second coils varies as a function of the relative position between the elongate field concentrating member and that coil. In this way, separate processing electronics can process the signals obtained from the transducer to determine the desired position information.

Abstract: A position measuring system detects an extreme position of a guide rod which extends along a path that is rectilinear relative to a guide system and can be moved along the rectilinear path, wherein the system operates reliably, and requires a minimum of electrical lines. The position measuring system is equipped with a plurality of sensor elements and a magnetic element, wherein the magnetic element is configured to form a magnetic field. The magnetic element is connected to the guide rod. Each sensor element is configured to detect a magnetic field within a detection region, a field strength of the magnetic field being greater at the location of the sensor element than a predefined threshold value. At least one sensor element is connected to the guide system and is arranged in an environment of the path. A corresponding measuring method uses the position measuring system to detect the extreme positions.

Abstract: An electromagnetic field sensor assembly for blade tip clearance measurement in a gas turbine engine is disclosed that includes a ceramic sensor body, a multi-layered wire coil wound about a distal end portion of the sensor body for producing an electromagnetic field, a ceramic well enclosing the sensor body and the coil, and a metallic housing surrounding the well and having an open distal end.

Abstract: A control system for use in safety critical human/machine control interfaces is described, more particularly a joystick type control system and particularly a joystick type control system utilizing magnetic positional sensing. The control system provides a control input device having a movable magnet, a pole-piece frame arrangement positioned about the magnet, at least three magnetic flux sensors being positioned in said pole-piece frame arrangement and a monitoring arrangement for monitoring the output signal of each of said at least three sensors.

Abstract: An absolute position recording device of a motor includes a main spindle, a magnetic ring, a magnetic induction unit, an encoder, a counter, and an operation unit. The magnetic ring and the encoder are fixed on and rotated by the main spindle. The magnetic induction unit outputs square waves and the encoder outputs sine or cosine waves. The counter receives the square waves and calculates a number of rotations of the magnetic ring. The operation unit receives the sine or cosine waves and calculates an angular deflection relative to a standard position of the magnetic ring. The operation unit adds the angular deflection and the number of rotations and calculates an absolute angular position.

Abstract: A rotary position sensor having a transmitter coil energized by a high frequency current source. A first receiver coil includes an even number N of loops wherein adjacent loops of the first receiver coil are oppositely wound. A second receiver coil also includes N loops where adjacent loops are oppositely wound. Furthermore, the second receiver coil is angularly offset from the first receiver coil by 180/N degrees. A noncircular coupler constructed of an electrically conductive material is rotatably mounted relative to the coils so that the coupler element overlies at least a portion of the first and second receiver coils. A circuit processes the output signals from the first and second receiver coils and generates an output signal representative of the rotational position of the coupler.

Abstract: A displacement sensor module 1 for mounting on a telescopic-type damper 30, a damper/detector assembly including such a displacement sensor module and a telescopic-type damper, and a household appliance including such a damper/detector assembly is provided. The displacement sensor module 1 includes at least one coil element 4, an electronic detection unit 8 connected to the at least one coil element 4 and adapted to detect an impedance change of the at least one coil element, and a coil housing 2 for receiving and additionally or alternatively a coil support 6 for supporting the at least one coil element 4 and for supporting the electronic detection unit 8. The displacement sensor module 1 is adapted to be mounted on a telescopic-type damper 30, wherein in particular the housing 2 or support 6 is adapted to fit over a portion of a pre-assembled damper 30.

Abstract: Methods, apparatus, and systems are provided for detecting the presence of a substrate in a load cup. The invention includes a proximity sensor having a detection pad disposed below a contact surface of a load cup assembly and a target disposed on a lever member and adapted to move toward the detection pad when a substrate is placed on the lever member and adapted to move away from the detection pad when a substrate is removed from the lever member. Numerous additional aspects are disclosed.

Abstract: A magnetic detection apparatus includes a first comparison circuit that waveform-shapes the amplitude of a detection signal from magneto-electric transducers by DC coupling, a third comparison circuit that waveform-shapes the detection signal by AC coupling, an oscillation circuit having a natural frequency, a control circuit that counts the output of the first comparison circuit by using the oscillation means, and a selection circuit that selects the output of the first comparison means and the output of the second comparison means. The control circuit counts rising from the next rising or falling from the next falling of an output rectangular wave of the first comparison circuit, and provides output to the selection circuit at the time point at which the count value reaches a desired value. The selection circuit selects and outputs the output rectangular wave of the first comparison circuit or the third comparison circuit.

Abstract: A sensor includes a magnetic piece with a magnetic array, a conductive coil and ferromagnetic object. The magnetic array provides a spatially modulated magnetic field that is concentrated in the near-field. A processor calculates the ferromagnetic object's speed based on voltage induced in the conductive coil. The ferromagnetic object's movement through the magnetic field causes a change in the magnetic flux, and the rate of change is proportional to the induced voltage.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to systems and methods for monitoring characteristics of a subject. A system according to an exemplary embodiment of the invention includes a sensor subsystem including at least one respiratory sensor disposed proximate to the subject and configured to detect a respiratory characteristic of the subject, wherein the sensor subsystem is configured to generate and transmit at least one respiratory signal representing the respiratory characteristic, and at least one physiological sensor disposed proximate to the subject and configured to detect a physiological characteristic of the subject, wherein the sensor subsystem is configured to generate and transmit at least one physiological signal representing the physiological characteristic, and a processor subsystem in communication with the sensor subsystem, the processor subsystem being configured to receive at least one of the at least one respiratory signal and the at least one physiological signal.

Abstract: A method for determining the position and/or change of position of a measured object relative to a sensor, where the sensor preferably has a sensor coil to which an alternating current is applied, is characterized in that a magnet associated with the measured object, in a soft magnetic foil, whose permeability changes under the influence of a magnetic field on the basis of the magnetic field's field strength and which is arranged in the area of influence of the sensor, brings about a change in the permeability of the foil and in that the change in the permeability of the foil is determined from the latter's reaction to the sensor, and this is used to determine the position and/or change of position of the measured object relative to the sensor. A sensor arrangement is designed accordingly.

Abstract: A method for detecting magnetic fields, particularly for detecting the position of objects with a preferably oblong, soft-magnetic element, which is connected to electronics, with via the electronics the impedance of the soft-magnetic material is measured, characterized in that a magnetic field is used in which by the position of an object which is located in an arrangement with the soft-magnetic material the magnetic field develops at the location of the soft-magnetic material, with the magnetic permeability ? of the soft-magnetic material adjusting, depending on the magnetic field and thus the position of the object. A respective device serves for applying the method according to the invention.

Abstract: Disclosed is a magnetic inductive type position sensor, the position sensor including at least one rotor body coupled to a rotation shaft to rotate in association with rotation of the rotation shaft and having a plurality of protrusively and circumferentially formed wing members, a PCB arranged in opposition to the rotor body, and a guide member connecting each distal end of the wing members to guide each of the wing members to be aligned on the same planar surface.

Abstract: An inductive position sensor includes an electronic circuit, which is configured such that initially three digital signals are able to be generated from the signals detected by three receiver printed conductors. At least two position values are ascertainable by combining the three digital signals, and the position values are able to be supplied to a comparator. A measuring system includes, in addition to the position sensor, a data interface and sequential electronics which include the comparator.

Abstract: Magnetic tracking systems and methods for determining the position and orientation of a remote object. A magnetic tracking system includes a stationary transmitter for establishing a reference coordinate system, and at least one receiver. The remote object is attached to, mounted on, or otherwise coupled to the receiver. The transmitter can include a set of three mutually perpendicular coils having a common center point, or a set of three coplanar coils with separate centers. The receiver can include a set of three orthogonal coils. The position and orientation of the receiver and the remote object coupled thereto is determined by measuring the nine mutual inductances between the three transmitter coils and the three receiver coils. The magnetic tracking system provides reduced power consumption, increased efficiency, digital compensation for component variation, automatic self-calibration, automatic synchronization with no connections between transmitter and receiver, and rapid low-cost implementation.