Abstract: A melt of a Cu-based alloy containing 2 to 6% (% by weight, the same shall apply hereinafter) of Ag and 0.5 to 0.9% of Cr are solidified by casting, and the solidified article after subjecting to a homogenizing heat treatment is subjected to hot-working. The hot-worked article is subjected to a solution treatment, the article is subjected to cold-working or warm-working by forging or rolling, and then the formed article is subjected to an aging treatment to obtain a metallic material capable of manufacturing a high strength and high thermal conductive metal formed article at a low price, regardless of the geometry, and a method of manufacturing the metal formed article using the same.

Abstract: The material for a metal strip for manufacturing electrical contact component parts has, expressed in percent by weight, the following composition: 1 nickel (Ni) 0.5-3.5% silicon (Si) 0.08-1.0%  tin (Sn) 0.1-1.0% zinc (Zn) 0.1-1.0% zirconium (Zr) 0.005-0.2%  silver (Ag) 0.02-0.

Abstract: A high strength titanium copper alloy consists of Ti at 2.0% by mass or more to 3.5% by mass or less; the balance of copper and inevitable impurities; an average grain size of 20 &mgr;m or less; and a 0.2% proof stress expressed by “b” of 800 N/mm2 or more. The alloy further comprises a bending radius ratio (bending radius/sheet thickness) not causing cracking as expressed by “a” by a W-bending test in a transverse direction to a rolling direction, wherein “a” and “b” satisfy a≦0.

Abstract: A copper alloy foil to be used in a printed board comprising a polyimide substrate is provided. The copper foil is not subjected to roughening plating and has hence fine surface roughness and can be directly bonded with the polyimide substrate. The copper alloy contains (a) one or more of the additive elements of from 0.01 to 2.0% of Cr and from 0.01 to 1.0% of Zr, or (b) from 1.0 to 4.8% of Ni and from 0.2 to 1.4% of Si. The surface roughness in terms of the ten-point average surface-roughness (Rz) is 2 &mgr;m or less, the 180° peeling strength is 8.0 N/cm or more. The alloy (a) has 600 N/mm2 or more of tensile strength, and 50% ICAS or more of electric conductivity. The alloy (b) has 650 N/mm2 or more of tensile strength, and 50% ICAS or more of electric conductivity.

Abstract: A joint body according to the invention is strong for a heat cycle and generates no local cracks. The joint body has the following features. An end portion of the metal member and the ceramic member are connected via a metal connection portion. The metal connection portion has a metallized layer formed on the ceramic member and a brazing connection portion interposing at least between the metallized layer and an end portion of the metal member. A melt point of a brazing member constructing the brazing connection portion is lower than that of a brazing member constructing the metallized layer.

Abstract: Spinodal decomposition of Cu alloy, which contains from 0.5 to less than 5.0% of Ti, is suppressed and a low hardness dispersion of Hv 40 or less is obtained over a sheet surface. In addition, an isotropy in terms of tensile strength in the vertical direction over the sheet surface is improved such that it is 50N/mm2 or less. In the hot-rolling of the alloy, it is cooled at a cooling speed of not less than 200K (200° C.)/second at least in a temperature range of between 773K (500° C.) and 573K (300° C.).

Abstract: A copper alloy that consists essentially of, by weight, from 0.15% to 0.7% of chromium, from 0.005% to 0.3% of silver, from 0.01% to 0.15% of titanium, from 0.01% to 0.10% of silicon, up to 0.2% of iron, up to 0.5% of tin, and the balance copper and inevitable impurities has high strength, a yield strength in excess of 80 ksi, and high electrical conductivity, in excess of 80% IACS. The alloy further has substantially isotropic bend characteristics when the processing route includes a solution heat anneal above 850° C. and subsequent cold rolling into sheet, strip or foil interspersed by bell annealing. As a result, the alloy is particularly suited for forming into box-type electrical connectors for both automotive or multimedia applications. The alloy is also suitable for forming into a rod, wire or section.

Abstract: In the present invention, forming is carried out by employing casting to rapidly solidify molten material comprising a copper base alloy containing 3 to 20% Ag (mass % hereinafter), 0.5 to 1.5% Cr and 0.05 to 0.5% Zr. Next, an aging treatment for precipitation is carried out at 450 to 500° C., and the formed article is obtained by precipitation strengthening. In addition, in the aforementioned copper base alloy, molten material comprising a copper base alloy containing Ag in the amount of 3 to 8.5% is solidified by casting, and the solidified article or the hot worked article thereof is subjected to an aging treatment for precipitation and a thermomechanical treatment using forging or rolling, and the casting is obtained by forming the material into a specific shape and carrying out precipitation strengthening.

Abstract: A rolled copper foil for flexible printed circuits contains not more than 10 ppm by weight of oxygen and has a softening-temperature rise index T defined as T=0.60[Bi]+0.55[Pb]+0.60[Sb]+0.64 [Se]+1.36[S]+0.32[As]+0.09[Fe]+0.02[Ni]+0.76[Te]+0.48[Sn]+0.16[Ag]+1.24[P] (each symbol in the brackets representing the concentration in ppm by weight of the element) in the range of 4 to 34. The concentrations of the elements are in the ranges of[Bi]<5, [Pb]<10, [Sb]<5, [Se]<5, [S]<15, [As]<5, [Fe]<20, [Ni]<20, [Te]<5, [Sn]<20, [Ag]<50, and [P]<15 (each symbol in the brackets representing the concentration in ppm by weight of the element).

Abstract: A bond for a single layer metal bond abrasive tool can be easily chemically and electrochemically stripped from the metal core of a recovered used tool to facilitate reuse of the core. Relative to conventionally bonded tools, the speed of stripping the novel bond is quick, and the stripped core has a smooth, clean surface which needs only minimal mechanical repair prior to reuse. In one aspect, the novel bond is a quaternary bond composition consisting essentially of copper, tin, titanium and silver. The powder components can be used dry or mixed with a fugitive liquid binder as a paste. The novel bond can be brazed at lower temperature than copper/tin/titanium bonds prepared otherwise. The bond composition forms a good melt at braze temperature that flows smoothly, evenly over a tool preform and provides consistent quality bonding of abrasive from tool to tool.

Abstract: Copper alloy foils are provided having far greater strength and heat resistance than conventional copper foils, and having better productivity, are characterized by a composition comprising, all by weight, from 0.01 to 0.4% Cr, from 0.01 to 0.25% Zr, from 0.02 to 2.0% Zn; and when necessary from 0.05 to 1.8% Fe and from 0.05 to 0.8% Ti; and when further necessary one or more elements selected from the group consisting of Ni, Sn, In, Mn, P, Mg, Al, B, As, Cd, Co, Te, Ag, and Hf in a total amount of from 0.005 to 1.5%; the balance being copper and unavoidable impurities. Inclusions in the copper foil not larger than 10 .mu.m in size, and the inclusions between 0.5 and 10 .mu.m in size number less than 100 pieces/mm.sup.2.

Abstract: A slider suspension system for use in a magnetic recording disk file comprised of a laminated suspension positioned between an actuator arm and a read/write slider. The laminated suspension is comprised of a conductor layer, a dielectric layer and a support layer. The conductor layer is comprised of a high strength conductive copper alloy selected from the group consisting of Cu--Ni--Si--Mg alloy, Be--Cu--Ni alloy, and Cu--Ti alloy, wherein the conductive layer has a thickness less than or equal to eighteen microns. The dielectric layer is comprised of an electrically insulating material such as a polyimide. The support layer is comprised of a rigid material such as stainless steel.

Abstract: The brazing filler of the present invention is excellent in wetting properties towards the open end of a ceramic cylinder and a metal sealing cap can be sealed well on the open end. The present brazing filler comprises Ag, Cu and active metal, in which the Cu-active metal compound is contained in an amount of not more than 40% by volume.

Abstract: A metal powder composition for metallization is for use in forming a metallized film from a paste comprising Cu and Ti powder and consists essentially of about 95 to 99.5% Cu and 0.5 to less than 5% Ti by weight. The above-mentioned paste is then applied onto a substrate and then fired to provide a metallized substrate.

Abstract: A wire for electric railways comprises a copper alloy which consists essentially, by weight percent, of 0.1 to 1.0% Cr, 0.01 to 0.3% Zr, 0.05 to 0.15% Sn, and 10 ppm or less O, and if required, further contains 0.01 to 0.1% Si, or 0.01 to 0.1% Si and 0.001 to 0.05% Mg, with the balance being Cu and inevitable impurities.

Abstract: This invention relates to a catalytic fuel composition capable of reducing pollutants in the combustion gasses generated upon combustion of the same. A catalytic material is combined with a liquid, petroleum-based fuel, mixed and solid particles are separated out to give the catalytic fuel product. The catalytic material predominantly comprises a plagioclase feldspar belonging mainly to the albite-anorthite series, and contains small amount of mica, kaolinite and serpentine, and optionally contains magnetite. An alloy material is also disclosed, comprising a mixture of the above-described catalytic material and a metal. The alloy material exhibits unique properties relative to the metal component alone, such as increased tensile strength, improved heat resistance, improved acid resistance, improved corrosion resistance, as well as exhibiting unusual conductive properties.

Abstract: There are disclosed processing methods to improve the properties of copper base alloys containing chromium and zirconium. One method of processing results in a copper alloy having high strength and high electrical conductivity. A second method of processing results in a copper alloy with even higher strength and a minimal reduction in electrical conductivity. While a third method of processing results in a copper alloy having improved bend formability.

Abstract: A copper-based alloy, viz. a dezincification-resistant brass, excels in various properties such as resistance to dezincification, hot forgeability and machinability and, therefore, tolerates use particularly in the atmosphere of a corrosive aqueous solution. The brass of one species has a composition of 59.0 to 62.0 wt % of Cu, 0.5 to 4.5 wt % of Pb, 0.05 to 0.25 wt % of P, 0.5 to 2.0 wt % of Sn, 0.05 to 0.30 wt % of Ni, with or without 0.02 to 0.15 wt % of Ti, and the balance of Zn and unavoidable impurities. The brass of another species has a composition of 61.0 to 63.0 wt % of Cu, 2.0 to 4.5 wt % of Pb, 0.05 to 0.25 wt % of P, 0.05 to 0.30 wt % of Ni, with or without 0.02 to 0.15 wt % of Ti, and the balance of Zn and unavoidable impurities.

Abstract: Spray cast copper-manganese-zirconium alloys are disclosed. In one embodiment, the alloy is spray cast in nitrogen and contains from about 1 ppm to about 20 ppm of dissolved nitrogen. In a second embodiment, the alloy contains an addition selected from the group consisting of chromium, titanium, erbium and mixtures thereof. The alloys are useful for sound damping as the combination of zirconium and the addition inhibits degradation of the specific damping capacity of the alloy.

Abstract: There is disclosed a copper base alloy which contains specified additions of chromium, zirconium, cobalt and/or iron, and titanium as well as methods for the processing of the copper alloy. One method of processing results in a copper alloy having high strength and high electrical conductivity. A second method of processing results in a copper alloy with even higher strength and a minimal reduction in electrical conductivity.

Abstract: A copper based alloy and method for the manufacture thereof having improved properties. The copper alloy contains iron and zirconium with the iron being present as a uniformly dispersed second phase of the dispersoids. The dispersoids have a mean particle size of from about 0.1 micron to about 1.0 micron. The iron is present in the amount of from about 0.25 to about 5.0% by weight.

Abstract: There is disclosed a copper base alloy which contains specified additions of chromium, zirconium, cobalt and/or iron, and titanium as well as methods for the processing of the copper alloy. One method of processing results in a copper alloy having high strength and high electrical conductivity. A second method of processing results in a copper alloy with even higher strength and a minimal reduction in electrical conductivity.

Abstract: A chemisorptive metal alloy includes from about 30% to about 70% by weight of Ti and/or Zr and from about 30% to about 70% by weight of Cu. Optionally, the alloy may also contain from 0% to about 5% by weight of Fe; from 0% to about 10% by weight of Ni; from 0% to about 5% of V; and from 0% to about 5% of Cr.A method of purifying a reactive gas and removing foreign impurities therefrom includes conducting the impurities containing reactive gas, such as chlorine, hydrogen chloride, silane and dichlorosilane, through a bed of the above described pulverized metal alloy and removing the impurities from the gas by chemisorption on the alloy.

Abstract: Method for producing tarnish-resistant and oxidation-resistant sheets, billets, rods, tubes, profiles or wires for tarnish-resistant and oxidation-resistant structural components which tolerate thermal and mechanical stresses, of copper or silver as matrix material exhibiting a high conductivity and a high softening temperature. The method includes preparing a copper or silver melt by adding, to the copper or silver, stoichiometric amounts of boron and zirconium whereby the stoichiometric amounts comprise additions of 0.3 to 0.6 weight percent of zirconium and 0.1 to 0.2 weight percent of boron, resulting in a fine dispersion melt of less than 1 volume percent of ZrB.sub.2 in the copper or silver. Subsequently, the fine dispersion melt is processed into semifinished products using continuous casting units or continuous rolling units.

Abstract: A method of casting a copper based composite which includes a second phase ceramic particles. A copper or copper based alloy containing a eutectic reactive element is spray cast with the ceramic particles being injected into the spray cast stream of material prior to its being deposited onto the moving substrate. The eutectic reactive element diffuses into the ceramic particles and provides a good bond between the copper based matrix and the second phase ceramic particles. The ceramic particles may be selected from the group consisting of oxides, borides, nitrides, carbides and mixtures thereof. The eutectic reactive materials may include zirconium, chromium, titanium, aluminum and magnesium.

Abstract: A ternary brazing alloy for carbon or graphite consisting essentially of 0.5-10 wt % titanium, 10 to 50 wt % tin, balance copper.

Abstract: There is provided a high-conductivity copper alloy with excellent workability and heat resistance, characterized by the alloy consists essentially of, by weight, at least one element selected from the group consisting of______________________________________ 10-100 ppm In (indium), 10-1000 ppm Ag (silver), 10-300 ppm Cd (cadmium), 10-50 ppm Sn (tin), 10-50 ppm Sb (antimony), 3-30 ppm Pb (lead), 3-30 ppm Bi (bismuth), 3-30 ppm Zr (zirconium), 3-50 ppm Ti (titanium) and 3-30 ppm Hf (hafnium), ______________________________________and the balance copper. S (sulfur) and O (oxygen) as unavoidable impurities are controlled to amounts of less than 3 ppm S, and less than 5 ppm O, respectively. Other unavoidable impurities are controlled to less than 3 ppm in total amount. The alloy is very suitable for applications such as forming magnet wires and other very thin wires, lead wires for electronic components, lead members for tape automated bonding (TAB) and the like, and members for printed-circuit boards.

Abstract: A method for the manufacture of copper base alloys having improved resistance to thermally induced softening is provided. The alloy composition is selected so that the alloy undergoes either a peritectic or eutectic transformation during cooling. The solidification rate is controlled so that the second phase forms as a uniform dispersion of a relatively small dispersoid. The dispersoid inhibits recrystallization resulting in an alloy less susceptible to softening at elevated temperatures.

Abstract: A process for producing a Cu-Fe-Co-Ti alloy useful as conductor elements in the electronics and connector industries. The alloy is produced in the form of a bath having a Ti/Fe+Co ratio between 0.3 and 1 and a Co/Fe ratio between 0.10 and 0.90. The molten alloy bath is deoxidized with boron, cast, homogenized, cold drawn, and subjected to a precipitation heat treatment at a temperature lower, by at most 80.degree. C., than a temperature TM leading to the maximum electric conductivity.

Abstract: A high strength Cu-Ni-Sn alloy, comprising 3-25% Ni, 3-9% Sn, 0.05-1.5% Mn, balance Cu, is heated to a temperature of 800.degree. C. or above in a single-phase region. This heat treatment is followed by quenching and subsequent heating at a temperature range of 600.degree.-770.degree. C. in a two-phase region, followed by quenching and a finishing process with a ratio of 0-60%. Thereafter, the processed alloy is subjected to a final heat-treatment at a temperature of 350.degree.-500.degree. C.

Abstract: A brazing alloy useful for brazing ceramics having the following composition, in weight percent: 0.3 to 5% titanium; 2 to 15% nickel; 0.25 to 4% silicon; balance copper.

Abstract: A novel electrical contact spring material made of a copper base alloy is disclosed. This spring material has high strength and toughness, as well as good adhesion of solder. It also has reduced anisotropy in its characteristics in two directions, i.e., the working direction and the direction perpendicular to it. A very thin-walled member can be produced from this spring material since its anisotropy in characteristics is small and will not increase even if the amount of working is increased.The copper base alloy of which this spring material is made consists essentially of 2.2-5% Ti, 0.1-0.8% Co, 0.02-0.5% Cr, 0-0.6% of Ni and/or Fe, 0-0.5% of at least one of Ca, Mg, Zn, Cd, Li, Zr, Si, Mn, Sn and Al, and the balance being Cu and incidental impurities.

Abstract: A highly corrosion-resistant amorphous Cu alloys with at least one element selected from the group of Ta and Nb and other Cu-Ta alloys with at least one element selected from the group of Nb, Ti and Zr, wherein the total content of alloying elements other than Cu ranges from 15 to 85 at %.

Abstract: A semiconductor device having leads of high strength and elongation and which consist essentially of a copper alloy that contains 0.05-1% of Cr, 0.005-0.3% of Zr, 0.001-0.05% of Li, 0-1% of Ni, 0-1% of Sn, 0-1% of Ti, 0-0.1% of Si and 0.001-0.3% of at least one element selected from the group consisting of P, Mg, Al, Zn and Mn, with the balance being Cu and no more than 0.1% of incidental impurities, the percent being on a weight basis. The invention also provides a semiconductor device having leads of high strength and elongation and which consist essentially of a copper alloy that contains either 0.05-1% of Cr or 0.005-0.3% of Zr or both, 0.001-0.05% of Li, 0-1% of Ni, 0-1% of Sn, 0-1% of Ti, 0-0.

Abstract: A new copper-based alloy is described, the principle characteristic of which lies in having two different age-hardening temperature intervals corresponding to which significantly different electrical and mechanical characteristics are obtained from an alloy of the same composition; the alloy is composed, in parts by weight, of from 0.05 to 1% Mg, from 0.03 to 0.9% P and from 0.002 to 0.04% Ca, the remainder being Cu with possible very small additions of other alloying elements such as Sn, Zr, Mn and Li.

Abstract: The invention relates to a copper-chromium-titanium-silicon-alloy, which consists essentially of 0.10 to 0.50% chromiun; 0.01 to 0.25% titanium; silicon; the remainder being copper and the usual impurities, wherein the silicon content (a) is more than 0.1-times of the titanium content, (b) when the titanium content is up to 0.099% the silicon content is limited by the equation:Silicon content (%)=0.05%+0.5 titanium content (%),and (c) when the titanium content is more than 0.099%, the silicon content is limited by the equation:silicon (%)=0.149%-0.5% titanium content (%).Because of its excellent properties, the alloy is used as a material for electronic components, in particular semiconductor carriers for transistors, integrated circuits or the like, for plug connectors and parts for electrical systems for cars.

Abstract: The invention provides a grain refinement method for copper-based metals, which method can be applied to a range of different types of such metals. In accordance with the method, one arranges that a melt of the metal to be grain refined contains each of the following components:(a) titanium and/or zirconium;(b) at least one of: lithium, sodium, potassium, beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium and barium;(c) at least one of: scandium, yttrium, titanium, zirconium, hafnium, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, manganese, technetium, rhenium, iron, ruthenium, osmium, cobalt, rhodium, iridium, nickel, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, zinc, cadmium, mercury and the rare earth elements; and(d) at least one of: aluminium, gallium, indium, silicon, germanium, tin, lead, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, sulphur, selenium and tellurium;and solidifies the melt to produce grain refinement of the copper-based metal. The invention also provides grain refiners for practicing the method.

Abstract: Copper alloy lead materials used in the fabrication of semiconductor devices such as ICs and LSIs are required to have a tensile strength of 40 kgf/mm.sup.2 or more, an elongation of 4% or more, an electrical conductivity of 50% IACS or more, and a softening point of 400.degree. C. or higher.The copper alloy lead material of the present invention exhibits even higher degrees of tensile strength and elongation and yet satisfy the values of electrical conductivity and softening point that are required for Cu alloy lead materials to be used with ordinary semiconductor devices. Therefore, the Cu alloy lead material of the present invention is applicable not only to ordinary semiconductor devices but also to those with higher packing densities while displaying equally superior performance.

Abstract: The invention relates to the use of a copper-titanium-cobalt-alloy which consists of 0.05-0.6% titanium; 0.05-0.6% cobalt; remainder copper, whereby the cobalt is partially replaced by iron. Due to its excellent characteristics with respect to electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, softening resistance and homogeneity, the alloy is used as the material for electronic components, in particular lead frames for transistors, integrated circuits or the like, and parts for electronic components for automobiles.

Abstract: A copper-base alloy for leadframes consisting essentially of 0.8-4.0 weight % of Ni, 0.2-4.0 weight % of Ti and 0.05-0.6 weight % of Mg, the balance being essentially Cu and inevitable impurities, and a ratio of Ni to Ti being 1-4. This copper-base alloy has high mechanical strength of about 50 kgf/mm.sup.2 or more and electric conductivity of 30% IACS or more as well as good solderability and solder durability. Thus, it may be used as a highly reliable material for leadframes of semiconductor devices.

Abstract: The invention relates to a copper-chromium-titanium-silicon alloy which consists of 0.1 to 0.5% chromium, 0.05 to 0.5% titanium and 0.01 to 0.1% silicon, the remainder comprising copper and usual impurities. Because of its excellent properties as regards electrical and thermal conductivity, mechanical strength, resistance to softening, homogeneity and flexibility, the alloy is employed as a material for electronic components, in particular semiconductor carriers for transistors, integrated circuits or the like, and parts for electrical systems for cars.

Abstract: Reactive metal-precious metal ductile alloys containing controlled amounts of Cu and Ni and mixtures thereof are suitable for brazing ceramics, other non-metallic and metallic materials.

Abstract: A silver-copper-titanium brazing alloy foil was produced by a rapid solidification processing method(s). The composition ranged from 10 to 50 weight percent copper, 0.1 to 9.5 weight percent titanium and the balance silver. Since the method provides high cooling rates, at least 10000.degree. C. per second, unique alloy structures and properties were obtained. This resulting foil can be used in the as cast form, it can be rolled down to a thinner dimension having also a more uniform surface finish, or it can be punched into preforms.

Abstract: Described is a method of manufacture of bond implant so to create a porous surface. The bone implant is made of titanium or titanium alloy. The porous surfaces are attached to a titanium substrate by use of a joinder agent including copper, nickel and indium, which is heated to temperatures less than the beta transus.

Abstract: Titanium-silver alloys containing specified amounts of silver and titanium and controlled amounts of copper, aluminum and mixtures thereof are suitable for brazing ceramics, other non-metallic and metallic materials. These alloys also may contain controlled amounts of tin, palladium, indium and mixtures thereof.

Abstract: A spring material for electric and electronic parts having a high modulus of elasticity and good electrical conductivity. The material is made by melting Cu, Ni, Ti or mother alloy thereof and Cu--P as deoxidizer at a temperature between a melting point and 1,400.degree. C. to obtain a molten alloy consisting of 0.5.about.2.0% by weight of Ni, 0.1.about.1.0% by weight of Ti, less than 0.2% by weight of P and the remainder being Cu; casting the molten alloy into a metal mold to obtain an ingot; subjecting the ingot to hot (or warm) working, cold working and annealing; and finally rolling the annealed sheet above 50% and annealing it at low temperature with air cooling to obtain a formed product having a stable structure.

Abstract: A refractory hard metal-metal composite is formed by impregnating a porous refractory hard metal article with molten metal.

Abstract: A copper-base alloy for leadframes comprising 0.8-4.0 weight % of Ni, 0.2-4.0 weight % of Ti, and balance Cu and inevitable impurities, the ratio of Ni to Ti being 1-4. It may also comprise 0.1-2.0 weight % of Zn. It may further comprise 0.01-2.0 weight % of at least one of Fe and Co and 0.005-0.5 weight % of at least one element selected from the group consisting of Al, Si, Mn and Mg. The copper-base alloy has good electric conductivity and high mechanical strength. It further has good solderability and solder durability.

Abstract: A low-alloyed copper alloy suitable for use as a base material for a semiconductor includes 0.03 to 0.2% nickel by weight, 0.03 to 0.2% tin by weight; and 0.015 to 0.1% titanium by weight, the remainder being copper and common impurities.

Abstract: Reactive metal-precious metal ductile alloys containing controlled amounts of Cu and Ni and mixtures thereof are suitable for brazing ceramics, other non-metallic and metallic materials.