Abstract: Provided is a method of producing a porous molded body, the method including: the step of obtaining a molded body by molding a raw material that contains from 1 part by mass to 100 parts by mass of a bicarbonate compound (A) represented by AHCO3 (wherein, A represents Na or K) and from 0 parts by mass to 99 parts by mass of a compound (B) represented by BnX (wherein, B represents Na or K; X represents CO3, SO4, SiO3, F, Cl, or Br; and n represents an integer of 1 or 2 as determined by the valence of X) (provided that a total amount of (A) and (B) is 100 parts by mass); and the step of obtaining a porous molded body by performing a heat treatment of the molded body in a temperature range of from 100° C. to 500° C. and an atmosphere that contains water vapor in an amount of from 1.0 g/m3 to 750,000 g/m3 and thereby thermally decomposing not less than 90% by mass of the bicarbonate compound (A).

Abstract: Compositions and methods are provided that provide recovery of metals such as copper, nickel, cobalt, indium, and other metals are recovered from mine tailings, in situ ore bodies, or postconsumer waste. An amine-containing lixiviant is utilized to generate an aqueous solution of the desired metal from insoluble salts present in the source material. Metals can be recovered and further purified by various processes, including extraction into an immiscible organic solvent, electrowinning, crystallization, and chemical reduction. Spent lixiviant can be regenerated and recycled back into the metal recovery process.

Abstract: Protein-rich nutrient supplements and animal feed supplements derived from an anaerobic bacterial process are generated through a myriad of cell rupturing and protein fractionation/purification processes. Bacterial fermentation systems and methods of obtaining one or more protein-containing portions from a fermentation process using carbon monoxide-containing gaseous substrates increasing protein product yield from bacterial cells are provided. The invention further provides compositions of protein-rich nutrient supplements with useful applications for intake by a variety of different animals and humans.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a process for the preparation of an aqueous solution comprising at least one earth alkali hydrogen carbonate, a process for the mineralization and/or stabilization of water as well as the use of the aqueous solution comprising at least one earth alkali hydrogen carbonate obtained by the process for the mineralization and/or stabilization of water.

Abstract: Methods including precipitated and mined calcium carbonate lost circulation materials for use in subterranean formation operations. The precipitated calcium carbonate lost circulation materials are formed under a chosen set of precipitation conditions, including in situ in a subterranean formation. The mined calcium carbonate lost circulation materials are obtained in a desired morphological form under naturally occurring mined conditions. The precipitated and mined calcium carbonate lost circulation materials may be needle-shaped aragonite having an aspect ratio of about 1.4 to about 15.

Abstract: Process for manufacture of purified alkaline earth metal carbonate The invention concerns a process for the manufacture of a purified alkaline earth metal carbonate, the purified alkaline earth metal carbonate obtainable by said process, and its use in the manufacture of products and devices in the field of electronics and glass. The process comprises the steps of calcinating the alkaline earth metal carbonate with an aqueous phase comprising a salt. The alkaline earth metal carbonate might be barium carbonate or strontium carbonate.

Abstract: Organic-inorganic composite particles that can be dispersed in a solvent and/or a resin as primary particles having an organic group on the surface of inorganic particles, the organic-inorganic composite particles having negative birefringence.

Abstract: A method for sequestrating carbon dioxide in the ocean of the present invention coverts carbon dioxide into a high concentration of bicarbonate ions by using a neutralization method using calcium oxide commonly contained in alkaline industrial waste, prepares elution water for stably containing bicarbonate ions even when making contact with the atmosphere through aeration, and discharges the elution water into an area of the ocean of a relatively shallow depth to sequestrate carbon dioxide. According to the present invention, the present invention is a carbon dioxide storage method which uses alkaline industrial waste to carry out carbon dioxide ocean sequestration at relatively low cost, and can sequestrate carbon dioxide for a long time while minimizing bad environmental influences such as ocean acidification and the like, and is thus environmentally friendly.

Abstract: A method of mineralizing calcium from industrial waste comprising extracting calcium ions from a suspension of calcium rich granular particles and aqueous ammonium chloride to form a calcium-rich first fraction and a heavy second fraction. The heavy second fraction is separated from the first fraction and the calcium-rich first fraction is carbonated with a gas comprising carbon dioxide to form a suspension of precipitated calcium carbonate and aqueous ammonium chloride. The precipitate is separated from the aqueous ammonium chloride by centrifugal means and the separated heavy second fraction comprises an enriched weight percent of iron.

Abstract: A pressurized forward osmotic separation process is disclosed. Generally there are two processes described. One process involves the concentration of a target solute in the first solution; the other process involves the extraction of a solvent from a first solution both by a second solution comprising of water and soluble gas or water, soluble gas, and a compound by creating an osmotic concentration gradient across the semi permeable membrane. The first solution is under pressure from an inert gas and the second solution is under pressure from a soluble gas with equal system pressures greater than 1 atmosphere. The increase or decrease of partial pressure of the soluble gas in the second solution increases or decreases the chemical potential of the second solution to achieve different solution properties. The soluble gas may be carbon dioxide and the compound may be magnesium hydroxide.

Abstract: Processes, methods, system and uses in relation to chemical sequestration of carbon dioxide from a carbon dioxide containing gas by carbonation of an alkaline earth metal containing material. The carbon dioxide containing gas is contacted with an aqueous slurry in a carbonation unit for carbonation of at least a portion of the alkaline earth metal to produce a carbon dioxide depleted gas and a carbonate loaded slurry which is substantially exempt of precipitated alkaline earth. metal carbonates. The carbonate loaded slurry is then separated into an aqueous phase and a solid phase; and the aqueous phase is supplied to a precipitation unit for precipitating alkaline earth metal carbonates. The carbonation stage may be performed at a carbonation temperature between about 10° C. and about 40° C. and a carbonation pressure between about 1 bar and about 20 bars. The solid phase may be recycled to the carbonation stage.

Abstract: The present invention provides an apparatus and a method for conversion of cellulosic material, such as chopped straw and corn stover, and household waste, to ethanol and other products. The cellulosic material is subjected to continuous hydrothermal pre-treatment without addition of chemicals, and a liquid and a fiber fraction are produced. The fiber fraction is subjected to enzymatic liquefaction and saccharification. The method of the present invention comprises: performing the hydrothermal pre-treatment by subjecting the cellulosic material to at least one soaking operation, and conveying the cellulosic material through at least one pressurized reactor, and subjecting the cellulosic material to at least one pressing operation, creating a fiber fraction and a liquid fraction; selecting the temperature and residence time for the hydrothermal pretreatment, so that the fibrous structure of the feedstock is maintained and at least 80% of the lignin is maintained in the fiber fraction.

Abstract: Hydrometallurgical systems, methods, and compositions are described in which amine-based lixiviants are utilized in substoichiometric amounts to recover alkaline earths from raw or waste materials. The lixiviant can be regenerated and recycled for use in subsequent iterations of the process or returned to a reactor in a continuous process. Extraction of the alkaline earth from the raw material and precipitation of the extracted alkaline earth is performed in the same reactor and essentially simultaneously.

Abstract: A method of modeling phase characteristics of thermodynamic systems utilizing pseudo-properties strategy and a reduced number of variables is disclosed herein. The method describes a means of determining the probability of phase splitting of mixtures of materials at a given temperature, pressure, and composition by characterizing the functions that describe the system via pseudo-properties, and also by describing the system in n?1 or fewer variables, where n represents the number of components in the system of interest. In an embodiment, a multi-component system is characterized in one variable, thereby providing simplified thermodynamic models in a time-efficient manner. In addition, the information generated by this reduced-variable calculation can further be used as a starting point for calculations of equations of state.

Abstract: The invention relates to novel and innovative PCC pigments, able to be used in a paper coating formulations to manufacture coated “multipurpose” papers, in particular for inkjet applications, whose print qualities would be identical or quite similar to high resolution commercial papers, while maintaining a reduced paper manufacturing and production cost. Said pigments are obtained by a carbonation process using a reduced flow rate of CO2/air, which leads to porous agglomerates of PCC of a very specific structure and unique properties, followed by an upconcentration step leading to substantially the same agglomerates but with a higher, appropriate, solids content.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an installation for the purification of minerals, pigments and/or fillers and/or the preparation of precipitated earth alkali carbonate and/or mineralization of water and to the use of such an installation for the purification of minerals, pigments and/or fillers and/or mineralization of water and/or the preparation of precipitated earth alkali carbonate.

Abstract: Novel and innovative PCC pigments, having a reduced production cost, able to be used in a paper coating formulations to manufacture coated high-quality matt papers, in particular for inkjet applications. Process for the preparation of same, using a reduced flow rate of a carbon dioxide-containing gas in the PCC carbonation step, which produces stable, porous, agglomerates of PCC featuring unique properties and structure, this step being followed by an upconcentration step to increase the solids content.

Abstract: A method of mineralizing calcium from industrial waste comprising extracting calcium ions from a suspension of calcium rich granular particles and aqueous ammonium chloride to form a calcium-rich first fraction and a heavy second fraction. The heavy second fraction is separated from the first fraction and the calcium-rich first fraction is carbonated with a gas comprising carbon dioxide to form a suspension of precipitated calcium carbonate and aqueous ammonium chloride. The precipitate is separated from the aqueous ammonium chloride by centrifugal means and the separated heavy second fraction comprises an enriched weight percent of iron.

Abstract: A material with cationic exchanger properties is introduced into aqueous media, where the equilibriums of carbon dioxide dissolution take place. A cationic exchanger material x/nM+nEx? is used to capture hydronium cations (H3O+) according to: x/nM+nEx?(s)+xH3O+(aq)=xH3O+Ex?(s)+x/nM+n(aq) where “x” stands for molar amount of the anionic centers of charge of the cationic exchanger material Ex? balanced by x/n molar amount of metal M, “n” stands for the metal valence, and M is selected from the group consisting of 1A and/or 2A of the periodic table of elements. This capture of the hydronium cations, H3O+, shifts certain reaction equilibriums to the right, according to Le Chatelier's principle, producing more bicarbonate, HCO3?, and/or carbonate, CO3=, than would otherwise be obtained.

Abstract: The present invention relates to carbon dioxide sequestration, including processes in which group-2 silicates are used to remove carbon dioxide from waste streams to form corresponding group-2 carbonates and silica.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of economical extraction of magnesium, boron and calcium, while minimizing the loss of lithium, from a lithium bearing solution. More specifically, the present invention provides a method for economical extraction of magnesium, boron, and calcium, while minimizing the loss of lithium, from a lithium bearing solution comprising the steps of: (a) adding an alkali in the lithium bearing solution to precipitate magnesium hydroxide; (b) absorbing boron ions on the surface of the magnesium hydroxide by adjusting the pH to about 8.5 to about 10.5; and (c) simultaneously extracting magnesium and boron by filtering the magnesium hydroxide absorbed with the boron ions from the lithium bearing solution.

Abstract: A process for the joint production of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate out of trona, comprising: introducing and dissolving crushed trona ore in a leaching tank containing a solution comprising sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate, saturated in sodium bicarbonate, in order to produce solid particles suspended in a production solution comprising sodium carbonate, the solid particles containing insoluble impurities and at least 65% in weight of sodium bicarbonate; separating the solid particles from the production solution containing sodium carbonate; drying and valorizing the separated solid particles; taking at least part of the production solution containing sodium carbonate out of the leaching tank in order to constitute a produced solution which is valorized; and introducing water in the leaching tank.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of extracting lithium from a lithium bearing solution. More specifically, the present invention provides a method of economical extraction of lithium from a lithium bearing solution by adding a phosphorous supplying material to the solution to precipitate lithium phosphate from the dissolved lithium.

Abstract: A method of mineralizing calcium from industrial waste comprising extracting calcium ions from a suspension of calcium rich granular particles and aqueous ammonium nitrate to form a calcium-rich first fraction and a heavy second fraction. The heavy second fraction is separated from the first fraction and the calcium-rich first fraction is carbonated with a gas comprising carbon dioxide to form a suspension of precipitated calcium carbonate and aqueous ammonium nitrate. The precipitate is separated from the aqueous ammonium nitrate by centrifugal means and the separated heavy second fraction comprises an enriched weight percent of iron.

Abstract: Hydrometallurgical systems, methods, and compositions are described in which organic amine-based lixiviants are utilized in the selective recovery of alkaline earth elements. The lixiviant can be regenerated and recycled for use in subsequent iterations of the process. Multiple alkaline earth elements can be recovered from a sample in parallel or in serial applications of the disclosed methods.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a method of preparing highly pure lithium carbonate from brine. The method includes adding an adsorbent to the brine, from which the magnesium ions Mg2+ have been removed, to adsorb lithium ions Li+ to the adsorbent, followed by providing the adsorbent having the lithium ions Li+ adsorbed thereto to a strong acid solution to desorb the lithium ions Li+ from the adsorbent; enriching the strong acid solution in which the lithium ions Li+ are desorbed from the adsorbent; and obtaining lithium carbonate Li2CO3 through chemical reaction between the lithium ions Li+ in the enriched solution and a carbonate precursor.

Abstract: A method of extracting an alkali metal and/or an alkaline earth metal from a mineral including an alkali metal and/or an alkaline earth metal, or a rock containing the mineral, the method including contacting the mineral, with an aqueous composition including formic acid, and to their use in carbon sequestration.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for producing precipitated calcium carbonate using fowl egg shells such as chicken egg shells. More particularly, the method comprises: a heat treatment step of heating fowl egg shells; a grinding step of grinding calcium oxide generated in the heat treatment step; a dry-quenching step of feeding the ground calcium oxide into a thermo-hygrostat to convert the ground calcium oxide into dry calcium hydroxide powder; a carbonizing step of mixing the dry calcium hydroxide powder prepared in the dry-quenching step with an organic solvent and feeding carbon dioxide generated in the heat treatment step into the mixture; and a filtering and drying step of filtering and drying the calcium carbonate obtained in the carbonizing step.

Abstract: A continuous countercurrent flow process for converting FGD gypsum to ammonium sulfate and calcium carbonate including countercurrent flows with internal recycle of liquids to maximize the purity of reaction products while minimizing reaction times, and further include embodiments of the process that provide a yield of both ammonium sulfate and calcium carbonate to be 97 to 100%, and embodiments that provide for processes having a total time of reaction being 8 to 12 minutes, the invention further including processes for removing contaminants from the FGD gypsum employing an acid rinse process and/or a slurry tank reactor process.

Abstract: A method including electrolysis processing using sulfate-based electrolytes includes precipitating sodium sulfate decahydrate from a salt solution and then redissolving sodium sulfate decahydrate to prepare feed of electrolyte solution for the electrolysis processing. Front-end processing may be used to treat mixed salt solutions, including brine solutions. Calcium sulfate reagent may provide a sulfate source to regenerate electrolyte solution following carbon capture, and with carbon dioxide being sequestered in the form of calcium carbonate.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a method for producing calcium carbonate containing the steps of extraction of alkaline industrial waste or by-products using as a first extraction solvent an aqueous solution of a salt formed from a weak acid and a weak base, whereby a vanadium-enriched first residue is allowed to settle and a calcium-rich first filtrate is formed, filtration, whereby the first filtrate is separated from the first residue, carbonation of the calcium-rich first filtrate using a carbonation gas, whereby calcium carbonate precipitates and a second filtrate is formed, and a second filtration, whereby the calcium carbonate is separated from the second filtrate. Further, the present invention concerns a method for extracting calcium carbonate and vanadium from alkaline industrial waste or by-products.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a process for preparing hydromagnesite in an aqueous environment. The invention further relates to such hydromagnesite having a specific platy-like morphology in combination with a specific average particle size and to their use as minerals, fillers and pigments in the paper, paint, rubber and plastics industries and to the use as flame-retardant.

Abstract: Methods are provided for producing a composition comprising carbonates, wherein the methods comprise utilizing waste sources of metal oxides. An aqueous solution of divalent cations, some or all of which are derived from a waste source of metal oxides, may be contacted with CO2 and subjected to precipitation conditions to provide compositions comprising carbonates. In some embodiments, a combustion ash is the waste source of metal oxides for the aqueous solution containing divalent cations. In some embodiments, a combustion ash is used to provide a source of proton-removing agents, divalent cations, silica, metal oxides, or other desired constituents or a combination thereof.

Abstract: Systems and methods of capturing and sequestering carbon dioxide, comprising mixing a substantially non-aqueous solvent and an alkali such that the solvent and alkali form a solvent suspension, mixing water and a flue gas containing carbon dioxide with the solvent suspension such that a reaction occurs, the reaction resulting in the formation of a carbonate, water and heat. Methods and processes of environmental remediation and recovering metals from waste streams are also provided.

Abstract: A method of mineralizing calcium from industrial waste comprising extracting calcium ions from a suspension of calcium rich granular particles and aqueous ammonium nitrate to form a calcium-rich first fraction and a heavy second fraction. The heavy second fraction is separated from the first fraction and the calcium-rich first fraction is carbonated with a gas comprising carbon dioxide to form a suspension of precipitated calcium carbonate and aqueous ammonium nitrate. The precipitate is separated from the aqueous ammonium nitrate by centrifugal means and the separated heavy second fraction comprises an enriched weight percent of iron.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for solidifying carbon dioxide into carbonate, in which carbon dioxide is stably converted into and solidified into carbonate (mineral facies) by using steel slag or natural mineral by extracting an alkali component by supplying an ammonium salt solvent as an extraction solvent to raw slag and injecting carbon dioxide into an extract solution supplied to a carbonation reactor to produce carbonate precipitate from the extract solution through the induction of a conversion reaction of the carbon dioxide into the carbonate precipitate. Then after the above two step are performed at least one an acetic acid solvent is supplied as an extraction solvent to the raw slag so as to finally extract an alkali component; and carbon dioxide is injected into an extract solution to produce carbonate precipitate from the extract solution through the induction of a conversion reaction of the carbon dioxide into the carbonate precipitate.

Abstract: CO2-sequestering formed building materials are provided. The building materials of the invention include a composition comprising a carbonate/bicarbonate component. Additional aspects of the invention include methods of making and using the CO2-sequestering formed building material.

Abstract: A method of producing calcium carbonate from lime comprises the steps of: (i) providing an aqueous solution comprising 10% to 35% by weight of dissolved polyhydroxy compound and 1% to 5% by weight of dissolved calcium hydroxide (expressed as Ca(OH)2) and having a pH of at least 11.5; (ii) treating the solution prepared in step (i) to remove solids including suspended solids; (iii) dispersing carbon dioxide through the solution so as to form calcium carbonate with a consequential reduction in the pH of the reaction mixture, (iv) during a time period beginning at the start of a sudden, short rise in pH and ended during a subsequent fall in pH but before it reaches 9.5 terminating the dispersion of carbon dioxide and adding an alkaline reagent to maintain a pH for the product mixture of at least 9.5, and (v) recovering precipitated calcium carbonate.

Abstract: A method and system of fixing carbon dioxide is provided. After metal ion components are extracted from, e.g., natural mineral or steel slag through acid treatment, carbon dioxide is injected to fix carbon dioxide by carbonating the same. Since the procedure of pH adjustment is unnecessary, the reaction is carried out effectively and a continuous process is enabled. Accordingly, the disclosed method of fixing carbon dioxide enables effective removal of carbon dioxide produced from the steelmaking industry, thereby significantly reducing greenhouse gas emission and allowing recycling of the discarded steel slag.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for producing a calcium carbonate product formed of small <100 ?m sized separate calcium carbonate particles. Calcium hydroxide is fed through a disintegration and spraying apparatus (14), operating on the principle of a pin mill, into a gas which contains carbon dioxide for precipitating calcium carbonate particles and which is inside a precipitation reactor (10). The temperature in the precipitation reactor is maintained at <65° C.

Abstract: A continuous process for purification of brine contaminated with alkaline earth metals. The process comprises combining the brine with an aqueous solution containing at least one of an alkali metal hydroxide and an alkali metal carbonate with efficient mixing by a micro-mixing device.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for producing a calcium carbonate product formed of small <100 ?m sized separate calcium carbonate particles. Calcium hydroxide is fed through a disintegration and spraying apparatus (14), operating on the principle of a pin mill, into a gas which contains carbon dioxide for precipitating calcium carbonate particles and which is inside a precipitation reactor (10). The temperature in the precipitation reactor is maintained at <65° C.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a method for producing calcium carbonate containing the steps of extraction of alkaline industrial waste or by-products using as a first extraction solvent an aqueous solution of a salt formed from a weak acid and a weak base, whereby a vanadium-enriched first residue is allowed to settle and a calcium-rich first filtrate is formed, filtration, whereby the first filtrate is separated from the first residue, carbonation of the calcium-rich first filtrate using a carbonation gas, whereby calcium carbonate precipitates and a second filtrate is formed, and a second filtration, whereby the calcium carbonate is separated from the second filtrate. Further, the present invention concerns a method for extracting calcium carbonate and vanadium from alkaline industrial waste or by-products.

Abstract: Desalination methods that include carbonate compound precipitation are provided. In certain embodiments, feed water is subjected to carbonate compound precipitation conditions prior to desalination. In certain embodiments, desalination waste brine is subjected to carbonate compound precipitation conditions. In yet other embodiments, both feed water and waste brine are subjected to carbonate compound precipitation conditions. Aspects of embodiments of the invention include carbone dioxide sequestration. Embodiments of the invention further employ a precipitate product of the carbonate compound precipitation conditions as a building material, e.g., a cement. Also provided are systems configured for use in methods of the invention.

Abstract: Hydraulic cement compositions that include a carbonate compound composition, e.g., a salt-water derived carbonate compound composition containing crystalline and/or amorphous carbonate compounds, are provided. Also provided are methods of making and using the hydraulic cements, as well as settable compositions, such as concretes and mortars, prepared therefrom. The cements and compositions produced therefrom find use in a variety of applications, including use in a variety of building materials and building applications.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a process for recovering from high salinity liquid a substance comprising a selected alkaline earth carbonate salt, the process comprises (i) adding to said high salinity liquid a reagent comprising a solution of an alkali metal carbonate in an amount sufficient to allow precipitation of said substance in said liquid, while continuously introducing into the liquid a gas whereby a high degree of precipitate is formed in the liquid; and (ii) isolating said precipitate from the liquid, wherein said precipitate comprising the alkaline earth carbonate comprising substance in an essentially purified form (at least 95% w/w degree of purity). Also provided are a unit and a system constructed and operative for performing the process, preferably continuously.

Abstract: Non-cementitious CO2 sequestering compositions are provided. The compositions of the invention include a CO2 sequestering additive, e.g., a CO2 sequestering carbonate composition. Additional aspects of the invention include methods of making and using the non-cementitious CO2 sequestering compositions.

Abstract: Methods are provided for producing a composition comprising carbonates, wherein the methods comprise utilizing waste sources of metal oxides. An aqueous solution of divalent cations, some or all of which are derived from a waste source of metal oxides, may be contacted with CO2 and subjected to precipitation conditions to provide compositions comprising carbonates. In some embodiments, a combustion ash is the waste source of metal oxides for the aqueous solution containing divalent cations. In some embodiments, a combustion ash is used to provide a source of proton-removing agents, divalent cations, silica, metal oxides, or other desired constituents or a combination thereof.

Abstract: Disclosed is a processes for the production of relatively high purity alkaline earth metal oxides, such as SrO, from relatively low purity forms of carbonated or other oxygenated forms of such metals, such as strontium carbonate. The relatively low purity material is exposed to conditions under which at least a portion of the metal contained therein is converted to a salt that is more readily solvated in a provided solvent than the starting material, while at the same time not substantially increasing the solubility of at least one or more of the impurities in such selected solvent. This step is then preferably followed by removal of solid or otherwise un-dissolved impurities from the solution. After the removal step, the solution is preferably exposed to conditions effective to form a relatively insoluble salt of the alkaline earth metal, such as a strontium salt. The insoluble salt is also preferably one that can be readily and effectively converted to the desired alkaline earth metal oxide, preferably SrO.

Abstract: Provided are methods for producing carbonate-containing compositions comprising silicon-based material (e.g., pozzolanic material) from a source of carbon dioxide, a divalent cation-containing solution, and a source of proton-removing agents. In such methods, divalent cations of the divalent cation-containing solution are provided by digestion of material comprising metal silicates. Also provided are methods for producing carbonate-containing compositions comprising little or no silicon-based material. In such methods, silicon-based material (e.g., silica, unreacted or undigested silicates, aluminosilicates, etc.) may be separated and processed separately from carbonate-containing compositions. Silicon-based material and carbonate-containing material may be blended at a later stage to produce a pozzolanic material, which may be further processed and blended with, for example, Portland cement.