Abstract: In one aspect, a battery cell including: an electrode assembly, wherein the electrode assembly includes a first electrode plate, a second electrode plate, and a separator disposed between the first electrode plate and the second electrode plate; electrode tabs connected to the electrode plate and the second electrode plate, and extending from one side of the electrode assembly; a case for sealing the electrode assembly and an electrolyte; and a reinforcing material disposed in at least a region between the electrode assembly and the case, and comprising ceramic material and a polymer gel is provided.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a sheet-form electrode for a secondary battery, comprising a current collector; an electrode active material layer formed on one surface of the current collector; and a first porous supporting layer formed on the electrode active material layer. The sheet-form electrode for a secondary battery according to the present disclosure has supporting layers on at least one surface thereof to exhibit surprisingly improved flexibility and prevent the release of the electrode active material layer from a current collector even if intense external forces are applied to the electrode, thereby preventing the decrease of battery capacity and improving the cycle life characteristic of the battery.

Abstract: A nonaqueous secondary battery includes a current cutoff mechanism that cuts off a current in a short period of time in response to a rise in pressure inside a battery outer body in at least one of a conductive path through which a current is taken out from a positive electrode plate to outside of the battery and a conductive path through which a current is taken out from a negative electrode plate to outside of the battery. At least one type selected from an oligomer containing a cyclohexyl group and a phenyl group, a modified product of the oligomer containing a cyclohexyl group and a phenyl group, a polymer containing a cyclohexyl group and a phenyl group, and a modified product of the polymer containing a cyclohexyl group and a phenyl group is present on the surface of the positive electrode plate.

Abstract: A novel hybrid lithium-ion anode material based on coaxially coated Si shells on vertically aligned carbon nanofiber (CNF) arrays. The unique cup-stacking graphitic microstructure makes the bare vertically aligned CNF array an effective Li+ intercalation medium. Highly reversible Li+ intercalation and extraction were observed at high power rates. More importantly, the highly conductive and mechanically stable CNF core optionally supports a coaxially coated amorphous Si shell which has much higher theoretical specific capacity by forming fully lithiated alloy. Addition of surface effect dominant sites in close proximity to the intercalation medium results in a hybrid device that includes advantages of both batteries and capacitors.

Abstract: Embodiments of the invention provide batteries, electrodes, and methods of making the same. According to one embodiment, a battery may include a positive plate having a grid pasted with a lead oxide material, a negative plate having a grid pasted with a lead based material, a separator separating the positive plate and the negative plate, and an electrolyte. A nonwoven glass mat may be in contact with a surface of either or both the positive plate or the negative plate to reinforce the plate. The nonwoven glass mat may include a plurality of first coarse fibers having fiber diameters between about 6 ?m and 11 ?m and a plurality of second coarse fibers having fiber diameters between about 10 ?m and 20 ?m.

Abstract: The present invention relates to one or more electrode plates, which are installed with current collecting terminals at two or more sides thereof, and joined to an auxiliary conductor made of a material having a conductivity that is higher than that of the electrode plates. Current collecting terminals are installed at two or more sides of the auxiliary conductor, for linking with current collecting terminals installed at two or more sides of the electrode plates, and at least one of linked terminals is used as a general current collecting terminal to output current to an external part or to receive input current from the external part. Finally, insulators installed between the auxiliary conductor and the electrode plates to constitute an electrode unit.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to lithium-ion batteries, and more specifically, to a system and method for fabricating such batteries using thin-film processes that form three-dimensional structures. In one embodiment, an anodic structure used to form an energy storage device is provided. The anodic structure comprises a flexible conductive substrate, a plurality of conductive microstructures formed on the conductive substrate, comprising a plurality of columnar projections and dendritic structures formed over the plurality of columnar projections and a plurality of tin particles formed on the plurality of conductive microstructures. In another embodiment, the anodic structure further comprises a tin nucleation layer comprising tin particles formed on the flexible conductive substrate between the flexible conductive substrate and the plurality of conductive microstructures.

Abstract: The present invention relates to the use of porous structures comprising electrode active materials, which can be used as electrodes in electrochemical cells. In certain embodiments, the electrodes described herein can comprise a first porous support structure (e.g., a plurality of particles, which can be porous in certain cases) in which electrode active material is at least partially contained. The first porous support structure can be, in some embodiments, at least partially contained within the pores of a second porous support structure (e.g., an agglomeration of elongated fibers, a porous web formed by sintered particles, etc.) containing pores that are larger than the components of the first porous support structure.

Abstract: In the production of a membrane/electrode assembly 10, a first catalyst layer 22 (a second catalyst layer 34) is formed by a process comprising steps (a) and (b). (a) A step of applying a coating fluid comprising a catalyst and an ion-exchange resin, on a substrate to form a coating fluid layer. (b) A step of disposing a reinforcing layer 24 (34) on the coating fluid layer formed in the step (a) and then, drying the coating fluid layer to form a first catalyst layer 22 (a second catalyst layer 34) The process provides a catalyst layer whereby defects such as cracks are scarcely formed in the catalyst layer, and the bond strength is high at the interface between the catalyst layer and a reinforcing layer and at the interface between the catalyst layer and a polymer electrolyte membrane.

Abstract: The electric current collector of the present invention comprises a substrate composed of aluminum, a junction layer, formed on the surface of the substrate, in which aluminum and an electrically conductive material having electrical conductivity have been mixed, and an electrical conductor layer, formed on the junction layer, comprising the electrically conductive material. The electrode and the charge accumulating device of the present invention employ the electric current collector of the present invention.

Abstract: A sintered substrate is configured such that pores having a pore size (pore radius) of from 5 ?m to 7 ?m have a peak volume fraction with respect to the total pore volume of the sintered substrate, and pores having a pore radius of greater than 8.5 ?m has a volume fraction of 11% or less with respect to the total pore volume of the sintered substrate. The sintered substrate has a smaller number of large-sized pores than conventional sintered substrates and a more uniform pore size distribution, and therefore shows a sufficient strength even when the porosity is increased. In addition, a cadmium negative electrode employing the sintered substrate shows excellent gas absorption capability and therefore can reduce the internal pressure of the battery during charge.

Abstract: Disclosed herein are a stacking type electrode assembly constructed in a cathode/separator/anode structure, wherein the electrode assembly is provided at a predetermined region thereof with at least one through-hole, and a pair of holding members (a male coupling member and a female coupling member) constructed in a male-female coupling type structure is inserted through the through-hole inside a battery case, an outer surface of the female coupling member being brought into tight contact with the through-hole when the male coupling member is inserted into the female coupling member while the female coupling member having an outer diameter less than an inner diameter of the through-hole is inserted through the through-hole, and a secondary battery including the same.

Abstract: An electrode core material has a substrate and at least one porous material layer diffusion-bonded to the substrate. The substrate is made of a metal foil processed into a three-dimensional structure which is substantially deformed from a major plane of the metal foil, preferably having bulge portions which protrude from at least one side of the metal foil, the bulge portions preferably having a curved, strip-shaped form between laterally spaced slits in the metal foil. The porous material layer is made of metal fine particles diffusion-bonded to each other, and the porous material layer has a three-dimensional structure which is substantially uniform in thickness and porosity. Methods are provided for producing the electrode core material by diffusion bonding the porous material layer to the substrate either before or after deforming the metal foil. The electrode core material may be used for the positive and/or negative electrode of an alkaline storage battery.

Abstract: An electrode according to the present invention employs the metal plate having the specified structure as the electrode substrate. The metal plate 51 has a plurality of protuberances 54 that are alternately protruded on both front and back sides thereof. Each of the protuberances 54 is formed in a pyramid shape in which an area of upper bottom 52 (a protruded part) thereof is smaller than that of a lower bottom 53. The upper bottom 52 in each of the protuberances 54 is formed with an aperture 56 having blanking burr 55 blinked in a substantially pyramid shape along a direction from the upper bottom 52 to the lower bottom 53 so that an opening 52a of the upper bottom part is formed in a polygon shape. Further, the size of each portions is set in accordance with c>s?0.1 mm2 and 0.2?h/d?0.

Abstract: A negative electrode for a rechargeable lithium battery which is obtained by sintering under a non-oxidizing atmosphere, in the form of a layer on a surface of a metal foil current collector, an anode mix containing a binder and particles of active material containing silicon and/or a silicon alloy; the negative electrode being characterized in that the metal foil current corrector has projections and recesses on its surface, the projection is shaped to have a recurved side face portion that curves more outwardly as it extends closer to a distal end of the projection, and the binder penetrates into spaces defined by the recurved side face portions.

Abstract: A nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery including positive and negative electrodes capable of occluding and releasing lithium and a nonaqueous electrolyte and in which the negative electrode includes a foamed metal containing silicon as an active material therein.

Abstract: There is provided a battery and a negative electrode for the battery, which are capable of being simply produced by a smaller number of steps. The battery includes: a battery can (7); a negative electrode plate for battery (21), the negative electrode plate having a paste-like material which contains an active material and which is provided on the entire surface of a rectangular conductive porous substrate including edge portions (22a) extending along long sides of the substrate, the negative electrode plate being wound in a cylindrical shape to be inserted into the battery can; and a plate-shaped collector (28) having ribs (31) formed by raising part thereof, the ribs being resistance-welded to one of the edge portions of the conductive porous substrate while the paste-like material provided on the edge portions.

Abstract: An all solid state battery comprising: (a) a positive electrode current collector layer, (b) a positive electrode active material layer carried on the positive electrode current collector layer, (c) a negative electrode current collector layer, (d) a negative electrode active material layer carried on the negative electrode current collector layer, (e) a solid electrolyte layer interposed between the positive and negative electrode active material layers, and (f) a substrate carrying either of the positive and negative electrode current collector layers, the substrate comprising a metal sheet and a coating layer covering the surface of the metal sheet, the coating layer comprising at least one metal nitride layer.

Abstract: A battery unit for a secondary battery that includes a positive electrode plate, a positive electrode tab, a negative electrode plate, a negative electrode tab, a separator, and short circuit preventing units, wherein the short circuit preventing units are formed on corresponding uncoated areas of the positive and negative electrode current collectors where the positive and negative electrode sheets are not formed, each short circuit preventing unit having a corresponding width greater than a width of the corresponding positive and negative electrode current collectors.

Abstract: A loaded plate for use with or as part of a fuel cell of a fuel cell stack in which the loading material of the plate is in cord form. The loading material can be either an electrolyte or a catalyst and the cord form is realized by extruding the loading material on the plate.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a current collector for an electrochemical cell. The current collector has a unique grid structure comprised of a frame supporting a plurality of radial strands as conductors radiating outwardly from a focal point on a connector tab. The frame and radial conductors are maintained in a fan-like orientation with respect to each other by two groups of concentric conductor strands, one located adjacent to the tab, the other spaced a substantial distance therefrom. The radiating conductors provide a more direct path to the connector tab for electron flow. This results in the current collector having reduced internal resistance in comparison to conventional current collector designs.

Abstract: A fibrous microcell structure comprising: (1) an inner electrode, (2) a hollow fibrous membrane separator in contact with the inner electrode, (3) an electrolyte embedded in the hollow fibrous membrane separator, and (4) an outer electrode, wherein at least one of the inner and outer electrodes comprises a metal clad composite having two or more metal layers bonded together by solid-phase bonding. Preferably, such fibrous microcell structure is a fuel cell that comprises inner current collector, an inner catalyst layer, a hollow fibrous membrane separator in contact with the inner catalyst layer and the inner current collector, an electrolyte embedded in the hollow fibrous membrane separator, an outer catalyst layer, and an outer current collector.

Abstract: An electrode for a rechargeable lithium battery which includes a current collector and a thin film composed of active material that stores and releases lithium and deposited on the current collector, the electrode being characterized in that the current collector has irregularities on its surface and the thin film has spaces extending in a thickness direction of the thin film and configured to increase their width dimensions toward valleys of the irregularities on the current collector surface.

Abstract: A nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery including positive and negative electrodes capable of occluding and releasing lithium and a nonaqueous electrolyte and in which the negative electrode includes a foamed metal containing silicon as an active material therein.

Abstract: Provided are low-cost, mechanically strong, highly electronically conductive current collects and associated structures for solid-state electrochemical devices, techniques for forming these structures, and devices incorporating the structures. The invention provides solid state electrochemical devices having as current interconnects a ferritic steel felt or screen coated with a protective oxide film.

Abstract: An electrode core material has a substrate and at least one porous material layer diffusion-bonded to the substrate. The substrate is made of a metal foil processed into a three-dimensional structure which is substantially deformed from a major plane of the metal foil, preferably having bulge portions which protrude from at least one side of the metal foil, the bulge portions preferably having a curved, strip-shaped form between laterally spaced slits in the metal foil. The porous material layer is made of metal fine particles diffusion-bonded to each other, and the porous material layer has a three-dimensional structure which is substantially uniform in thickness and porosity. Methods are provided for producing the electrode core material by diffusion bonding the porous material layer to the substrate either before or after deforming the metal foil. The electrode core material may be used for the positive and/or negative electrode of an alkaline storage battery.

Abstract: A freestanding, microporous polymer sheet (52, 56) is composed of a polymer matrix binding and electrically conductive matrix. The polymer matrix preferably includes UHMWPE, and the electrically conductive matrix preferably is in powder form. The UHMWPE is of a molecular weight that provides sufficient molecular chain entanglement to form a sheet, with freestanding characteristics. Multiple microporous sheets (30) can be wound or stacked in a package filled with an electrolyte to function as electrodes in an energy storage device (86), such as a battery. Metallic layers (81, 83) can be applied to the microporous sheets to function as current collectors in such devices.

Abstract: In a rectangular alkaline storage battery, the sides of negative cores of negative electrode plates 10, which are disposed at the outermost positions of the group of electrode plates and oppose an outer casing can 40, are exposed. The pore ratios (ratio of total area taken up by pores to area of electrode plate) of the exposed cores must be made lower than those of the other unexposed cores. The pore ratio of the exposed negative core is specified as falling within a range of 10% to 40%. As a result, the negative electrode plates 10 are improved in binding strength, thereby inhibiting exfoliation of an active material. Further, there can be obtained a large rectangular alkaline storage battery which has superior permeability for a gas which would arise in the battery, an improved capacity ratio, and greater volumetric energy density.

Abstract: An electrical battery has a plurality of pairs each including a positive active mass arranged in an impermeable horizontally located cuvette with an open upper surface, and a negative active mass arranged in an impermeable horizontally located cuvette and having an upper lower working surface with the second mentioned cuvette located above the first mentioned cuvette, the pairs being located one above the other, an electrolyte in which the cuvettes with the active masses are located, and means for electrically connecting in series the pairs of the cuvettes located one above the other.

Abstract: A description is given of a thin flexible lithium-ion battery and of methods of the manufacture thereof. According to one of the methods, a negative electrode, a separator, and a positive electrode are provided with a pattern of macroscopic holes. After aligning the holes, the stack of the electrodes and the separator is placed on a structured polymer film having piles in the same pattern as the holes. After applying heat and pressure, the ends of the piles are flattened, and form a kind of rivets by which the electrodes and the separator are bonded together. This bonding ensures a good contact between the electrodes and an electrolyte in the separator.

Abstract: A gas diffusion electrode assembly comprising: a gas diffusion electrode; and a metallic or resinous edging material bonded to a peripheral part of the electrode. The invention also relates to a gas diffusion electrode assembly comprising: a gas diffusion electrode; and a metallic terminal bonded to the electrode. The invention further relates to a gas diffusion electrode assembly comprising: a gas diffusion electrode; and a structure for connection, which comprises a combination of a thin silver sheet and a reinforcing material comprising a tough metal as a base, the structure for connection being bonded to a peripheral part of the gas diffusion electrode. Also disclosed are processes for producing these gas diffusion electrode assemblies.

Abstract: An electrode comprises a porous three-dimensional conductive support and at least one reinforcing metal band fixed along a longitudinal edge portion of the support and having a coefficient of elongation to rupture equal to at least 20% in a direction parallel to the edge portion of the support. Two longitudinal edge portions of the band are bent against the same face of the band, at least part of whose surface is pressed against the support.

Abstract: Positive electrode and special lead accumulator for use at high temperatures, which is provided with a holder based on a special lead alloy with improved behavior against corrosion, The alloy comprises from 1 to 5% of antimony, from 0.5 to 3% of tin, from 0.05 to 0.50% of arsenic, from 0 to 0.05% of copper and from 0 to 0.02% of bismuth.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a battery design for bi-cell polymer matrix batteries. Each bi-cell comprises, sequentially, a first counter electrode, a first separator membrane, a centrally located electrode, a second separator membrane, and a second counter electrode. The current collector of each of the counter electrodes is positioned other than medially within the counter electrode. Generally, the current collector of the counter electrode is located within the outer half of the counter electrode. When the current collector is located at the extreme outer edge of the counter electrode, a capping film of polymer matrix material is preferably laminated to the perforated current collector, and, through the perforated current collector, to the counter electrode material itself.

Abstract: The battery has an electrode assembly with a first electrode plate and second electrode plate forming a positive electrode plate and negative electrode plate layered via a separator. An external case holds the electrode assembly, and a collector plate is electrically connected to the first electrode plate. The first electrode plate is a non-sintered type electrode with active material loaded into a porous metal material substrate, and has a connecting band of exposed substrate and an active material region. A protective tape is attached to at least one side of the connecting band of the first electrode plate. The connecting band is electrically connected to the collector plate. The second electrode plate projects out beyond the active material border of the connecting band and the active material region, and the active material border is opposite the second electrode plate with the separator in between the first electrode plate and the second electrode plate.

Abstract: A composite electrode for an electrochemical device wherein the current collectors and carriers are incorporated into at least one of the electrodes, which are used in alkali metal electrochemical devices, and alkali metal-ion electrochemical devices, which current collectors and carriers are a net of metallized glass or ceramic fibers which may be plasma etched prior to metallizing, and which are woven or non-woven.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a battery design for bi-cell polymer matrix batteries. Each bi-cell comprises, sequentially, a first counter electrode, a first separator membrane, a centrally located electrode, a second separator membrane, and a second counter electrode. The current collector of each of the counter electrodes is positioned other than medially within the counter electrode. Generally, the current collector of the counter electrode is located within the outer half of the counter electrode. When the current collector is located at the extreme outer edge of the counter electrode, a capping film of polymer matrix material is preferably laminated to the perforated current collector, and, through the perforated current collector, to the counter electrode material itself.

Abstract: A battery plate and a battery including the plate, the plate being a rigid reticulated conductive metal structure comprised of rigid elongated tendrils many of which meet in continuous intersections (apexes) of the tendrils to form dodecahedrons which form a conductive structure with pores and volumes to receive electrolyte. If desired a coating of battery materials can be adhered to the structure, still leaving open pores and volumes.

Abstract: An electrode plate for a battery is constructed from a porous metal body having at least one low-porosity part selectively arranged therein. A porous resin core is coated with a paste having a metal component, passed through rolls provided with at least one recess to thereby form at least one low-porosity part and sintered. The resultant electrode plate for battery is not only ensured with respect to strength and capable of improving battery performance but also advantageous in that it is available at lowered cost and free from apprehension of supply of raw materials.

Abstract: A belt-shaped spongelike organic high polymer sheet is subjected to stretching forces in the longitudinal and lateral directions so as to transform the approximately spindle-shaped organic high polymer units which compose the organic high polymer sheet. After this, a metal is put into voids inside the organic high polymer sheet. Then, the organic high polymer is eliminated by baking it, and the metal is sintered. As a result, a spongelike metal substrate is completed whose carbon content is 0.5% by weight or less and whose metallic lattices have a longer length/shorter length ratio of 1.7 or below. The spongelike metal substrate is filled with electrode active material to form an electrode, which is combined with a counter electrode and a separator, and coiled in the direction of the longer lengths of the lattices to form a coiled electrode assembly. The electrode assembly is used to manufacture an alkali storage cell.

Abstract: An electrode substrate, for a battery, as a support for an active material used in a collector for a battery, comprising a metallic porous structure possessing interconnecting pores with a porosity of not less than 90% and a number of pores per cm of not less than 10 and having an Fe/Ni two-layer structure wherein Fe constitutes the interior of a skeleton of a porous body constituting the porous structure with the surface portion of the skeleton coated with Ni. Preferably, Fe constituting the interior of the skeleton has a purity of not less than 98% by weight, and the thickness of the nickel coating layer having an Fe content of not more than 10% by weight is 0.1 to 10 .mu.m. The ratio of thickness of the Fe-diffused layer to the thickness of the Ni coating layer is regulated to not more than 0.65 by forming a metallic porous body of Fe using a porous resin as a substrate, plating the metallic porous body with Ni, heat treating the plated body.

Abstract: A three-dimensional substrate material for use in constructing battery electrodes comprises a sintered matrix material selected from the group consisting of reticulated metal foams, conductive fibers and metal powder compacts, and a porous covering layer of a polymeric mesh material, flexible metal screen or metal fibers, bonded to at least one surface of the matrix material to retain the sintered matrix material substantially within the planar surface of the surface of matrix material during spiral-wounding of the chemically loaded matrix material.

Abstract: The present invention concerns a nickel electrode comprising a nickel-based hydroxide which satisfies at least one of the following criteria:an intensity ratio of the ?103! line to the ?200! line in the X-ray diffraction diagram of 1.05.+-.0.10;a coherence length L of 13.+-.3 nm,a ratio of the sum of the surface areas of the peaks at 3687.+-.10 cm.sup.-1 and 3600.+-.10 cm.sup.-1 to the surface area of the peak at 3580.+-.10 cm.sup.-1 of the Raman spectrum of 0.11.+-.0.03;a ratio of the surface area of the peak at 511.+-.10 cm.sup.-1 to the surface area of the peak at 460.+-.10 cm.sup.-1 in the Raman spectrum of 1.1.+-.0.1.

Abstract: A method of bonding a metal connection to an electrode including a core having a fiber or foam-type structure for an electrochemical cell, in which method at least one metal strip is pressed against one edge of the core and is welded thereto under compression, wherein, at least in line with the region in which the strip is welded to the core, which is referred to as the "main core", a retaining core of a type analogous to that of the main core is disposed prior to the welding.

Abstract: A lead-acid cell includes a case, positive and negative plates within the case, microporous separator material between adjacent plates and electrolyte in a starved amount, with the case having jar and covers joined by a weldment along overlapping cover and jars. The positive plates include a grid frame with an intermediate member extending between spaced apart generally peripheral portions of the frame, with pasted active material on the grid frame separated substantially into two portions by the intermediate member. Compressive force is adjustably continuously applied to the positive and negative plates within the case. The plates are suspended within the case at positions removed from the wall of the case, while plate growth is permitted in a manner that plate shorting is avoided.

Abstract: An expanded screen current collector is provided with side edges coined inwardly to prevent sharp tines formed along the side edges from damaging adjacent components within the electrochemical cell. The expanded screen current collector is formed by cutting a thin flat sheet of current collector material, such as titanium or stainless steel, to have a height somewhat greater than a height required for use within the electrochemical cell. The current collector material is cut and expanded, then the side edges are coined inwardly by an amount sufficient to reduce the height of the resulting expanded screen current collector to a height appropriate for use within the electrochemical cell. An active cathode material, such as polycarbonmonoflouride, is coated onto side surfaces of the expanded screen current collector. An electrode structure employing the expanded screen current collector having the coined edges is also described.

Abstract: An improved lithium ion battery is described wherein corrosion of the current collector in contact with the electrode face is greatly reduced. In one embodiment an electrically conductive, ceramic layer is inserted between the current collector and the corresponding major face of the lithium ion battery. In another embodiment the metallic current collector plate is replaced by an electrically conductive laminated organic polymer having electrically conductive particles dispersed therein.

Abstract: Bipolar battery cells, bipolar batteries, and related methods are disclosed. The disclosed bipolar plate comprises a composite of long carbon fibers and a filler of carbon particles and a fluoroelastomer. A fluoroelastomeric sealant for placement between adjacent cells is also disclosed.

Abstract: A battery electrode is provided comprising a porous, pleated metal structure, preferably comprising nickel as its substrate.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method to produce a thin film three dimensional microelectrode of an electrically conductive polymer having an organized array of identical microprotrusions, which method comprises:(a) depositing at least one conductive metal thin film on an essentially smooth substrate,(b) depositing a thin film of a micropositive photoresist on the surface of the at least one conductive metal thin film,(c) subjecting the combination of step (b) to photolithographic or electron beam lithographic conditions with a mask capable of producing a metallic microwell,(d) electrochemically polymerizing an electrically conductive polymer onto the conducting metal,(e) removing the photoresist to produce the three dimensional microelectrode array of the electrically conductive polymer. Preferred electrically conductive polymers of step (d) are selected from polypyrrole or polyaniline.