Abstract: The invention relates to a device for performing equilibrium exercises which includes a fitting assembly for fitting the device to a part of the body, for instance the head, of a user and a position indicating assembly connected to the fitting assembly for indicating the position of the device. The position indicating assembly is herein observable by the user and can be formed by a conventional or electronic spirit level instrument.

Abstract: A system for testing and evaluating driver situational awareness incorporates a device for displaying road and traffic images to a subject being tested, road and traffic image data for simulating operation of a vehicle to be outputted on the display device, instruction data to be outputted at least on the display device, input devices for inputting response data from the test subject in response to road and traffic image data generated on the display means, and a control device for controlling the operation of the system. The control device incorporates a vision test component for conducting a vision test of the subject and a driving reaction test component for conducting a driving reaction test of the subject.

Abstract: A method and modular apparatus for diagnostic assessment of psychological conditions which employs a compact microprocessor-based unit such as a video game. In accordance with the invention, the microprocessor-based unit is programmed to produce a video display that prompts a patient or user to interactively operate one or more switches. Information recorded during an interactive diagnostic assessment procedure is analyzed to provide a doctor or other health care professional with information that is helpful to determine whether clinical therapy and/or medication may be required. The disclosed embodiment of the invention relates to diagnostic assessment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Attention Deficit Disorder with a game-like video display being used to obtain a measure of various neuropsychologic indicia of attention.

Abstract: An interactive intervention training system used for monitoring a patient suffering from neurological disorders of movement or a subject seeking to improve skill performance and assisting their training. A patient (or trainee) station is used in interactive training. The patient (or trainee) station includes a computer. A supervisor station is used by, for example, a medical or other professional. The patient (or trainee) station and the supervisor station can communicate with each other, for example, over the Internet or over a LAN. The patient (or trainee) station may be located remotely or locally with respect to the supervisor station. Sensors collect physiologic information and physical information from the patient or subject while the patient or subject is undergoing training. This information is provided to the supervisor station. It may be summarized and displayed to the patient/subject and/or the supervisor.

Abstract: A system and method is shown for exercising a user's motor skills and concentration, comprising, in combination, a controller for providing a plurality of visual images and sounds, a first sensor for providing an input to the controller when activated by a hand on a selected right or left side of the user, a second sensor for providing an input to the controller when activated by a foot on the selected side of the user, a third sensor for providing an input to the controller when activated by a hand located opposite the selected side, and a fourth sensor for providing an input to the controller when activated by a foot located opposite the selected side. The system displays a plurality of visual images where each visual image contains four separate quadrants corresponding to the first, second, third, and fourth sensors.

Abstract: An automated timed manual performance (TMP) system which includes a base unit having attached manual dexterity test components. Connected to the base is a reaction sensor which allows determination of the exact time of beginning and ending the manual dexterity task(s). The sensor is also connected to either a personal computer or a direct readout device. The system also optionally includes software to guide an operator through administration of a TMP test, and to display and analyze the results of the test.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for measuring and enhancing the neuro-motor coordination of humans and animals includes generation of a non-visual periodic reference signal that is supplied to the user. A response is received from the user of that user's perception of an occurrence of the periodic reference signal. A non-visual feedback signal is derived as a function of the occurrence of the reference signal and the user response. The non-visual feedback signal is supplied to indicate to that user the temporal relationship of the user's response and the occurrence of the periodic reference signal. The non-visual signal may be in the form of an audio feedback signal or may be a tactile feedback signal.

Abstract: A hand toy for improving the fine motor skills of a young child includes a central hub having a plurality of angled openings passing therethrough such that the openings do not intersect one another. The hand toy further includes a plurality of elongate rods each respectively slidably received within one of the openings in the central hub. The terminal ends of the rods extend outwardly from the hub and the rods are slidably movable relative to the central hub without noticeable friction. Each end of the rods has an enlarged stopper element mounted thereon to limit the sliding movement of the rods relative to the hub to prevent the rods from becoming disassembled from the hub during use. The hand toy still further includes a plurality of differently shaped and differently colored ring members which are received on the rods and slidably movable between the central hub and the stopper element at the respective end of the rod.

Abstract: A child's self-contained, interactive toilet training kit made from a relatively rigid material and having a lid that is moveable between an open position and a closed position. The kit includes a plurality of training pants, a plurality of interactivity devices adapted for use by a caregiver for instructing a child in toilet training, and a plurality of activity devices adapted for use by the child for encouraging the child in toilet training.

Abstract: A computer-aided training system uses electroencephalograms (EEGs) recorded from the trainee's scalp to alter the training protocol being presented by the computer, for example to present a new task to the trainee when he or she has mastered and automatized the current task. The index of the trainee's skill mastery and automatization is determined by analysis of the EEG using mathematical classification functions which distinguish different levels of skill acquisition. The functions are computed by computer neural networks and consist of a combination of EEG and other physiological variables which specifically characterize a trainee's level of focused attention and neurocognitive workload and his or her neurocognitive strategy. The functions are derived either for a group of trainees, or each trainee individually, performing a battery of one or more standard training tasks while wearing an EEG hat.

Abstract: A videoendoscopic surgery training system (10) provides training in videoendoscopic surgery techniques. A base (14) supports a simulated anatomical structure (12). A shield (20) blocks a trainee's direct line-of-sight view of the simulated anatomical structure. A reflector assembly (24, 34) reflects an image of the simulated anatomical structure past the shield. A first mirror (24) reflects an image of the simulated anatomical structure that is oriented away from the trainee. A second mirror (34) optically communicates with the first mirror to reflect an image of the simulated anatomical structure that is oriented toward the trainee.

Abstract: Devices and methods for the assessment and biofeedback training of coordination skills of a subject critical to maximizing the power and accuracy of athletic ball-strike activities. In preferred embodiments, the invention provides for assessment and biofeedback training of weight bearing and center of gravity control under conditions requiring the athlete to strike a ball such that the distance and direction of flight trajectory of the ball are accurate relative to a performance goal. One embodiment of the invention includes a body movement sensor, a ball strike sensor, a display, and a computer. The body movement sensor provides an output indicative of the motion of the subject's body over a period of time including the moment of ball strike. The computer causes the display to show both a trajectory of the motion of the subject's body and the moment of ball strike in relation to a region of the trajectory.

Abstract: An incentive device for toilet training children including a housing having a lid hingedly secured to an open upper end thereof. A pair of horizontally disposed slots are formed through a front wall of the housing. Each of a pair of side walls has a rod extending inwardly from an inner surface thereof within the housing. A roll of toilet paper is rotatably disposed on a rod of one of the opposed side walls of the housing and extends outwardly through one of the horizontally disposed slots in the front wall of the housing. A roll of decorative stickers is rotatably disposed on the rod opposing the roll of toilet paper. The roll of decorative stickers extends outwardly of the hollow interior through one of the horizontally disposed slots in the front wall of the housing.

Abstract: The present invention is directed to a tethered ball training device that has an adjustable chaotic motion. The invention includes a supporting frame and a non-elastic line suspended from the frame. A resilient ball is mounted at the bottom end portion of the line and a weight slidably attached to the line is positioned in between the lower ball and the upper frame. In a method of training, a player first hits the tethered ball in a first direction of rotation. The ball will undergo chaotic motion as it rotates in this first direction. The player then tries to hit the ball to rotate it in the opposite direction and provide it with a different chaotic motion. This hitting of the ball is repeated. In a method of training a crane operator, a load is placed in motion and a trainee practices bringing the load under control.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for teaching and improving manual dexterity and hand/eye coordination, includes a generally rectangular solid object which is adapted to be flipped or tossed into the air and caught using solely the back of one hand, or the backs of the immediately adjacent finger segments. The object is relatively small and light, with at least slightly rounded corners, to preclude injury to the bony and unpadded back(s) of a person's hand and/or fingers. The object may include markings, instructions, and/or luminescence thereon, if desired. The method generally comprises moving the back of the hand and/or fingers to manipulate the object thereon. The object may be tossed into the air, using either the fingertips or from the back of one hand or the other, and caught by the tossing person or by another in a group.

Abstract: The invention discloses an educational block having a frame member portion with a thickness appropriate for grasping, and a translucent window portion, the edge of which cooperates with the inner surface of portions of the frame member portion.

Abstract: A gymnastic apparatus has an elongate beam member which includes first and second articulated beam portions coupled to one another by a coupling mechanism. The portions may thereby be oriented angularly to one another to permit simultaneous use of the apparatus by two gymnasts. Such portions may also be separated from one another for independent use. Either beam portion includes an indicium, e.g., the letter L, the letter R, or the word LEFT or RIGHT, corresponding to a "hand" of a gymnast standing on the other beam portion. Such indicium also preferably includes a color component.

Abstract: A method for the treatment of gait problems associated with Parkinson's Disease in a subject involves the use of virtual cues which are delivered to the subject in a spatial orientation and at rate which enable the initiation and sustainment of ambulation, as well as the suppression of dyskinesia associated with medication. In one embodiment, a mulfiplexed head up display is used to provide the cues to the subject's field of vision without obscuring the real world. In another embodiment, light emitting diodes fastened to eye glasses are used to deliver the virtual cues to the subject's field of view.

Abstract: Apparatus and method for monitoring and for improving the state of alertness of a subject while he continues to perform a primary task, driving a vehicle, operating machinery, etc. The apparatus includes stimulation apparatus for issuing stimuli to the subject and response apparatus for enabling the subject to reply to the stimuli. The stimuli can be audible, visual or tactile. Test results are processed and compared to baseline values taken when the subject is displaying a normal state of alertness. The rate of activation of the stimulation apparatus increases inversely with a deteriorating state of alertness of the subject to improve the state of alertness of the subject. The apparatus can be fashioned in a wide range of devices including a hand-held portable device, a wristwatch, a behind-the-ear (BTE) clip, a pair of spectacles, and for installation in a steering wheel.

Abstract: A mobile, transportable ground level skydiving simulator apparatus is provided that includes a collapsible air containment unit for directing air upwardly therethrough to enable a user or users to be supported by the airstream in simulating skydiving activities. The air containment unit is provided on a movable platform, such as a flatbed trailer, with all or substantially all components of the apparatus being mounted thereon or capable of being stored thereon in transit. The various elements, but in particular the air containment unit, are of a design that enables quick and efficient breakdown or disassembly of the components for transport with the apparatus on roads and highways, and which enables quick and efficient assembly of the components into an operable structure at successive locations.

Abstract: A method and an apparatus for the practice of standing balance. A lower-leg support holds the subject vertical from the knees down, and allows the user to attempt maintaining upright stance as assistance is gradually removed.

Abstract: This invention is a familiar design overlying the adjacent toe portion of a pair of childrens shoes. With the shoes properly positioned side by side, a child will see the design as a whole and relate the left foot shoe with its left foot and the right foot with its right foot shoe as the proper positions for the shoes to be worn.

Abstract: A system for monitoring alertness of a human while performing certain tasks. Alertness is detected herein by determining the tracking ability of the eye with respect to a visual disturbance, and is measured with respect to head motion. A decision circuit is provided when the motor response of the eye is deemed to be impaired as a result of drowsiness, inattention, or substance abuse.

Abstract: A sensory stimulation system for stimulating a cognitively and/or physically impaired person comprises a rigid, box-like framework adapted to be mounted on a support surface and a rigid, plate-like cover in mating relationship with and removably attached to the framework. The cover is interchangeable according to the skill level of the impaired person. A plurality of spaced sensors are held fast against the cover for providing sensory stimulation for the impaired person.

Abstract: A teaching device assists a child in learning to put on shoes correctly by rewarding the child when the shoes are put on correctly. A telescoping enclosure has a movable upper section with footprints on the upper section. The footprints are shaped to conform to right and left shoes, and additional symbols may be applied to the footprints. The child's shoe will have a shorting bar to cooperate with an electric grid on one of the footprints. As a result, when the shoes are on correctly, the shorting bar will engage the electric grid so a circuit will be completed, and entertainment will be provided in the form of light and/or sound play.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for measuring and enhancing the neuro-motor coordination of humans and animals includes generation of a non-visual periodic reference signal that is supplied to the user. A response is received from the user of that user's perception of an occurrence of the periodic reference signal. A non-visual feedback signal is derived as a function of the occurrence of the reference signal and the user response. The non-visual feedback signal is supplied to indicate to that user the temporal relationship of the user's response and the occurrence of the periodic reference signal. The non-visual signal may be in the form of an audio feedback signal or may be a tactile feedback signal.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for testing and evaluation of physical coordination and dexterity in occupational rehabilitation or physical therapy for injury or illness, and for training of retarded or developmentally delayed or handicapped persons. The person being tested attempts to traverse a test pattern with a targeting image or to plot coordinates and connect line segments from instructions, using left and right hands or feet to control motion or plot coordinates in at least two dimensions. Controls can be oriented and configured to test and train motor skills, motions and coordination requirements common to workplace, home or recreational activities. A permanent trace record of the subject's effort, made in the same orientation and scale as the test pattern, provides a means by which test results can be compared directly to the test standard, to previous and later recorded traces by the same subject, and to the traces of other subjects.

Abstract: A game tests spatial perception in vertical and horizontal planes and physical responsiveness. A vertical planar display displays selected points thereon. A test point is displayed thereon and a player being challenged, upon seeing the test point, must select a response point on a corresponding planar horizontal response panel which is perceived to correspond to the test point position. The response point is then transferred to a corresponding location on the display, so that test and response points are both displayed. The distance between the points is measured as a score. The time interval between viewing the test point and response may also be recorded to be combined with the distance in a score. The horizontal response panel may be a touch sensitive screen. Competing players may each have a response panel shielded from other players.

Abstract: A training device for entertaining and encouraging a person to sit comfortably for a period of time while toilet training, is the subject of the present invention. The device comprises, a chair member having a seat portion having a central opening therein for the passage of excrement, a back portion attached to the seat portion, and a pair of arms being attached to the seat portion and the back portion also, an electrically powered music box is attached to the chair member for producing a musical tune, an activator for manually activating the music box attached to the chair member, the activator being in electrical communication with the music box and comprising an electrical switch having a music activator button for manually actuating the switch, the button being located on an exterior surface of at least one of the arms.

Abstract: In a device to test a person's attention or concentration ability, a series of digits is read out at a pre-determined, alterable speed by a speech recorder (62) and delivered by a speech generator (66) to headphones (10). The subject must press a button (16) every time a target (e.g. "0") is heard. Also every time a "0" is heard, a control unit (50) produces a window signal which is connected by an error logic circuit (70) to the key-press impulse. If the reaction is correct, the key-press impulse will be within the time window, and a counter (74) will accordingly increase the number of the "score". Any key-press impulse falling outside the time window is an omission error to be counted by another counter (75). The counter status is then analyzed to calculate an error index (I.sup.E).

Abstract: A method for demonstrating lifting technique includes providing a substantially rectangular box in a first stationary position on a ground surface, inserting a first weight into the box, approaching the box in the first stationary position at approximately a 45.degree. angle such that one's feet are wider than shoulder distance apart when one is adjacent the box, bending one's knees such that one's body is close to the box, and lifting the box from the first stationary position. The box has an internal storage area formed by a top wall, a bottom wall contacting the ground surface in the first stationary position and being movable to provide access to the internal storage area, a front wall, a back wall, and first and second opposed side walls. The first and second side walls each have handles thereon adjacent the top wall so that the box may be lifted with or without the handles.

Abstract: Apparatus and methods for assessing and biofeedback training of movement coordination, strength, and speed skills critical to balance during a mobility task performed by a subject on a combination of surfaces, in particular stepping up and down, climbing and descending stairs, sitting and rising from a sitting position. The apparatus includes a force-sensing plate. The force-sensing plate measures the forces exerted on its sensing area, i.e., its top surface, and transmits output signals representative of the measured forces. A plurality of support surfaces is mounted in specified positions relative to the force-sensing plate's sensing area, in such a way that substantially all forces exerted by the subject onto the support surfaces is transmitted to the sensing area. The plurality of surfaces may form a step, stairs or a seat.

Abstract: A child behavior improvement system comprises a support member having a plurality of receptacles for receiving indicia of a reward, multiple discs having indicia defining a reward positioned in each of the receptacles, a over for covering each receptacle, the cover being at least partially removable for providing access to the reward, and selectable indicia for positioning on the cover for identifying a desirable behavior goal.

Abstract: There is disclosed an omnipresent sound system for use by a listener in an artificial reality system which operates to couple sound with the presented objects such that as the sound moves with respect to the user, the user will have the perception of the changing sound both in pitch and in volume. The sound system is comprised of a series of piezoelectric elements spaced apart around a user's head. The system is designed to program each element individually so as to create the illusion of omnipresent three-dimensional sound in conjunction with images presented to the listener, which images define an artificial environment.

Abstract: A device and method for rehabilitation of patients with kinesthetic injuries. The device consists of a base with non-skid feet to securely locate the device on a supporting surface. An upwardly extending guide member is located on the base. A target attachment with target is attached to the guide member. A repositionable platform assembly with a downwardly extending platform support point is placed at a receiving location on the base. From the upper surface of the repositionable platform extends a wand support with a wand tip at its upper end. Optionally, an anti-rotation member can be used to partially prevent movement of the platform. Such an anti-rotation member interacts with the guide member to restrict platform movement. In one configuration, the anti-rotation member is used to prevent yaw of the platform, but allow roll or pitching motion. In use, the patient attempts to move the platform either in single or multiple directions; i.e.

Abstract: A multi-functional therapeutic workstation which can simulate a multitude of job tasks. The workstation kit includes five panel designs, right angled elbows, nuts and bolts, and can be assembled into a variety of modules requiring the exercise of varying levels of cognitive and motor skills. Depending upon the position of the patient relative to the workstation kit, and the module that the patient is required to construct, the assembly rehabilitates both muscles as well as neurological pathways.

Abstract: A play apparatus is disclosed for climbing and crawling that is especially suitable for indoor play grounds. In one embodiment, the play apparatus includes a frame having a plurality of spaced apart netting supports extending across the width of the frame. The netting supports are located at least two different heights, and netting spans the netting supports to define at least one climbing and crawling pathway thereover.

Abstract: A method and apparatus is disclosed for the testing and evaluating of a person's dexterity, range of motion, and dynamic lifting ability. The dexterity testing includes methods which can evaluate the wrist and hand range of motion by requiring the person to move his wrist through the normal range of motions, including flexion, extension, pronation, and supination. The person undergoes the same test and evaluation at each of three working heights: (1) elbow height, (2) overhead height, and (3) knee height, providing a functional assessment of dexterity and range of motion of the person's entire musculoskeletal system. The lifting ability testing includes both an upper body lifting evaluation (to shoulder height) and a lower body lifting evaluation (to carry height). Each of the two evaluations is tested independently.

Abstract: Accommodation training apparatus is modified to include electroencephalography apparatus for monitoring the patient's brainwaves. This permits a patient to be trained to enter, and to remain in, the alpha state, even with the eyes open and with something to look at.A two-dimensional CCD matrix is used to receive reflected-back radiation from the eye. A computer is connected to the matrix and permits the patient to be trained for correction of conditions such as strabismus, nystagmus and eccentric fixation by identifying whether the patient's eye is moving or whether the patient's state of accommodation is changing.An LCD matrix is used to present variable visual information to the patient's eye. This facilitates training the patient for dichotic learning.Advantageously, electromyography apparatus is used to monitor the tension of one of the patient's muscles, advantageously the frontalis muscle.

Abstract: A new realistic, inexpensive, adaptable, and portable driver education method that mimics the effects of intoxication in the participants through utilization of a simplified optics device in the form of specialized eyeglasses having binocular, manually-spinnable fresnel prism lenses is provided. The spinnable optics device simulates most of the toxic effects on the central nervous system which are induced by excess alcohol and/or drugs of abuse, resulting in distorted vision and spatial disorientation in the wearer. The driver education method involves the participants wearing the specialized eyeglasses while performing various ambulatory end non-ambulatory tasks.

Abstract: A multi-functional therapeutic workstation which can simulate a multitude of job tasks. The workstation kit includes five panel designs, right angled elbows, nuts and bolts, and can be assembled into a variety of modules requiring the exercise of varying levels of cognitive and motor skills. Depending upon the position of the patient relative to the workstation kit, and the module that the patient is required to construct, the assembly rehabilitates both muscles as well as neurological pathways.

Abstract: Method and apparatus for testing human performance by measuring ability to employ job-related skills in an environment requiring skill switching in the presence of a forced attention shift. A human operator is tested by use of a monitor display upon which are presented an alternating sequence of primary tasks requiring utilization of different skills. A keyboard and a joy-stick are disclosed for use in performing the tasks. A danger indicating icon is presented along with the primary task, and the operator is forced to respond to danger indications thereof by operating a switch which is provided for that purpose.

Abstract: A device is provided for registering and recording induced imbalance in a human subject. A horizontal platform is adapted for controlled, linear displacement in a horizontal plane to induce imbalance. Imbalance and response can be detected and recorded by means of electric contact shoes or other means.

Abstract: A new and improved early childhood learning toy includes a housing portion which includes planar walls, wherein at least two of the planar walls include different colors, and wherein at least two of the planar walls includes different visible patterns. The planar walls define an interior chamber. One of the planar walls includes one aperture permitting communication between the interior chamber and outside the housing portion. One of the planar walls includes two apertures permitting communication between the interior chamber and outside the housing portion. A plurality of cords includes respective ends attached to opposite ends of a planar wall. The cords extend across the planar wall, and a plurality of solid geometrical shapes are supported by the cords such that the geometrical shapes can be selectively moved along the cords. The respective geometrical shapes include respective centrally located cord-receiving apertures for receiving the cords. The cords are made of elastic material.

Abstract: A response speed and accuracy measurement device includes a multidigit code generator for generating a multidigit code of numeric or alphabetic characters or other symbols. A start switch causes a code to be generated and displayed for a limited time duration. The operator then attempts to enter the last displayed code as quickly as possible using the data entry keys of a keyboard. A timer measures the operator's response time. A comparator checks the entered code against the displayed code for detecting a match. An output is generated in the event of a match to indicate the operator's response time.

Abstract: Children's clothing with matching decorative indicia for teaching relatively young children how to fold their clothing are disclosed. Either matching pair of decorative illustrations, such as blocks with letter or numbers, or foldline illustrations are placed on the clothing. The clothing is folded by sequentially matching the paired illustrations or folding along the foldline illustrations.

Abstract: An orientation system for use with footwear. The orientation system comprises a first attachment member located on and substantially flush with the left side of the right shoe and a second attachment member located on and substantially flush with the right side of the left shoe. The first and second attachment members can be adhesively connected with the shoes or constructed integral with the shoes. When pressed together, the first attachment member engages the second attachment member and connect the left shoe and right shoe together in a proper orientation. The system allows a child to properly orient her shoes to allow her to put each shoe on its proper foot without adult supervision.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a multiple-rehabilitation-equipment supporter which mainly consists of a table-like rack, a set of supporting framework, a set of arm pulling means, and a set of electrical pedals. With two square openings provided on top of the rack, and ring hangers and pin slots provided on the supporting framework, equipments for rehabilitation, such as manually-operated exerciser, throw trainer, push-pull spring exerciser, knuckle trainer, arm lifting trainer, circle-drawing exerciser, chest expander, etc., all can be simultaneously installed on the supporter according to the present invention. These equipments, together with the arm pulling exerciser and the electrical pedals incorporated in the supporter, provide users with multiple functions and the best benefits which are helpful to their rehabilitation.

Abstract: An apparatus for training a gait-impaired person to get into and out of a motor vehicle has a cabin having a hollow interior and opposite right and left sides each formed with a door opening. A respective door at each door opening has an upright front edge hinged on the cabin. A car seat has a seat part and a back part in the cabin adjacent the door. The device can have a support movable in the cabin between a front position and a rear position and carrying both the seat part and back part of a front seat. A car rear seat has a back part fixed on a rear wall of the cabin and a seat part mounted on the support spacedly behind the front seat. In the rear position of the support the back part of the front seat is closely juxtaposed with the back part of the rear seat, the seat part of the rear seat is pushed back underneath the back part of the rear seat, and the front seat is spaced backwardly from the dashboard.

Abstract: A method and apparatus is disclosed for the testing and evaluating of a person's dexterity, range of motion, and dynamic lifting ability. The dexterity testing includes methods which can evaluate the wrist and hand range of motion by requiring the person to move his wrist through the normal range of motions, including flexion, extension, pronation, and supination. The person undergoes the same test and evaluation at each of three working heights: (1) elbow height, (2) overhead height, and (3) knee height, providing a functional assessment of dexterity and range of motion of the person's entire musculoskeletal system. The lifting ability testing includes both an upper body lifting evaluation (to shoulder height) and a lower body lifting evaluation (to carry height). Each of the two evaluations is tested independently.