Abstract: The present invention relates to arborescent polymers comprising isoolefins and styrenic monomers, as well as processes for making same. In particular, the invention relates to highly branched block copolymers comprising an arborescent core with a high glass-transition temperature (Tg) and branches attached to the core terminated in polymer endblock segments with a low Tg. The copolymers of the invention desirably exhibit thermoplastic elastomeric properties and, in one embodiment, are desirably suited to biomedical applications.

Abstract: A composition includes a responsive block copolymer, the responsive block copolymer including at least one block A that is a triggerable copolymer, the triggerable copolymer including at least one lower critical solution temperature monomer and at least one charged monomer, wherein the triggerable copolymer block A is a dual trigger block configured to trigger on temperature and ionic strength, and wherein the responsive block copolymer micellizes or gels at a temperature between 28° C. and 37° C. and a salt concentration of about 0.9 wt %.

Abstract: The invention relates to an amphiphilic block copolymer having an increased speed of water adsorption. The non-water soluble copolymer, having a hydrophilic middle block and hydrophobic endblocks, has a high rate water transmission and/or permeation. The increase in rate is due to neutralization, or partial neutralization of the hydrophilic block of the copolymer. Furthermore, the absorption rate can be controlled by the extent of the neutralization. Another aspect of the invention is the use of co-monomers and/or additives to further increase or tailor the water absorption properties. The use of additives and comonomers is also shown to enhance the processability of the disclosed polymer composition.

Abstract: The invention relates to a multiblock polyolefin, and methods to make a multiblock polyolefin, represented by the formula (X) or (XII): PO—C(R11)(R12)—C(R13)?C(R14)—C(O)—O—((CR15R16)z—(CR17R18)m—O)n—R19??(X) or PO—C(R11)(R12)—C(R13)?C(R14)—C(O)—O—((CR15R16)z—(CR17R18)mO)n—C(O)—C(R14)?C(R13)—C(R12)(R11)—PO??(XX) wherein R11, R12, R13, and R14 are each independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1, through C4 hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; R15, R16, R17, and R18 are each independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 through C4 hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; R19 is a C1 to a C20 substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; z is ?1 to about 5; m is ?1 to about 5; PO is a polyolefin hydrocarbyl group comprising 10 to 4000 carbon atoms; and n is from 1 to about 10,000.

Abstract: The present invention provides an antibiofouling composition, an antibiofouling membrane and a method for forming the same. The antibiofouling composition comprises a copolymer and at least one solvent. The copolymer comprises at least one hydrophobic segment and at least one antibiofouling segment where the hydrophobic segment comprises a plurality of hydrophobic moieties and the antibiofouling segment comprises a plurality of antibiofouling moieties. The molar ratio of the total of hydrophobic moieties to the total of the antibiofouling moieties is 0.5˜6.0.

Abstract: An object of the present invention is to provide a novel copolymer useful as a pigment dispersing agent in the field of color liquid crystal displays and the like.

Abstract: Disclosed are an aqueous pigment dispersion containing at least a pigment, water, a high-molecular dispersant, and an alkali. The high-molecular dispersant is a diblock polymer having a formula (1) of A-B or a triblock polymer having a formula (2) of A-B-C. The diblock or triblock polymer is a diblock or triblock polymer obtained by polymerizing addition-polymerizable monomers with a radical generator while using an organic iodide as a polymerization initiating compound and an organic phosphorus compound, organic nitrogen compound or organic oxygen compound as a catalyst. Also disclosed are a production method and use of the aqueous pigment dispersion. With the high-molecular dispersant obtained by a simple living radical polymerization process free of the problems of conventional living radical polymerization and having a precisely-controlled molecular structure, the aqueous pigment dispersion can be obtained with the pigment dispersed in it.

Abstract: The invention relates to a liquid rubber acrylic block copolymer, and its use in modifying a thermoset composition. The liquid rubber acrylic block copolymer adds toughness and flexibility to a thermoset composition. The acrylic block copolymers are especially useful for modifying epoxy compositions.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a block copolymer comprising at least one PA block and at least one PB block. The PA block represents a polymer block comprising one or more units of monomer A, and the PB block represents a polymer block comprising one or more units of monomer B. Monomer A is a vinyl, acrylic, diolefin, nitrile, dinitrile, or acrylonitrile monomer. Monomer B is a radically polymerizable plant oil monomer containing one or more triglycerides. The present invention also relates to a method of preparing a thermoplastic block copolymer by radical polymerizing a radically polymerizable monomer with a radically polymerizable plant oil monomer containing one or more triglycerides, in the presence of an initiator and a transition-metal catalyst system to form the thermoplastic block copolymer. The polymerized plant oil-based block copolymers are useful in a variety of applications, such as asphalt modifiers, rubber compositions, adhesives, tires, in the automobile industry, footwear, packaging, etc.

Abstract: It is to provide a method for producing a polymer by a living anionic polymerization, wherein the number of functional groups and the introduction position are accurately specified in the polymer. For this purpose, a cinnamyl alcohol represented by the following formula [I] or a derivative thereof is subjected to a reaction when conducting a living anionic polymerization. In formula [I], R1 represents an alkyl group or alkoxy group; m represents an integer of 0 to 5 and when m is 2 or more, R1s may be the same or different; R5 represents a hydrogen atom, alkali metal atom, trialkylsilyl group or a substituent represented by the following formula [II]. In formula [II], R3 represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-C6 alkyl group; and R4 represents an alkyl group which may be substituted by an alkoxy group, a cycloalkyl group which may be substituted by an alkoxy group, a phenyl group which may be substituted by an alkyl group, or a phenyl group which may be substituted by an alkoxy group).

Abstract: The present invention relates to synthetic polymers having high molecular weights and low polydispersities and methods of synthesis. In one embodiment of the present invention, a polymer includes a polyacrylate polymer obtained from a polymerization reaction in which the polyacrylate polymer has a molecular weight of at least about 500,000 and a polydispersity index of about 1.25 or less.

Abstract: The present invention relates to the production of amphiphilic copolymer networks, or co-networks, and to methods for preparing amphiphilic co-networks. Furthermore, the present invention relates to products and/or films made from the amphiphilic co-networks produced in accordance with the synthesis methods of the present invention. In one embodiment, the present invention is related to crosslinkable and/or polymerizable compositions that can be utilized to form amphiphilic co-networks, where such compositions are block copolymer compositions that are formed from the combination of at least one hydrophilic segment, at least one hydrophobic segment, and at least one crosslinkable and/or polymerizable segment. In yet another embodiment, the present invention relates to amphiphilic co-networks that are optically clear and highly oxyphilic.

Abstract: The present invention provides a novel narrow distribution dendrimer-like star polymer having a controlled molecular structure, and a method capable of easily producing the star polymer. Disclosed is a polymer comprising a core portion and an arm portion, wherein the arm portion includes a first generation composed of a polymer chain and a second generation composed of a polymer chain formed at the outer shell of the first generation, the number of arms of the second generation is larger than the number of arms of the first generation, the first generation composed of the polymer chain is a polymer chain derived from a monomer having a polymerizable double bond, and the ratio of the weight average molecular weight (Mw) to the number average molecular weight (Mn), (Mw/Mn), of the star polymer is within a range from 1.001 to 2.50.

Abstract: Disclosed is a toner for electrostatic linage development that has sufficient low-temperature fixability, can provide high post-fixing separability, and can be used for stable formation of images at high speed. The toner for electrostatic image development includes toner particles containing a binder resin. The binder resin contains as a part thereof a block copolymer having an A-B-A block copolymer structure including polymer blocks A composed of a structural unit derived from an alkyl methacrylate and a polymer block B composed of a structural unit derived from an alkyl acrylate. The glass transition point (TgA) of a homopolymer of the alkyl methacrylate forming the polymer blocks A is higher than the glass transition point (TgB) of a homopolymer of the alkyl acrylate forming the polymer block B.

Abstract: The invention relates to a process for preparing (meth)acrylate-based ABA triblock copolymers with a silyl functionalization of the A blocks.

Abstract: The present invention describes the use of copolymers with a composition gradient as sole stabilizer in emulsion free-radical polymerization. The copolymers of the invention are prepared via controlled free-radical polymerization and comprise at least one hydrophilic monomer such as acrylic acid and at least one hydrophobic monomer such as styrene.

Abstract: A method of preparing a block copolymer of Formula (B) wherein P1 represents a substantially aqueously soluble polymeric component and P2 represents a substantially aqueously insoluble polymeric component, comprises admixing an aqueously soluble polymer macro-chain transfer agent comprising P1 with a monomer (M2) and initiating an aqueous dispersion-type radical addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerisation. (P1) is derived from a monomer (M1) selected from monomers of the Formulae (M1A), (M1B) and/or (M1C) where R1, R10 and R11 represent a substituent of (M1A) or (M1C) which allows P1 to be at least partially aqueously soluble, R2 represents H, CH3 or CN, RS represents one or more substituents of the aromatic ring effective to allow P1 to be at least partially aqueously soluble, and monomer M2 is selected from: where R3 is a substituent of (M2) which allows P2 to be substantially aqueously insoluble, and R4 and R6 independently represent H or methyl.

Abstract: A linear, block copolymer, which is useful in cosmetics and improves the styling power and hold of hair laquer, adhesion of nail varnish and hold/adhesion of makeup, includes at least two blocks having different glass transition temperatures, Tg; where at least one of said blocks has a glass transition temperature of 20° C. to ?100° C., and wherein the at least one block having a Tg of 20° C. to ?100° C. is a copolymer B having a first monomer wherein the Tg of the corresponding homopolymer is in the range from more than 20° C. to 200° C., and a second monomer wherein the Tg of the corresponding homopolymer is in the range from 20° C. to ?100° C.

Abstract: Norbornene monomers with epoxy groups and polymer materials thereof are disclosed. The Norbornene monomers with epoxy groups are prepared by Diels-Alder reaction. The Norbornene monomers with epoxy groups are highly active for ring-opening-metathesis polymerization (ROMP), and the molecular weight and PDI value of the obtained polymers are controllable.

Abstract: A process for making a block copolymer compatibilizer, comprising reacting an acrylic monomer that has functional groups with one or more vinyl monomers in the presence of a free radical initiator and a stable free radical to form a reaction product that includes residual unreacted acrylic monomer, and reacting one or more vinyl monomers with the reaction product to form a second block that incorporates the residual unreacted acrylic monomer. A blend composition comprising a first thermoplastic polymer, which has functional groups, a reactive block copolymer that has functional groups in two or more blocks, and a second thermoplastic polymer that is compatible with one block of the block copolymer, where the functional groups in the first thermoplastic react with the functional groups in the block copolymer.

Abstract: The invention relates to block polymers, for example, arborescent copolymer compounds, and to methods of making and purifying such compounds. In one embodiment, the invention relates to arborescent polymer compounds that contain one or more styrene polymeric blocks in combination with one or more isobutylene polymeric blocks. In another embodiment, the invention relates to methods for purifying arborescent polymer compounds that contain at least one styrene polymeric block in combination with at least one isobutylene polymeric block.

Abstract: A process for making a block copolymer compatibilizer comprises reacting an acrylic and/or vinyl monomer that has functional groups with one or more vinyl monomers in the presence of a free radical initiator and a stable free radical to form a reaction product that includes residual unreacted acrylic and/or vinyl monomer, and reacting one or more vinyl monomers with the reaction product to form a second block that incorporates the residual unreacted acrylic monomer. The block copolymer is used to compatibilize a clay nanocomposite material with a thermoplastic or thermoset resin. The block copolymer can be used with existing, commercially-available clays, or the block copolymer can be formed with a polar block that is miscible in a polar dispersion medium for use as a intercalate in producing a clay nanocomposite material.

Abstract: Pigment based inks are provided. The inks include a non-polar carrier fluid; and a surface-functionalized pigment particle including a nitrogen-inked moiety to the surface of the pigment particle through a nitrogen link at one end of the nitrogen-linked moiety and a block copolymer having at least two blocks attached at another end, the pigment particle suspended in the non-polar carrier fluid. A combination of an electronic display and an electronic ink employing the pigment and a process for making the pigment-based inks are also provided.

Abstract: The invention relates to a multiblock polyolefin, and methods to make a multiblock polyolefin, represented by the formula (X) or (XII): PO—C(R11)(R12)—C(R13)?C(R14)—C(O)—O—((CR15R16)z—(CR17R18)m—O)n—R19??(X) or PO—C(R11)(R12)—C(R13)?C(R14)—C(O)—O—((CR15R16)z—(CR17R18)mO)n—C(O)—C(R14)?C(R13)—C(R12)(R11)—PO??(XX) wherein R11, R12, R13, and R14 are each independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 through C4 hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; R15, R16, R17, and R18 are each independently a substituted or unsubstituted C1 through C4 hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; R19 is a C1 to a C20 substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbyl group or a hydrogen; z is ?1 to about 5; m is ?1 to about 5; PO is a polyolefin hydrocarbyl group comprising 10 to 4000 carbon atoms; and n is from 1 to about 10,000.

Abstract: Methods for fabricating arrays of nanoscaled alternating lamellae or cylinders in a polymer matrix having improved long range order utilizing self-assembling block copolymers, and films and devices formed from these methods are provided.

Abstract: Provided is a vinyl ether-based star polymer that has arms containing a copolymer of a vinyl ether-based polymer and a oxystyrene-based polymer, and a process for production of the star polymer that is capable of being carried out continuously in a series of steps.

Abstract: Novel linear block copolymers, for example containing styrene blocks and ethyl(meth)acrylate blocks, and non-cosmetic compositions comprised thereof, are useful tensioning agents for a variety of surface substrates.

Abstract: Elastomer composition comprising at least, as predominant elastomer, a thermoplastic SIBS elastomer comprising a “polyisobutylene” block and, at least one of the ends of the “polyisobutylene” block, a thermoplastic block of specific structure having a Tg greater than or equal to 100° C. The elastomer composition according to the invention may be used as an elastomer layer impermeable to the inflation gases in an inflatable object. This inflatable object is, in particular, an inner tube or a pneumatic tyre for a motor vehicle.

Abstract: A process for preparing crosslinkable oligomers comprising reacting at least one monomer having the structure: VHC?CHX, wherein more than 60% of such monomer or monomers has at least one crosslinkable functional moiety, and at least one monomer having the structure: WHC?CYZ at certain molar ratios and reaction conditions, in which V, X, W, and Z are predefined in the text. Curable coatings, sealants, and adhesives utilizing such crosslinkable oligomers and block, branched, star and comb-like graft crosslinkable copolymers derived from such crosslinkable oligomers are also disclosed.

Abstract: A method for obtaining a star polymer having a controlled ratio of a weight average molecular weight of the star polymer to a number average molecular weight of the star polymer, containing the steps of anionically polymerizing a (meth)acrylic ester having an alicyclic skeleton and a lactone ring in the presence of an anionic polymerization initiator to synthesize an arm polymer, reacting the arm polymer with a polyfunctional coupling agent, and reacting with an anionic polymerizable monomer.

Abstract: It is to provide a block copolymer that can form a microphase separation structure even with a small molecular size, and that can form a microphase separation structure with a small domain size. It is a block copolymer represented by the formula A-C-B (wherein A represents a segment which is a homopolymer or random or block copolymer consisting of at least 1 kind or repeat units represented by formula (II); B represents a segment which is a homopolymer, or random or block copolymer consisting of at least 1 kind of repeat units represented by formula (III); C represents A, B or A-B; however, at least 1 segment of each A has a water-repellent group, or at least 1 segment of each B has a polar group); which block copolymer has a mass average molecular weight of 50,000 or less, and that can form a microphase separation structure.

Abstract: Disclosed are a resin composition for laser engraving, including an acrylic block copolymer; a relief printing plate precursor for laser engraving comprising a relief-forming layer formed from the resin composition on a support; a process for producing the relief printing plate precursor; a process of making a relief printing plate using the relief printing plate precursor; and a relief printing plate having a relief layer which is manufactured by the process.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of forming polymer on the surface of polymer particles, the method comprising: (i) providing a dispersion comprising a continuous aqueous phase, a dispersed organic phase comprising one or more ethylenically unsaturated monomers, and a RAFT agent as a stabiliser for said organic phase; (ii) polymerising the one or more ethylenically unsaturated monomers under the control of the RAFT agent to form an aqueous dispersion of seed polymer particles; (iii) crosslinking the seed polymer particles; (iv) swelling the crosslinked seed particles with one or more ethylenically unsaturated monomers to form an aqueous dispersion of monomer swollen crosslinked seed polymer particles; (v) increasing the temperature of the monomer swollen crosslinked seed polymer particles to expel at least some of the monomer therein onto the surface of the particles; and polymerising at least the expelled monomer to form polymer on the surface of the particles.

Abstract: Disclosed herein are copolymers comprising functional groups attached to the backbone of the polymer and methods of making these polymers.

Abstract: Provided are novel polymer brushes that may be used in underlying buffer or imaging layers for block copolymer lithography. The novel polymer brushes include X-A-b-B and X-A-b-C block copolymer brushes, with X an anchoring group, the A block a lithographically sensitive polymer, and the C block a random copolymer. According to various embodiments; polymer block brushes for neutral and preferential layers are provided; the neutral layers non-preferential to the overlying block copolymer and the preferential layers preferential to a block of the overlying block copolymer. Also provided are novel methods of patterning polymer block brush layers as well as polymer block brush buffer and imaging layers that are directly patternable by e-beam, deep UV, extreme UV, X-ray or other lithographic methods.

Abstract: The invention relates to radiation curable compositions comprising at least one radiation curable (meth)acrylic copolymer A prepared by reacting a copolymer P obtained from copolymerizing monomers comprising (i) from 10 to 50 mole % of at least one (meth)acrylate (a1) comprising a first functional group, and (ii) from 50 to 90 mole % of at least one alkyl(meth)acrylate (a2) having at least 6 carbon atoms in the alkyl chain, with at least one (meth)acrylate (a3) comprising a second functional group which can react with the first functional group of (meth)acrylate (a1), said radiation curable (meth)acrylic copolymer A having a number average molecular weight Mn of 1000 to 23000, and their use for making inks, varnishes, adhesives and coatings.

Abstract: [Object] To provide a self-supporting thin polymer membrane having a large surface area, a high strength, and a perpendicularly oriented cylindrical structure, and to provide a method of producing the membrane. [Solution] The self-supporting thin polymer membrane of the present invention is a self-supporting thin polymer membrane including a block copolymer in which a hydrophilic polymer component and a hydrophobic polymer component having a crosslinkable structure are linked to each other by covalent bonding, and in the self-supporting thin polymer membrane, the hydrophilic polymer component forms unidirectionally oriented cylinders, and the hydrophobic polymer component forms crosslinks. The self-supporting thin polymer membrane of the present invention does not have physical pores but allows a material to selectively permeate the cylindrical portions and can be therefore used as various permeable membranes, ultrafiltration membranes, and nanoreactors.

Abstract: A method for producing an AB block copolymer with PDI is provided. The method comprises steps of: 1) reaction, in the presence of at least one free radical initiator, of a reaction mixture comprising a compound of formula (I), and 2) reaction, at a temperature of 45° C. or above, of a reaction mixture comprising an ethylenically unsaturated monomer B and, independent from that of step 1), a compound of formula (I) and the macroinitiator of step 1) in solvent(s) to obtain the AB block copolymer; wherein the weight ratio of the compound of formula (I) to the macroinitiator in step 2) is at least 1:1000.

Abstract: Synthetic microgel polymer compositions are useful for treating and/or modifying hard surfaces, in particular by promoting the hydrophilization thereof, notably in cleaning or rinsing operations.

Abstract: A method for controlling the physical state of an ultra-high molecular weight polymer to make the ultra-high molecular weight polymer suitable for further processing, and related polymers compositions methods and systems, wherein the method comprises combining a catalyst, monomers, and an additive, for a time and under condition to allow synthesis of a nascent polymer and co-crystallization of the nascent polymer with the additive.

Abstract: According to an aspect of the present invention, implantable or insertable medical devices are provided, which contain one or more polymeric regions. These polymeric regions, in turn, contain one or more polymers, at least one of which is a copolymer that includes the following: (a) one or more unsaturated hydrocarbon monomer species and (b) one or more heteroatom-containing monomer species.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an electronic device comprising at least one dielectric layer, said dielectric layer comprising a crosslinked organic compound based on at least one compound which is radically crosslinkable and a method of making the electronic device.

Abstract: Various novel block cationomers comprising polyisobutylene (PIB) and poly(2-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (PDMAEMA) segments have been synthesized and characterized. The specific targets were various molecular weight diblocks (PDMAEMA+) and triblocks (PDMAEMA+-b-PIB-b-PDMAEMA+) with the PIB blocks in the DPn=50-200 (Mn=3,000-9,000 g/mol) range connected to blocks of PDMAEMA+ cations in the DPn=5-20 range. The overall synthetic strategy for the preparation of these block cationomers comprised four steps: 1) Synthesis by living cationic polymerization of mono- and di-allyltelechelic polyisobutylenes, 2) End group transformation to obtain PIBs fitted with termini capable of mediating the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) of DMAEMA, 3) ATRP of DMAEMA and 4) Quaternization of PDMAEMA to PDMAEMA+I? by CH3I. Kinetic and model experiments provided guidance to develop convenient synthesis methods.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a hot-melt adhesive that comprises a block copolymer having associative groups containing a nitrogen heterocyclic compound.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for producing meth)acrylate-based ABA triblock copolymers in which the A blocks are amine-functionalized.

Abstract: A blend polymer composition includes a styrene-based polymer, a non-styrene-based polymer, and a compatibilizer having a block copolymer. The block copolymer includes: a first block including a first monomer unit having an epoxy group, and a second monomer unit selected from an acrylate-based monomer unit, a methacrylate-based monomer unit, and a combination thereof; and a second block including a styrene-based monomer unit. The block copolymer has an epoxy equivalent ranging from 1000 g/eq to 20000 g/eq and a molecular weight distribution index ranging from 1.0 to 2.0.

Abstract: The invention relates to methyl methacrylate characterized in that at least one portion of the carbons thereof is biologically sourced and, more specifically, in that it contains between 0.2×10?10 and 1.2×10?10 wt.-% of 14C in relation to total carbon weight according to the ASTM D6866 standard. The preparation method comprises the use of acetone cyanohydrin as a raw material, said acetone cyanohydrin being obtained by condensing cyanohydric acid on acetone, and the methyl methacrylate is prepared using a process involving the addition of methanol. According to the invention, at least one from among the acetone, cyanohydric acid and methanol is obtained by means of a reaction or series of reactions involving the biomass.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a class of acid functionalized gradient block copolymers, processes for obtaining them and to their uses including but not limited to hair fixatives, toughening agents, and adhesives. Surprisingly, the applicants have discovered the aforementioned class of acid functionalized gradient block copolymers have advantageous properties and can find utility in a wide variety of application areas. These polymers are easily prepared by sequential monomer addition (i.e., “one-pot” synthesis) and the process does not require any post polymerization modification steps. The aforementioned polymers are derived from commonly utilized monomers. The use of common monomers provides both an economic advantage and an inherent safety advantage, e.g., the common monomers are considered biocompatible.

Abstract: The present invention relates to arborescent polymers and to a process for making same. In one embodiment, the present invention relates to arborescent polymers formed from at least one inimer and at least one isoolefin that have been end-functionalized with a polymer or copolymer having a low glass transition temperature (Tg), and to a process for making such arborescent polymers. In another embodiment, the present invention relates to arborescent polymers formed from at least one inimer and at least one isoolefin that have been end-functionalized with less than about 5 weight percent end blocks derived from a polymer or copolymer having a high glass transition temperature (Tg), and to a process for making such arborescent polymers.

Abstract: Compositions and methods for transport or release of therapeutic and diagnostic agents or metabolites or other analytes from cells, compartments within cells, or through cell layers or barriers are described. The compositions include a membrane barrier transport enhancing agent and are usually administered in combination with an enhancer and/or exposure to stimuli to effect disruption or altered permeability, transport or release. In a preferred embodiment, the compositions include compounds which disrupt endosomal membranes in response to the low pH in the endosomes but which are relatively inactive toward cell membranes, coupled directly or indirectly to a therapeutic or diagnostic agent. Other disruptive agents can also be used, responsive to stimuli and/or enhancers other than pH, such as light, electrical stimuli, electromagnetic stimuli, ultrasound, temperature, or combinations thereof.