Discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence
The present invention provides systems, articles, and methods for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation. In some cases, the materials and systems described herein can be capable of inhibiting reflection of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., the materials and systems can be capable of transmitting and/or absorbing electromagnetic radiation) within a given range of angles of incidence at a first incident surface, while substantially reflecting electromagnetic radiation outside the range of angles of incidence at a second incident surface (which can be the same as or different from the first incident surface). A photonic material comprising a plurality of periodically occurring separate domains can be used, in some cases, to selectively transmit and/or selectively absorb one portion of incoming electromagnetic radiation while reflecting another portion of incoming electromagnetic radiation, based upon the angle of incidence. In some embodiments, one domain of the photonic material can include an isotropic dielectric function, while another domain of the photonic material can include an anisotropic dielectric function. In some instances, one domain of the photonic material can include an isotropic magnetic permeability, while another domain of the photonic material can include an anisotropic magnetic permeability. In some embodiments, non-photonic materials (e.g., materials with relatively large scale features) can be used to selectively absorb incoming electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence.
Latest Massachusetts Institute of Technology Patents:
- COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR AMELIORATING ANTERODORSAL THALAMUS HYPEREXCITABILITY
- ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE FIREBRICK SYSTEM
- Semiconductor Device with Electric Field Management Structures
- LUNG-CANCER SPECIFIC T CELL DYSFUNCTION
- Large-scale uniform optical focus array generation with a phase spatial light modulator
This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/365,732, filed Jul. 19, 2010, and entitled “Discriminating Electromagnetic Radiation Based on Angle of Incidence,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. This application is a reissue of U.S. Pat. No. 9,057,830, issued on Jun. 16, 2015, filed as U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/186,159 on Jul. 19, 2011, and entitled “Discriminating Electromagnetic Radiation Based on Angle of Incidence,” which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/365,732, filed Jul. 19, 2010, and entitled “Discriminating Electromagnetic Radiation Based on Angle of Incidence,” each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
GOVERNMENT SPONSORSHIPThis invention was made with government support under Contract No. W911NF-07-D-0004 awarded by the Army Research Office, Contract No. DE-SC0001299 awarded by the Department of Energy, and Contract No. DMR0819762 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in this invention. This invention was made with Government support under Grant Nos. DE-SC0001299 and DE-FG02-09ER46577 awarded by the Department of Energy, under Grant No. DMR0819762 awarded by the National Science Foundation, and under Contract No. W911NF-07-D-0004 awarded by the Army Research Office. The Government has certain rights in the invention.
FIELD OF INVENTIONArticles, systems, and methods for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence are generally described.
BACKGROUNDMaterials and structures that discriminate electromagnetic radiation based on one or more of its properties (e.g. polarization, frequency) can be useful in a wide range of systems. For example, polarizers can discriminate (e.g., transmit and/or absorb vs. reflect) electromagnetic radiation based on its polarization, irrespective of the angle of incidence, over a wide range of frequencies. Photonic crystals (PhCs) can reflect electromagnetic radiation of certain frequencies irrespective of the angle of incidence and irrespective of the polarization. A material system that could transmit and/or absorb electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence could have a wide range of uses.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONDiscriminating electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence, and associated articles, systems, and methods, are generally described. The subject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.
In one aspect, a photonic material is described. In some embodiments, the photonic material comprises a periodic assembly of domains having different dielectric properties, the periodic assembly of domains comprising a material having a first index of refraction and configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction. In some embodiments, at least about 75% of a first portion of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface of the photonic material at an angle of incidence within a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less is not reflected by the photonic material, and at least about 75% of a second portion of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a second incident surface of the photonic material at an angle of incidence outside the range is reflected by the photonic material.
In one aspect, a system is provided. The system comprises, in some embodiments, an electromagnetic radiation discriminator configured to absorb and/or transmit electromagnetic radiation, the discriminator comprising a material with a first index of refraction and configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction; an energy conversion device configured to produce electricity from electromagnetic radiation and/or heat received from the electromagnetic radiation discriminator, wherein at least about 75% of a first portion of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface of the electromagnetic radiation discriminator at an angle of incidence within a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less is absorbed and/or transmitted through the radiation discriminator, and at least about 75% of a second portion of electromagnetic radiation that contacts a second incident surface of the electromagnetic radiation discriminator at an angle of incidence outside the range is reflected by the article.
In some embodiments, the system comprises a transmitter comprising a material with a first index of refraction configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium in contact with the transmitter having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction; and an absorber configured to absorb at least a portion of the electromagnetic radiation transmitted through the transmitter; wherein at least about 75% of a first portion of the electromagnetic radiation that is incident upon a first incident surface of the transmitter at an angle of incidence within a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less is transmitted through the transmitter, and at least about 75% of a second portion of the electromagnetic radiation that is incident upon a second incident surface of the transmitter at an angle of incidence outside the range is reflected by the transmitter.
In one aspect, an article is described. In some embodiments, the article comprises a photonic material comprising a plurality of periodically occurring separate domains, including at least a first domain and a second domain adjacent the first domain, wherein the first or second domain has an isotropic dielectric function while the other of the first and second domains has an anisotropic dielectric function; and the first or second domain has an isotropic magnetic permeability while the other of the first and second domains has an anisotropic magnetic permeability.
In some embodiments, the article comprises a photonic material comprising a plurality of periodically occurring separate domains, including at least a first domain and a second domain adjacent the first domain, wherein the first or second domain has an isotropic dielectric function while the other of the first and second domains has an anisotropic dielectric function; and a polarizer configured to produce TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation from the incoming electromagnetic radiation such that the TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation is incident on the photonic material.
Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting ornbodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control.
Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. In the figures:
The present invention provides systems, articles, and methods for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation. In some cases, the materials and systems described herein can be capable of inhibiting reflection of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., the materials and systems can be capable of transmitting and/or absorbing electromagnetic radiation) within a given range of angles of incidence at a first incident surface, while substantially reflecting electromagnetic radiation outside the range of angles of incidence at a second incident surface (which can be the same as or different from the first incident surface). A photonic material comprising a plurality of periodically occurring separate domains can be used, in some cases, to selectively transmit and/or selectively absorb one portion of incoming electromagnetic radiation while reflecting another portion of incoming electromagnetic radiation, based upon the angle of incidence. In some embodiments, one domain of the photonic material can include an isotropic dielectric function, while another domain of the photonic material can include an anisotropic dielectric function. In some instances, one domain of the photonic material can include an isotropic magnetic permeability, while another domain of the photonic material can include an anisotropic magnetic permeability. In some embodiments, non-photonic materials (e.g., materials with relatively large scale features) can be used to selectively absorb incoming electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence.
In some applications, it would be beneficial if electromagnetic radiation incident at a particular angle (or a range of angles) would be inhibited from being reflected (e.g., it would be transmitted and/or absorbed), while other angles of incidence would be substantially reflected (e.g., nearly perfectly reflected), independent of the incoming polarization, and for as wide a range of frequencies as possible. Such materials could be useful in a wide variety of applications including, for example, solar energy applications, producing a highly enhanced green-house effect. As one specific, non-limiting example, such materials could be used to discriminate sunlight, which travels along a relatively well-defined direction and, accordingly, has a relatively well-defined angle of incidence. When sunlight interacts with components of solar-energy conversion devices (e.g., solar absorbers, selective emitters, photovoltaic (PV) cells, etc.), a portion of sunlight can be reflected from one or more components of the solar-energy conversion device, while another portion can be re-radiated (e.g., because of radiative recombination, or in solar-thermal systems because of thermal emission). Reflection and re-radiation result in energy losses, which can often be substantial and can lower the overall efficiency of the solar-energy conversion device. If one could place a material proximate an absorber, selective emitter, and/or a PV cell (e.g., a solar cell) that would substantially inhibit reflection of (e.g., substantially transmit and/or substantially absorb) electromagnetic radiation at a particular angle (e.g., the angle coming from the sun) or range of angles, while substantially reflecting electromagnetic radiation emerging from the solar-energy conversion device (most of which propagates at angles that are different from the angle at which the electromagnetic radiation approaches from the sun) back to the solar-energy conversion device, the efficiency of the energy-conversion system could be greatly improved.
In some embodiments, the devices and systems described herein make use of photonic materials. As used herein, the terms “photonic material” and “photonic crystal” are given their ordinary meaning in the art, and refer to a material that can control the propagation of electromagnetic radiation based on a periodic assembly of domains having different dielectric properties. In some embodiments, the photonic crystals include domains with one or more dimensions of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength(s) of the electromagnetic radiation the photonic crystal is configured to control the propagation of. “Photonic crystal” and “photonic material” are used interchangeably herein, and refer to the same class of materials.
The photonic materials described herein can have, in some cases, 1-dimensional and/or 2-dimensional periodicity. One of ordinary skill in the art would be able to determine the dimensionality of the periodicity of a photonic crystal upon inspection. For example, 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystals include materials arranged in such a way that a line along a first coordinate direction within the photonic crystal passes through multiple domains while lines along second and third orthogonal coordinate directions, each of the second and third coordinate directions being orthogonal to the first coordinate direction within the photonic crystal, do not pass through multiple domains. In some embodiments, the index of refraction at least one point within the 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal varies along a first coordinate direction and does not substantially vary along second and third orthogonal coordinate directions, each of the second and third coordinate directions being orthogonal to the first coordinate direction. For example, a 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can include two or more materials and/or metamaterials arranged in a stack such that a line along a first coordinate direction passes through multiple layers while lines along second and third coordinate directions (each orthogonal to the first coordinate direction) remain within a single layer. An example of a 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal is shown as photonic crystal 118 in
2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystals include materials arranged in such a way that lines along first and second orthogonal coordinate directions within the photonic crystal pass through multiple domains while a line along a third coordinate direction, orthogonal to the first and second coordinate directions, does not pass through multiple domains. In some embodiments, the index of refraction within the volume of a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal varies along first and second orthogonal coordinate directions, but does not substantially vary along a third coordinate direction orthogonal to the first and second coordinate directions. For example, a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can include two or more materials arranged such that at least one material forms a series of elongated rods that extend through the thickness of another material. An example of a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal is shown in
As noted above, various aspects are related to distinguishing electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence. As used herein, the “angle of incidence” between electromagnetic radiation and a given article (e.g., an incident surface of the article) refers to the smallest angle formed between the vector along which electromagnetic radiation travels and the line extending perpendicularly from the incident surface from the point at which the electromagnetic radiation intersects the incident surface of the article. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In this context, an “incident surface” of an article refers to the geometric surface of the article, which will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art to refer to the surface defining the outer boundaries of the article on which electromagnetic radiation is incident, and does not include surfaces lying within the external boundaries of the article. For example, the incident surface would include the area that may be measured by a macroscopic measuring tool (e.g., a ruler), but would not include surfaces formed by pores or holes formed within the article. In some cases (e.g., when an article has a relatively smooth, non-porous exterior surface), the incident surface of an article corresponds to a physical surface of the article. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, the articles described herein can be configured to inhibit reflection of electromagnetic radiation (e.g., transmit and/or absorb electromagnetic radiation) that contacts a first incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within a range of angles. For example, in some embodiments, the article can be configured such that at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts the first incident surface at an angle of incidence within a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less, about 30° or less, about 15° or less, about 5° or less, about 2° or less, or about 1° or less is not reflected by the article (e.g., is transmitted through the article and/or is absorbed by the article). A range of angles of incidence is said to span X° when the range includes all incidence angles from Y° to Z°, wherein the difference between Z and Y is X. For example, a range of angles of incidence spanning 30° could include all incidence angles between 0° and 30° (where, according to the description above, Y=0 and Z=30), all incidence angles between 15° and 45°, all incidence angles between 30° and 60°, etc. In some embodiments, the range of angles of incidence over which reflection of the electromagnetic radiation is inhibited includes the 0° angle normal to an incident surface. In some embodiments, and as described in more detail below, the range of angles of incidence over which reflection of electromagnetic radiation is inhibited does not include the 0° angle normal to the incident surface.
In some embodiments, the articles described herein can be configured to substantially reflect electromagnetic radiation that contacts a second incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside the range of angles over which reflection was inhibited. For example, in some embodiments, the article can be configured such that at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts the second incident surface outside the range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less, about 30° or less, about 15° or less, about 5° or less, about 2° or less, or about 1° or less is reflected by the article.
In some embodiments, the first incident surface and the second incident surface are the same. For example, in some articles described herein, the top surface of the article can be configured such that it inhibits reflection of electromagnetic radiation within a given range of angles of incidence and substantially reflects electromagnetic radiation outside that range of angles of incidence. In some embodiments, the first incident surface and the second incident surface are different. For example, in some embodiments (e.g., in some cases in which a selective transmitter is employed), the first incident surface is the top surface of the article (e.g., a surface exposed to incoming electromagnetic radiation from a source such as the sun), which can be configured to inhibit reflection of incoming electromagnetic radiation within a given range of angles of incidence. In some such embodiments, the second incident surface is the bottom surface of the article (e.g., a surface exposed to reflected and/or re-emitted radiation from a selective emitter, TPV cell, etc.) which can be configured to reflect incident electromagnetic radiation with an angle of incidence outside the given range of angles.
In some embodiments in which the first and second incident surfaces are different, the second incident surface can be substantially parallel to the first incident surface. In some embodiments, the first incident surface and the second incident surfaces face in opposite directions (e.g., incident surfaces 150 and 151 in
In some embodiments, at least some (and, in some cases, all) of the material within the articles used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation has an index of refraction that is greater than the index of refraction of a medium in contact with the article and through which electromagnetic radiation (e.g., discriminated electromagnetic radiation) passes to contact the article. For example, in many embodiments described herein, the electromagnetic radiation is transported through air (which has an index of refraction of about 1.0003) prior to contacting the article, and the article includes a material having an index of refraction greater than that of air (e.g., tungsten, which has an index of refraction of about 2). One of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of measuring the index of refraction of an article using an ellipsometer. The articles described herein can be configured to discriminate electromagnetic radiation over a relatively broad range of wavelengths, in some embodiments. For example, in some cases, the articles described herein can be configured to discriminate electromagnetic radiation (e.g., inhibit reflection of and/or substantially reflect electromagnetic radiation to any of the extents mentioned herein and/or within/outside any of the ranges of angles of incidence mentioned herein) based on the angle of incidence over a range of wavelengths of between about 100 nm and about 300 micrometers, between about 100 nm and about 100 micrometers, between about 100 nm and about 10 micrometers, or between about 100 nm and about 1 micrometer. In some embodiments, the articles described herein can be configured to discriminate visible electromagnetic radiation (e.g., between about 400 nm and about 760 nm), ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation (e.g., between about 100 nm and about 400 nm), and/or infrared electromagnetic radiation (e.g., between about 760 nm and about 300 micrometers). In some embodiments, the electromagnetic radiation includes a wavelength that interacts photonically with a photonic material in the article configured to discriminate electromagnetic radiation.
As noted above, in some embodiments, articles for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence (i.e., electromagnetic radiation angular discriminators) are provided. In some embodiments, an article can discriminate electromagnetic radiation such that a relatively large percentage of incident radiation within a range of angles of incidence is transmitted through the article and a relatively large percentage of the incident radiation outside the range of angles of incidence is reflected by the article.
In some embodiments, the first domain regions comprise a first material and the second domain regions comprise a second material that has at least one property (e.g., index of refraction) that is different from the first material. The first and second domains can form a plurality of bilayers, each bilayer having a period equal to the thickness of the bilayer. For example, in
In some embodiments, the first or second domain has an isotropic dielectric function while the other of the first and second domains has an anisotropic dielectric function. One of ordinary skill in the art would understand the meaning of the terms “isotropic dielectric function” and “anisotropic dielectric function.” The dielectric function of a domain made of a single material corresponds to the dielectric function of that material. The dielectric function of a domain including multiple materials corresponds to the overall dielectric function of the domain (also referred to as an “effective dielectric function”), rather than the dielectric functions of the individual materials within the domain. The dielectric function of a domain (including one material or including multiple materials) can be measured using an ellipsometer. In some embodiments, the dielectric function of a domain along a first coordinate direction can be at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, or at least about 100% different than the dielectric function of the domain along a second and/or third coordinate direction, the second and third coordinate directions orthogonal to each other and to the first coordinate direction. In some cases, the first domain (e.g., domains 110 in
By arranging the domains such that they have alternating isotropic/anisotropic dielectric functions, one can discriminate TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence. For example, in some embodiments, the thicknesses and/or dielectric functions of domains 110 and 112 can be configured such that a high percentage (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all) of the TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface of article 100 (e.g., incident surface 150 and/or incident surface 151) at an angle of incidence within a given range of angles of incidence (e.g., a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less, about 30° or less, about 15° or less, about 5° or less, about 2° or less, or about 1° or less) will be transmitted through the photonic material, while a relatively high percentage (e.g., any of the percentages mentioned above) of the TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation that contacts a second incident surface of article 100 (e.g., surface 150 and/or surface 151) at an angle of incidence outside the given range of angles of incidence will be reflected by the photonic material. In the set of embodiments illustrated in
One can construct a domain with an anisotropic dielectric function in a number of ways. In some cases, the domain comprising an anisotropic dielectric function can comprise a material that has an anisotropic dielectric function (also sometimes referred to as birefringent materials) such as, for example, TiO2, calcite, calomel (mercury chloride), beryl, lithium niobate, zircon, mica, and/or mixtures of these. One of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of selecting other materials with anisotropic dielectric functions suitable for use with the embodiments described herein. In some embodiments, a domain comprising an anisotropic dielectric function comprises a combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective dielectric function. For example, in some cases, a combination of at least two materials can be arranged to form a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal.
In some embodiments, the first or second domain can have an isotropic magnetic permeability while the other of the first and second domains has an anisotropic magnetic permeability. One of ordinary skill in the art would understand the meaning of the terms “isotropic magnetic permeability” and “anisotropic magnetic permeability.” The magnetic permeability of a domain made of a single material corresponds to the magnetic permeability of that material. The magnetic permeability of a domain including multiple materials corresponds to the overall magnetic permeability of the domain (also referred to as an “effective magnetic permeability”), rather than the magnetic permeabilities of the individual materials within the domain. The magnetic permeability of a domain (including one material or including multiple materials) can be measured using, for example, a superconductive magnet or a balance, such as an Evans balance or a Gouy balance. In some embodiments, the magnetic permeability of a domain along a first coordinate direction can be at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, or at least about 100% different than the magnetic permeability of the domain along a second and/or third coordinate direction, the second and third coordinate directions orthogonal to each other and to the first coordinate direction. In some cases, the first domain (e.g., domain 110 in
One might construct a domain with an anisotropic magnetic permeability in a number of ways. For example, a domain comprising an anisotropic magnetic permeability might comprise a combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective magnetic permeability. The two materials might comprise, for example, a metal and a second material (e.g., a metal and a dielectric material). For example, metallo-dielectric materials are described in Pendry, et al., IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques, 47, No. 11, November 1999. In some cases, the domain comprising an anisotropic magnetic permeability might comprise a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal. As another example, metamaterials are described in Li et al., “Large Absolute Band Gap in 2D Anisotropic Photonic Crystals,” Physical Review Letters, 81, No. 12, 21 Sep. 1998. One of ordinary skill in the art, given the present disclosure, would be capable of using a screening test to select materials and/or configure a multi-material system to achieve a desired anisotropic magnetic permeability within a domain by, for example, fabricating a domain out of a selected material and/or fabricating a multi-material domain and measuring the magnetic permeability of the domain from various angles to determine whether the domain has an anisotropic magnetic permeability. In some embodiments, a multi-material system can be designed using rigorous simulations of Maxwell's equations to achieve certain effective dielectric constants along particular directions, resulting in a certain degree of anisotropy.
By arranging the domains such that they have alternating isotropic/anisotropic magnetic permeabilities, one can discriminate TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence. For example, in some embodiments, the thicknesses and/or magnetic permeabilities of domains 110 and 112 can be configured such that a high percentage (e.g., at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all) of the TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface of photonic crystal 118 (e.g., incident surface 150 and/or incident surface 151) at an angle of incidence within a given range of angles of incidence (e.g., a range of angles of incidence spanning about 45° or less, about 30° or less, about 15° or less, about 5° or less, about 2° or less, or about 1° or less) will be transmitted through the photonic material while a relatively high percentage (e.g., any of the percentages mentioned above) of the TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation that contacts a second incident surface of article 100 (e.g., surface 150 and/or surface 151) at an angle of incidence outside the given range of angles of incidence will be reflected by the photonic material. In the set of embodiments illustrated in
The ability to discriminate both TM-polarized and TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation based upon angle of incidence can allow one to discriminate incident electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence regardless of polarization. In some embodiments, at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface (e.g., surface 150 and/or surface 151 in
As noted above, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, the frequency range over which light is absorbed within a given range of angles of incidence can be broadened by including multiple stacks of to bilayers within the photonic material. For example, in some cases, the photonic material can comprise at least 2, at least 5, at least 10, at least 20, at least 50, at least 100, or more stacks of bilayers. In some embodiments, the bilayers within each of the stacks might have different periods. For example, in some embodiments, the photonic material can comprise a first stack of bilayers with a first period, which can be used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths within a first range of wavelengths, and a second stack of bilayers with a second period, which can be used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths within a second range of wavelengths. One of ordinary skill in the art, given the present disclosure, would be capable of using a screening test to adjust the period(s) of bilayer(s) to achieve a desired angular selectivity over a desired range of wavelengths by, for example, fabricating a stack of bilayers, exposing the bilayers to electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength one desires to discriminate at a variety of angles of incidence, and measuring the amount of the electromagnetic radiation that is transmitted and/or absorbed by the bilayers.
In some cases (e.g., in some instances where domains with anisotropic magnetic permeabilities are not used), the system can include an optional polarizer configured to produce TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation from the incoming electromagnetic radiation such that the TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation is incident on the photonic material. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In addition to 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystals, selective transmission of incident electromagnetic radiation can be achieved using non-photonic articles with relatively large-scale features. For example, in some embodiments, selective transmission of incident electromagnetic radiation can be achieved using a macroscale filter, optionally made of a reflective material, comprising a plurality of elongated channels formed through the filter. Electromagnetic radiation that intersects an incident surface of the macroscale filter proximate the channel openings and that propagates parallel to or nearly parallel to the channels in the macroscale filter can be transmitted through the macroscale filter. On the other hand, electromagnetic radiation that is incident on reflective portions of the incident surface of the macroscale filter and/or electromagnetic radiation that travels at angles that are far from parallel to the channels within the macroscale filter can be reflected from, rather than transmitted through, the macroscale filter.
Electromagnetic radiation 316B in
Electromagnetic radiation 316C in
While channels 312 illustrated in
The cross-sectional shape of the channels within the macroscale filter can be, in some cases, substantially constant along their lengths. In some embodiments, at least some of the channels (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%) have a substantially constant cross-sectional shape along essentially the entire length of the channel. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, the channels within the macroscale filter can have relatively large cross-sectional diameters. As used herein, the “cross-sectional diameter” of a channel is measured perpendicular to the length of the channel. The cross-sectional diameter of a cylindrical channel is the cross-sectional diameter of that cylinder. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
As noted above, the channels in the macroscale filter can be elongated and can, in some embodiments, have a relatively large aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of a channel is calculated by dividing the length of the channel by the cross-sectional diameter of the channel. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, the macroscale filter can be configured such that a relatively small portion of the surface area of at least one incident surface (e.g., incident surface 318 and/or incident surface 321) is occupied by reflective material. For the filter illustrated in
Configuring the macroscale filter such that a relatively small portion of the surface area of the incident surface is occupied by reflective material can reduce the amount of electromagnetic radiation with an incidence angle of 0° or close to 0° that is reflected away from the filter (rather than being transmitted through the filter), which can enhance the degree to which the filter can discriminate incoming electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence.
The portion of the surface area of the incident surface occupied by reflective material can be configured to be relatively small by, for example, configuring the channels within the macroscale filter to have relatively large cross-sectional dimensions and/or by configuring the reflective material separating the channels to define thin walls. For example,
A variety of materials can be used to form the reflective portion of the macroscale filter. For example, reflective portion 310 can comprise a metal (e.g., steel, aluminum, gold, silver, nickel, copper, platinum, or mixtures or alloys of these), dielectric photonic crystal structures, or mixtures of these.
A variety of materials can be used to form channels in the macroscale filter. In some embodiments, the channels in the macroscale filter can comprise a material transparent to the electromagnetic radiation the filter is designed to discriminate. In some embodiments, the channels in the macroscale filter can comprise a material with a relative low index of refraction (e.g., less than about 1.5, less than about 1.25, less than about 1.1, or less than about 1.05). For example, the channels in the macroscale filter can comprise a polymer, water, a glass, a gas (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, or mixtures of these such as air and/or other mixtures), oxides (including metal oxides), and/or mixtures of these. In some embodiments, the channels are fabricated from material(s) selected to be at least partially transparent to the electromagnetic radiation which the filter is designed to discriminate. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the material within the channel is the same as the ambient medium material in which the macroscale filter is to be used. For example, the macroscale filter can comprise holes formed through the reflective portion of the filter, and the holes can be filled with the material in which the filter is located (e.g., ambient air). As one particular example, the macroscale filter can comprise holes formed in a metal and can be used to filter incoming sunlight in an outdoor location, in which case, the channels can be filled with atmospheric air.
As noted above, macroscale filter 300 can be used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation based on its angle of incidence. In some embodiments, at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface (e.g., surface 318 and/or surface 321 in
In some embodiments, articles that selectively absorb incident electromagnetic radiation, are provided. For example, in some embodiments, selective absorption of incident electromagnetic radiation can be achieved using a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal. The 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can comprise a continuous region and a plurality of discontinuous regions formed within the continuous region. In some embodiments, a relatively large portion of the electromagnetic radiation that intersects the incident surface of the selective absorber at an incidence angle within a certain range can be absorbed by the selective absorber, and a relatively large portion of the electromagnetic radiation that intersects the incident surface of the selective absorber at an incidence angle outside the range can be reflected by the selective absorber.
In some embodiments, the selective absorber can be configured to include materials and/or dimensions that allow the selective absorber to discriminate electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence. In some embodiments, at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, at least about 99.9%, or substantially all of the electromagnetic radiation that contacts a first incident surface (e.g., surface 418 and/or surface 419 in
For example, referring to
Regions 412 of the 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can include at least one cross sectional dimension with a length that is less than 3 times, less than 2 times, or less than 1 time the maximum wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation the filter is configured to discriminate. Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that selective absorption can be achieved by configuring the photonic crystal to include features (e.g., regions 412) that establish discontinuities in the dielectric function having cross-sectional dimensions on the order of the wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation the selective absorber is configured to discriminate, and that if the period of the structure is much greater than the wavelength of light being discriminated, then the interactions between the holes will be changed.
In some embodiments, the discontinuous regions 412 within the selective absorber 400 can have relatively small cross-sectional diameters and/or lengths. As used herein, the “cross-sectional diameter” of a discontinuous region is measured in a direction parallel to the incident surface of the selective absorber. The cross-sectional diameter of a cylindrical discontinuous region is the cross-sectional diameter of that cylinder. For non-cylindrical discontinuous regions, the cross-sectional diameter corresponds to the cross-sectional diameter of a theoretical cylinder with the same volume and length (measured parallel to the thickness of the layer in which the discontinuous region is formed) as the non-cylindrical discontinuous region. In some embodiments, the cross-sectional diameter of at least one discontinuous region (e.g., at least about 10%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99% of the channels) in the selective absorber is less than about 100 micrometers, less than about 50 micrometers, less than about 10 micrometers, less than about 5 micrometers, less than about 2 micrometers, or less than about 1 micrometer, and/or at least about 10 nm, at least about 100 nm, or at least about 500 nm (e.g., between about 10 nm and about 10 micrometers, between about 100 nm and about 5 micrometers, or between about 0.5 micrometers and about 2 micrometers). In some embodiments, the average and/or the median of the cross-sectional diameters of the discontinuous regions in the selective absorber can be less than about 100 micrometers, less than about 50 micrometers, less than about 10 micrometers, less than about 5 micrometers, less than about 2 micrometers, or less than about 1 micrometer, and/or at least about 10 nm, at least about 100 nm, or at least about 500 nm (e.g., between about 10 nm and about 10 micrometers, between about 100 nm and about 5 micrometers, or between about 0.5 micrometers and about 2 micrometers).
In some embodiments, continuous region 410 can be a thin film. For example, in some cases, continuous region 410 can have an average thickness 424 of less than about 100 micrometers, less than about 10 micrometers, less than about 1 micrometer, between about 100 nm and about 10 micrometers, or between about 0.5 micrometers and about 1.5 micrometers. One of ordinary skill in the art would be capable of measuring the thicknesses (and calculating average thicknesses) of thin films using, for example, an ellipsometer, a spectrophotometer, an optical microscope, a transmission-electron microscope, or other suitable method, depending on the type of material from which the thin film is formed.
While discontinuous regions 412 illustrated in
The cross-sectional shape of the discontinuous regions 412 within the selective absorber 400 can be, in some cases, substantially constant along their lengths. In some embodiments, at least some of discontinuous regions 412 (e.g., at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, or at least about 99%) have a substantially constant cross-sectional shape along essentially the entire length of the discontinuous region. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
Discontinuous regions 412 can have a variety of aspect ratios. The aspect ratio of regions 412 is calculated by dividing the length of the discontinuous region (as measured in a direction parallel to the thickness of the material in which the discontinuous region is formed), to the cross-sectional diameter of the discontinuous region. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, the average of the nearest neighbor distances between regions 412 can be less than about 100 micrometers, less than about 50 micrometers, less than about 10 micrometers, less than about 5 micrometers, or less than about 2 micrometers, and/or at least about 10 nm, at least about 100 nm, at least about 500 nm, or at least about 1 micrometer (e.g., between about 10 nm and about 100 micrometers, between about 100 nm and about 10 micrometers, or between about 0.5 micrometers and about 2 micrometers). The nearest neighbor distance for a first discontinuous region is calculated as the distance between the center of the first discontinuous region and the center of the nearest discontinuous region relative to the first discontinuous region. For example, in the set of embodiments illustrated in
In some embodiments, discontinuous regions 412 can include one or more materials positioned within voids of the continuous region 410. For example, voids can be formed within continuous region 410, and one or more materials can be deposited into the voids to form discontinuous regions 412. In some cases, discontinuous regions 412 can comprise openings formed within continuous region 410. In some such embodiments, the chemical composition of discontinuous regions 412 can be substantially the same as the chemical composition of the environment surrounding the selective absorber (e.g., vacuum, ambient air, etc.).
Selective absorber 400 can include a variety of types of materials. Examples of materials that can be used to form the continuous region 410 of the 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal include, but are not limited to, metals (e.g., tungsten (e.g., single-crystal tungsten), tantalum, platinum, palladium, silver, gold, etc.), semiconductors (e.g., silicon, germanium, etc.), or dielectric materials (e.g., titania, zirconia). In one particular set of embodiments, a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can comprise a layer of tungsten in which holes are formed. In some embodiments, the selective absorber can be formed of a material with a relatively low emissivity. In some embodiments, the selective absorber can comprise a material with an emissivity of less than about 0.3, less than about 0.2, less than about 0.1, or less than about 0.05, for example at the temperature at which the selective absorber is designed to operate and at the wavelength(s) of electromagnetic radiation the selective absorber is configured to absorb.
Structures capable of discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence could find uses in a wide variety of applications. For example, articles capable of selectively absorbing and/or transmitting electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence can be useful in applications where it is desirable to “trap” incoming electromagnetic radiation of a known incidence angle. One example of such an application is solar energy conversion. In many commercial solar conversion systems (e.g., solar to thermal to electrical conversion systems, concentrated solar photovoltaic systems, etc.) incident angle of the sun can be controlled for. For example, solar to electrical photovoltaic conversion panels and concentrated solar photovoltaic system panels can be configured to track the motion of the sun. In many systems currently in use, a portion of the incident solar energy is typically reflected or reemitted from the receiving device (e.g., the photovoltaic panel, the absorber, etc.), which results in (often substantial) losses. Since the angle of outgoing electromagnetic radiation reflected from the receiving device is typically substantially different than the angle of the incoming electromagnetic radiation from the sun, articles capable of selectively transmitting electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence could be used to “trap” the reflected radiation, redirecting it back towards the receiving device. In addition, selective absorbers could be used to produce a relatively large amount of heat, without the need for concentrators such as lenses, mirrors, or other devices.
Accordingly, in some embodiments, the articles described herein (including article 100, macroscale filter 300, and/or selective absorber 400) can be configured such that they transmit the electromagnetic radiation incident on the article and/or heat derived from the electromagnetic radiation incident on the article to a system capable of producing energy (e.g., in the form of electricity) from the electromagnetic radiation and/or heat transmitted from the article. In some cases, the photonic materials, articles, and systems described herein can be configured to transmit electromagnetic radiation to and/or be a part of a photovoltaic cell (e.g., a solar photovoltaic cell, a thermophotovoltaic cell, etc.). In some cases, the photonic materials, articles, and systems described herein can be configured to transmit heat to and/or be a part of an absorber (e.g., an absorber proximate an emitter configured to transmit electromagnetic radiation emitted by the emitter to a photovoltaic cell, an absorber configured to exchange heat with a device capable of producing electricity from heat (e.g., a heat engine)).
In some embodiments, the systems, articles, and methods described herein can be used in photovoltaic energy generation systems.
In some embodiments, the systems, articles, and methods described herein can be used in thermophotovoltaic systems. In thermophotovoltaic systems, electromagnetic radiation (e.g., sunlight) is not absorbed directly by a photovoltaic material, but rather, is absorbed by an absorber. In some cases, the absorber can selectively emit and/or be thermally coupled to a selective emitter, which then thermally radiates electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the emitter can then be absorbed by a photovoltaic cell.
Although selective absorber 532 and selective emitter 536 are illustrated as being in direct contact in
In some embodiments, selective emitter 536 is configured to emit electromagnetic radiation when it is heated. For example, selective emitter 536 can comprise a material having a relatively high emissivity (e.g., a material having an emissivity of at least about 0.7, at least about 0.8, or at least about 0.9, for example at the temperature at which the selective emitter is designed to operate and at the wavelength(s) of electromagnetic radiation the selective emitter is configured to radiate). Exemplary high emissivity materials include, but are not limited to, quartz, silicon carbon (e.g., graphite, carbon black, etc.), carbide, oxidized steel, and the like. In
In some embodiments, rather than heating a selective emitter, selective absorber 532 can be used to heat a working fluid, which can be used to power a heat engine.
Generally, thermophotovoltaic systems and heat engine-based systems are more efficient when they operate at high temperatures. In many previous systems, high temperatures can be achieved by using lenses, mirrors, or other suitable devices to focus the electromagnetic radiation (e.g., sunlight) onto the absorber. The selective transmitters and absorbers described herein can be used to replace traditional concentrators in many such systems and/or enhance their effect, thereby improving system performance.
In some embodiments, the articles for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence described herein can comprise a refractory metal (e.g., niobium, molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, iridium, ruthenium, zirconium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, rhodium, hafnium, and/or rhenium) and/or another refractory material. The use of refractory materials can allow one to fabricate a articles that are capable of withstanding relatively high temperatures (e.g., at least about 1000° C., at least about 1500° C., or at least about 2000° C.). In some embodiments, the article for discriminating electromagnetic radiation can comprise compounds such as tungsten carbide, tantalum hafnium carbide, and/or tungsten boride. In some embodiments, the article for discriminating electromagnetic radiation can comprise noble metals, including noble metals with high melting points (e.g., platinum, palladium, gold, and silver), diamond, and/or cermets (i.e., compound metamaterials including two or more materials (e.g., tungsten and alumina) which can be, in some embodiments, broken up into pieces smaller than the wavelength of visible light). In some embodiments, the article for discriminating electromagnetic radiation can comprise a combination of two or more of these materials.
The present invention also relates to methods for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on the angle of incidence. The methods can comprise, for example, exposing any of the articles described herein to electromagnetic radiation and discriminating the electromagnetic radiation to any of the extents described herein. In some embodiments, the methods comprise configuring other components (e.g., absorbers, energy conversion devices such as photovoltaic cells, heat engines, etc.) to receive heat and/or electromagnetic radiation from an article configured to discriminate electromagnetic radiation, for example, as part of an energy generation system. Methods of the invention also include methods for fabricating the articles used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation described herein.
A variety of methods, according to certain aspects of the invention, can be used to form the articles for discriminating electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence described herein. In some embodiments, various components can be formed from solid materials, in which materials (e.g., layers of materials), holes, discontinuous regions, and the like can be formed via micromachining; film deposition processes such as spin coating, chemical vapor deposition, and/or physical vapor deposition (including sputtering); laser fabrication; photolithographic techniques; etching methods including wet chemical or plasma processes; electrochemical processes; and the like. See, for example, “Silicon Micromechanical Devices” by Angell et al., Scientific American, Vol. 248, pages 44-55, 1983. For example, at least a portion of a 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can be formed by depositing multiple thin-films of material via, for example, sputtering. As another example, in one set of embodiments, at least a portion of a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal can be formed by etching (e.g., laser etching) features into a substrate and/or layer such as a metal substrate and/or layer (e.g., aluminum, steel, copper, tungsten, and the like). In some embodiments, the articles described herein can be fabricated using milling techniques (including relatively large-scale milling techniques), sheet material (e.g., sheet metal) working, and the like. Technologies for precise and efficient fabrication of various material layers and/or devices described herein are known to those of ordinary skill in the art.
U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/365,732, filed Jul. 19, 2010, and entitled “Discriminating Electromagnetic Radiation Based on Angle of Incidence” is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. All patents, patent applications, and documents cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.
The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention.
Example 1This example describes numerical simulations of a class of material systems that discriminate electromagnetic radiation (including visible light) based on the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation on the material, over a broad range of frequencies, and irrespective of the polarization of the electromagnetic radiation. Unique properties of these systems emerge from exploring photonic crystals whose constituents have anisotropic dielectric permeabilities. Among other potential uses, such systems could be of interest for solar energy applications, where they could enable a highly enhanced green-house effect.
In some cases, it would be beneficial if electromagnetic radiation (e.g., visible light) incident at a particular angle (or a range of angles) would be nearly perfectly transmitted, while other angles of incidence would be nearly perfectly reflected, independent of the incoming polarization, and for as wide a range of frequencies as possible. This example presents a system that precisely opens such desired angular gaps. Using realistic constituent material parameters, numerical calculations are presented that demonstrate a system in which electromagnetic radiation close to normal incidence is nearly perfectly transmitted for a wide range of frequencies, independent of the polarization. In contrast, electromagnetic radiation with incidence angles further from the normal (e.g. 22.5°-90°) can be nearly perfectly reflected over a fractional frequency bandgap of greater than 100%. In some cases, the structures can include photonic crystals whose constituents have an anisotropic dielectric function and/or an anisotropic magnetic permeability.
The system described in this example for opening an angular photonic gap includes a one-dimensionally (1D) periodic photonic crystal whose constituents possess anisotropic properties. To demonstrate the fundamental physics principle at work in this system,
An example of a metamaterial system that in the long wavelength limit possesses an effective epsilon of (1.23, 1.23, 2.43) is shown on the left-hand side of
The right-hand side of
Before discussing numerical results for transmission of various angles, polarizations, and frequencies from this multilayer structure, analytical expressions for the refractive index nA of the anisotropic layer are provided. A simple calculation starting from Maxwell's equations yields the following refractive indices (n=C/vphase, wherein c is the speed of light in a vacuum (about 3×108 m/s) and vphase is the speed of light in the phase for which the refractive index is being determined) experienced by TE-polarized and TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation respectively in the anisotropic layer A:
where θATE and θATM are the angles that TE-polarized and TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation, respectively, make with respect to the normal as they propagate in layer A, μxxA is the magnetic permeability of material A in the x-direction, μyyA is the magnetic permeability of material A in the y-direction, μzzA is the magnetic permeability of material A in the z-direction, ∈xxA is the dielectric function of material A in the x-direction, ∈yyA is the dielectric function of material A in the y-direction, ∈zzA is the dielectric function of material A in the z-direction, ∈o is the dielectric function of vacuum, and μo is the magnetic permeability of vacuum. μxxB is the magnetic permeability of material B in the x-direction, μyyB is the magnetic permeability of material B in the y-direction, μzzB is the magnetic permeability of material B in the z-direction, ∈xxB is the dielectric function of material B in the x-direction, ∈yyB is the dielectric function of material B in the y-direction, ∈zzB is the dielectric function of material B in the z-direction. These values can be obtained from Snell's law, which in this anisotropic case is:
nATE sin 0ATE=nair sin 0inc (3)
nATM sin θATM=nair sin θinc (4)
From the expressions for nATE and nATM, one can see that TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation is affected only by ∈yyA, μxxA, and μzzA, while TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation is affected only by μyyA, ∈xxA and ∈zzA. In particular, TM-polarized electromagnetic radiation is affected by ∈zzA, while TE-polarized electromagnetic radiation is not. One can also observe that for angles θA close to the normal, sin θA≈0. Accordingly, in view of Equations 1 and 2, nA increases only slightly with increasing anisotropy. However, for incidence angles not close to the normal, nA increases more rapidly with increasing anisotropy, and therefore higher anisotropy in ∈ or μ results in higher index contrast and wider frequency gaps at those angles.
The multilayer structure illustrated in
For simplicity, we consider the case ∈inc=μinc=γ1 in this example.
From the contour plot in
The structures described above allow one to open an angular gap for both TE and TM polarizations over a certain frequency range. One might also consider how to enlarge the frequency range over which this angular discrimination is exhibited. To achieve a relatively large fractional frequency gap that occurs simultaneously for both polarizations, one can operate at the quarter-wave condition (the structure obeying the quarter-wave condition at 45° is used in the calculations of
A variety of materials can be used to achieve the above-described concepts. As seen in
This example describes the design and performance of a macroscale filter used to discriminate electromagnetic radiation based on angle of incidence. In this example, a 2-dimensional array of channels is formed in a reflective material to produce the structure illustrated in
The macroscale filter illustrated in
The amount of incident electromagnetic radiation that is reflected from the device illustrated in
% Reflected=Ro+a·sin(θ) [5]
where Ro represents reflection at normal incidence, a represents angular sensitivity (which depends on the geometry), and θ is the angle of incidence. For angles of incidence greater than θm, the percentage of electromagnetic radiation that will be reflected from the macroscale filter is calculated as:
% Reflected=Ro+a·sin(θm) [6]
For the macroscale filter illustrated in
This example describes the enhancement in the performance in a solar thermophotovoltaic (TPV) system that can be achieved using a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal to selectively absorb electromagnetic radiation. In this example, the theoretical performance of a standard solar TPV system without an angularly selective absorber is analyzed, both in the ideal case and with a realistic amount of long-wavelength emissivity. Next, the improvement that can be achieved in a structure with long-wavelength emissivity using an angle-sensitive design, as illustrated in
The energy conversion efficiency of a solar TPV system such as the system illustrated in
where Im and Vm are the current and voltage of the thermophotovoltaic diode at the maximum power point, C is the concentration in suns relative to the solar constant Is (usually taken to be 1 kW/m2), and As is the surface area of the selective solar absorber. This system can conceptually be decomposed into two halves: the selective solar absorber front end and the selective emitter plus TPV diode back end. Each half can be assigned its own efficiency: ηt and ηp, respectively. The system efficiency can then be rewritten as:
η=ηt(T)ηp(T) [8]
where T is the equilibrium temperature of the selective absorber and emitter region. The efficiency of each subsystem can be further decomposed into its component parts. In particular, the selective solar absorber efficiency can be represented by:
where B is the window transmissivity,
The TPV diode backend efficiency can be represented by
where
First, one can consider the situation where absorptivity for both the selective absorber and emitter is unity within a certain frequency range, and δ otherwise. δ corresponds to the emissivity which cannot be suppressed due to fabrication and/or material constraints, which one would generally like to be as small as possible. The ranges for the selective absorbers and emitters are optimized separately, and the lower end of the selective emitter frequency range equals the TPV diode bandgap frequency wg. If one considers the case of unconcentrated sunlight, the limit δ→0 implies a decoupling between the selective absorber and emitter, where the selective absorber is kept relatively cool to maximize ηt, while the selective emitter acts as if it were much hotter with a bandgap frequency ωg well over the blackbody peak predicted by Wien's law. However, this also leads to declining effective emissivity
Based on previous comprehensive reviews of selective solar absorbers, typical spectrally averaged selective solar absorber emissivities
In order to bridge the gap between performance of solar TPV in the cases where δ=0.05 and δ→0, one can employ an absorber with a specific form of angular selectivity. The expression used in this example is as follows:
∈(ω,θ)=[1−(θ/θmax2][δ+(1−δ)Πω1,ω2(ω) [11]
where Πω1,ω2 is the tophat function (equal to 1 if ω1<ω<ω2 and 0 otherwise), θmax is the maximum polar angle at which electromagnetic radiation is exchanged with the environment, and ω1 and ω2 are the range of absorbed wavelengths.
One structure capable of providing the top-hat functionality described above is a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal configured to selectively absorb incident electromagnetic radiation. The 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal considered in this example is formed in a 4244 nm-thick layer of single-crystal tungsten. The tungsten layer comprises a plurality of cylindrical holes with a radius of 795 nm (corresponding to cross-sectional diameters of 1590 nm) formed within the layer. The holes have an average nearest neighbor distance of 1591 nm, and are arranged periodically similar to the arrangement illustrated in
The performance of the 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal described above was simulated using S-matrix code as described in Whittaker and Culshaw, “Scattering-matrix treatment of patterned multilayer photonic structures,” Phys Rev B, 60, 2610 (1999). As shown in
While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the functions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.
The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”
The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B,” when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.
As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.
As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.
In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.
Claims
1. An article, comprising:
- a photonic material comprising a plurality of periodically occurring separate layers, including at least a first layer and a second layer disposed over the first layer, wherein: the first or second layer has an isotropic dielectric function while the other of the first and second layers has an anisotropic dielectric function; the first or second layer has an isotropic magnetic permeability while the other of the first and second layers layer has an anisotropic magnetic permeability; and the first and second layers are part of a 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal comprising a periodic assembly of layers, wherein the 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal is arranged in such a way that a line along a first coordinate direction within the 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal passes through multiple layers while lines along second and third orthogonal coordinate directions, each of the second and third orthogonal coordinate directions being orthogonal to the first coordinate direction within the 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal, do not pass through multiple layers; and the second layer comprising the anisotropic magnetic permeability comprises a combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective magnetic permeability.
2. The article of claim 1, wherein the first layer has an isotropic dielectric function, and the second layer has an anisotropic dielectric function.
3. The article of claim 1, wherein the first layer has an anisotropic dielectric function, and the second layer has an isotropic dielectric function.
4. The article of claim 1, wherein the first layer has an isotropic magnetic permeability, and the second layer has an anisotropic magnetic permeability.
5. The article of claim 1, wherein the first layer has an anisotropic magnetic permeability, and the second layer has an isotropic magnetic permeability.
6. The article of claim 2, wherein the second layer comprising an anisotropic dielectric function comprises a single material having an anisotropic dielectric function.
7. The article of claim 6, wherein the single material having an anisotropic dielectric function comprises TiO2, calcite, calomel, beryl, lithium niobate, zircon, and/or or mica.
8. The article of claim 2, wherein the second layer comprising an anisotropic dielectric function comprises a combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective dielectric function.
9. The article of claim 8, wherein the combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective dielectric function form a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal.
10. The article of claim 4, wherein the second layer comprising an anisotropic magnetic permeability comprises a combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective magnetic permeability.
11. The article of claim 10 1, wherein the second layer comprising an anisotropic magnetic permeability comprises a combination of a metal and a second material.
12. The article of claim 11, wherein the second material comprises a dielectric material.
13. The article of claim 10 1, wherein the combination of at least two materials arranged to have an anisotropic effective magnetic permeability form a 2-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal.
14. The article of claim 1, wherein, when the photonic material is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation within a range of wavelengths that contacts an incident surface of the photonic material within a range of angles of incidence is transmitted through the photonic material, and at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation within the range of wavelengths that contacts the incident surface outside the range of angles of incidence is reflected by the photonic material.
15. The article of claim 1, further comprising an energy conversion device configured to produce electricity from electromagnetic radiation received from the photonic material.
16. The article of claim 15, wherein the energy conversion device comprises a photovoltaic cell.
17. The article of claim 16, wherein the photovoltaic cell comprises a solar photovoltaic cell.
18. The article of claim 16, wherein the photovoltaic cell is a thermophotovoltaic cell.
19. The article of claim 16, wherein the energy conversion device comprises a heat engine.
20. The article of claim 1, wherein the 1-dimensionally periodic photonic crystal is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation.
21. An article, comprising:
- a plurality of separate layers, including at least a first layer and a second layer disposed over the first layer, wherein: the first or second layer has an isotropic dielectric function while the other of the first and second layers has an anisotropic dielectric function; the first and second layers are part of a structure arranged in such a way that a line along a first coordinate direction within the structure passes through multiple layers while lines along second and third orthogonal coordinate directions, each of the second and third orthogonal coordinate directions being orthogonal to the first coordinate direction within the structure, do not pass through multiple layers; and the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is not reflected by the article, and at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 45° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
22. The article of claim 21, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted by the article, and
- at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 45° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
23. The article of claim 21, further comprising:
- a third layer disposed over the first layer and the second layer; and
- a fourth layer disposed over the first layer, the second layer, and the third layer, wherein: the first layer has an isotropic dielectric function, the second layer has an anisotropic dielectric function, the third layer has an isotropic dielectric function, and the fourth layer has an anisotropic dielectric function.
24. An article, comprising:
- a plurality of separate layers, including at least a first layer and a second layer disposed over the first layer, wherein: the first layer has an isotropic dielectric function; the second layer has an anisotropic dielectric function; and the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is not reflected by the article, and at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 45° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
25. The article of claim 24, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted by the article, and
- at least about 75% of the electromagnetic radiation between 400 nm and 760 nm that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 45° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
26. The article of claim 21, wherein the article comprises a material having a first index of refraction and is configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction.
27. The article of claim 22, wherein the article comprises a material having a first index of refraction and is configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction.
28. The article of claim 21, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted through the article, and at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
29. The article of claim 26, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted through the article, and at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
30. The article of claim 24, wherein the article comprises a material having a first index of refraction and is configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction.
31. The article of claim 25, wherein the article comprises a material having a first index of refraction and is configured to be exposed to electromagnetic radiation from a medium having a second index of refraction that is smaller than the first index of refraction.
32. The article of claim 24, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted through the article, and at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
33. The article of claim 30, wherein the article is configured to selectively transmit electromagnetic radiation based upon the angle of incidence of the electromagnetic radiation such that at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts an incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence within 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is transmitted through the article, and at least about 75% of said electromagnetic radiation that contacts the incident surface of the article at an angle of incidence outside 5° of the 0° angle normal to the incident surface is reflected by the article.
| 4512638 | April 23, 1985 | Sriram et al. |
| 4525413 | June 25, 1985 | Rogers et al. |
| 4553818 | November 19, 1985 | Cohen |
| 4806496 | February 21, 1989 | Suzuki et al. |
| 5204160 | April 20, 1993 | Rouser |
| 5486949 | January 23, 1996 | Schrenk et al. |
| 5601661 | February 11, 1997 | Milstein et al. |
| 5942047 | August 24, 1999 | Fraas et al. |
| 5955749 | September 21, 1999 | Joannopoulos et al. |
| 6130780 | October 10, 2000 | Joannopoulos et al. |
| 6239853 | May 29, 2001 | Winker et al. |
| 6583350 | June 24, 2003 | Gee et al. |
| 6611085 | August 26, 2003 | Gee et al. |
| 6613972 | September 2, 2003 | Cohen et al. |
| 6932951 | August 23, 2005 | Losey et al. |
| 6939632 | September 6, 2005 | Arana et al. |
| 7052746 | May 30, 2006 | MacMaster |
| 7072555 | July 4, 2006 | Figotin |
| 7267779 | September 11, 2007 | Arana et al. |
| 7467873 | December 23, 2008 | Clarke et al. |
| 8035774 | October 11, 2011 | Ouderkirk et al. |
| 9116537 | August 25, 2015 | Celanovic et al. |
| 9223064 | December 29, 2015 | Guo et al. |
| 20030027022 | February 6, 2003 | Arana et al. |
| 20040035457 | February 26, 2004 | Kribus |
| 20050109387 | May 26, 2005 | Marshall |
| 20050121069 | June 9, 2005 | Chou et al. |
| 20050126624 | June 16, 2005 | Pellizzari |
| 20050174760 | August 11, 2005 | Perlo et al. |
| 20060283584 | December 21, 2006 | Arana et al. |
| 20080116779 | May 22, 2008 | Janson |
| 20090188547 | July 30, 2009 | Hayashi et al. |
| 20090217977 | September 3, 2009 | Florescu et al. |
| 20110284059 | November 24, 2011 | Celanovic et al. |
| 20120037217 | February 16, 2012 | Hamam et al. |
| 20120229905 | September 13, 2012 | Axel et al. |
| 20120312371 | December 13, 2012 | Rinzler et al. |
| 20120325299 | December 27, 2012 | De Ceglia |
| 20150362625 | December 17, 2015 | Hyde et al. |
| 20160252652 | September 1, 2016 | Shen et al. |
| 101431109 | May 2009 | CN |
| WO 2009/036154 | March 2009 | WO |
| WO 2011/146843 | November 2011 | WO |
| WO 2012/012450 | January 2012 | WO |
| WO 2013/054115 | April 2013 | WO |
| WO 2015/178982 | November 2015 | WO |
- Gee et al, “Selective emitters using photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic energy conversion,” IEEE, (2002), pp. 896-899.
- Celanovic et al, “Design and optimization of one-dimensional photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic applications,” Optics Letters, vol. 29, No. 8 (Apr. 15, 2004), pp. 863-865.
- Schmidt et al, “Magnetic anisotropy of calcite at room temperature,” Tectonophysics, vol. 418, (2006), pp. 63-73.
- International Search Report and Written Opinion dated Jan. 25, 2016 for Application No. PCT/US2015/017303.
- International Preliminary Report on Patentability dated Sep. 9, 2016 for Application No. PCT/US2015/017303.
- Abelmann et al., “Oblique evaporation and surface diffusion”, Thin Solid Films, vol. 305, (1997), pp. 1-21.
- Ade et al., “BICEP2 II: Experiment and three-year data set,” The Astrophysical Journal, vol. 792:62, 29 pages, Sep. 1, 2014.
- Aegerter et al., Aerogels Handbook, Springer Science & Business Media, 2011, 929 pgs.
- Agrawal, “Photonic design for efficient solid state energy conversion”, Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, submitted Dec. 2008, published 2009, 275 pages.
- Akozbek et al., “Experimental demonstration of plasmonic Brewster angle extraordinary transmission through extreme subwavelength slit arrays in the microwave”, Phys. Rev. B, vol. 85, (2012), p. 205430(1)-p. 205430(4 ).
- Alu et al., “Optical nanotransmission lines: synthesis of planar left-handed metamaterials in the infrared and visible regimes,” Journal of the Optical Society of America B, vol. 23 (Mar. 2006):571-583.
- Alu et al., “Plasmonic brewster angle: broadband extraordinary transmission through optical gratings”, Phys. Rev. Lett. Mar. 25, 2011;106:123902-1-123902-4.
- Araujo et al., “Absolute limiting efficiencies for photovoltaic energy conversion”, Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 33, (1994), pp. 213-240.
- Arbabi et al., “Dielectric metasurfaces for complete control of phase and polarization with subwavelength spatial resolution and high transmission,” Nature Nanotechnology. Nov. 2015;10: 937-43, Epub 2015 Aug. 31.
- Archard et al., “Improved Glan-Foucalt prism,” Journal of Scientific Instruments, vol. 25 (Dec. 1948): 407-409.
- Argyropoulos et al., “Broadband absorbers and selective emitters based on plasmonic Brewster metasurfaces”, Physical Review B, vol. 87, (2013), pp. 205112-205112-6.
- Argyropoulos et al., “Matching and funneling light at the plasmonic Brewster angle”, Physical Review B, vol. 85, (2012), pp. 024304-1-024304-9.
- Arons et al., “Einstein's proposal of the photon concept—a translation of the annalen der physik paper of 1905,” American Journal of Physics, vol. 33(5), (May 1965): 367-374.
- Atwater et al., “Microphotonic parabolic light directors fabricated by two-photon lithography,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 99, 151113(1-4) (Oct. 13, 2011).
- Badescu, “Spectrally and angularly selective photothermal and photovoltaic converters under one-sun illumination”, Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, vol. 38, (2005), pp. 2166-2172.
- Banerjee et al., “Design of a tunable ultraviolet filter using metallodielectric photonic crystal,” Applied Electromagnetics Conference, 2007, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, USA, pp. 1-4 (Dec. 19, 2007).
- Bergman, “The dielectric constant of a composite material—a problem in classical physics”, Phys. Rep., vol. 43, No. 9, (1978), pp. 377-407.
- Bett et al., “FlatconIM-modules: technology and characterisation,”3rd World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion, vol. 1, (IEEE, May 2003), pp. 634-637.
- Blanco et al., “Theoretical efficiencies of angular-selective non-concentrating solar thermal systems,” Solar Energy, vol. 76 (Jan. 22, 2004), 683-691.
- Campbell et al., “The limiting efficiency of silicon solar cells under concentrated sunlight,” Electron Devices, IEEE Transactions, vol. ED-33, No. 2, (Feb. 1986), pp. 234-239.
- Chen et al., “High transmission and low color cross-talk plasmonic color filters using triangular-lattice hole arrays in aluminum films,” Optics Express, vol. 18(13), (Jun. 21, 2010): 14056-14062.
- Cojocaru, “Omnidirectional reflection from finite periodic and Fibonacci quasi-periodic multi layers of alternating isotropic and birefringent thin films”, Applied Optics, vol. 41, No. 4, (Feb. 2002), pp. 747-755.
- D' Aguanno et al., “Broadband metamaterial for nonresonant matching of acoustic waves,” Scientific Reports, vol. 2 (Mar. 28, 2012): 1-5.
- DiSalvo, “Thermoelectric cooling and power generation,” Science, vol. 285, (Jul. 30, 1999), pp. 703-706.
- Dissanyake et al., Angular selective backreflector for semitransparent photovoltaics. App Physics Lttrs. Aug. 2012;101:063302(1)-063302(4). doi: 10/1063/1.4742174.
- Dumke, “Spontaneous radiative recombination in semiconductors,” Phys. Rev., vol. 105, No. 1, (Jan. 1, 1957), pp. 139-144.
- Ebbesen et al., “Extraordinary optical transmission through sub-wavelength hole arrays,” Nature, vol. 391(Feb. 12, 1998): 667-669.
- Einstein, “Concerning an heuristic point of view toward the emission and transformation of light,” Ann. Phys. 17, 132, (1905); translated into English in American Journal of Physics, vol. 33, No. 5, (May 1965), 16 pages.
- Fink et al., “A dielectric omnidirectional reflector”, Science, vol. 282, (Nov. 27, 1998), pp. 1679-1682.
- Fraas et al., “Solar cells and their applications second edition,” Wiley Series in Microwave and Optical Engineering (2010), 644 pages.
- Garcia De Abajo, “Colloquium: Light scattering by particle and hole arrays,” Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 79, (Oct.-Dec. 2007), pp. 1267-1290.
- Garcia-Vidal et al. “Light passing through subwavelength apertures,” Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 82 (Jan.-Mar. 2010): 729-787.
- Hamam et al., “Angular photonic band gap”, Phys. Rev. A, vol. 83, (2011 ), p. 035806-1-035806-4.
- Hohn et al., “Maximal power output by solar cells with angular confinement,” Optics Express, vol. 22, No. S3, May 5, 2014, published Mar. 28, 2014, pp. A715-A722.
- Hohn et al., “Optimization of angularly selective photonic filters for concentrator photovoltaic”, Proc. SPIE, vol. 8438, 84380A-1, (2012), 10 pages.
- Hsu et al., “Transparent displays enabled by resonant nanoparticle scattering,” Nature Communications, vol. 5 (Jan. 21, 2014), 6 pages.
- Joannopoulos et al., Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of Light, Second Edition, Princeton University Press, 2008, 304 pages.
- Johnson et al., “Block-iterative frequency-domain methods for Maxwell's equations in a planewave basis”, Opt. Express, vol. 8, No. 3, (Jan. 29, 2001), pp. 173-190.
- Johnson et al., “Three-dimensionally periodic dielectric layered structure with omnidirectional photonic band gap”, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 77, No. 22, (Nov. 27, 2000), pp. 3490-3492.
- Jomtarak et al., “Geometrically distributed 1D photonic crystals for light-reflection in all angles,” Procedia Engineering, vol. 32, pp. 455-460 (Mar. 24, 2012).
- Kosten et al., “Experimental demonstration of enhanced photon recycling in angle-restricted GaAs solar cells”, Energy & Environmental Science, vol. 7, (Apr. 15, 2014), pp. 1907-1912.
- Kosten et al., “Limiting light escape angle in silicon photovoltaics: ideal and realistic cells,” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 5(1) (Jan. 1, 2015): 61-69.
- Kosten et al., “Highly efficient GaAs solar cells by limiting light emission angle”, Light Sci. Appl., vol. 2, (2013), e45, 6 pages.
- Kosten et al., “Limiting acceptance angle to maximize efficiency in solar cells”, Proc. Of SPIE, vol. 8124, (2011), pp. 81240F-1-81240F-6.
- Kosten, “Optical designs for improved solar cell performance,” Ph.D. Thesis, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, (Defended May 15, 2014), 188 pages.
- Le et al., “Broadband Brewster transmission through 2D metallic gratings,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 112, (2012), p. 094317-1-094317-4.
- Lenert et al., “A nanophotonic solar thermophotovoltaic device,” Nature Nanotechnology, vol. 9, pp. 126-30, 5 pages, Feb. 2014, Epub Jan. 19, 2014.
- Liu et al., “S4: A free electromagnetic solver for layered periodic structures”, Comput. Phys. Commun., vol. 183, (2012), pp. 2233-2244.
- Markvart, “Solar cell as a heat engine: energy-entropy analysis of photovoltaic conversion,” Physica Status Solidi, vol. 205, No. 12, (2008), pp. 2752-2756.
- Marti et al., “Photon recycling and Shockley's diode equation,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 82, No. 8, (Oct. 15, 1997), pp. 4067-4075.
- Medina et al, “Extraordinary transmission through arrays of electrically small holes from a circuit theory perspective,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 56 (Dec. 12, 2008) 3108-3120.
- Miller et al., “Strong internal and external luminescence as solar cells approach the Shockley-Queisser limit,” IEEE Journal Of Photovoltaics, vol. 2(3) (Jul. 2012): 303-311.
- Muller et al., “TCO and light trapping in silicon thin film solar cells,” Solar Energy, vol. 77, (2004), pp. 917-930.
- Norton, “Harnessing solar heat,” Lecture Notes in Energy, vol. 18 (2014), 271 pages.
- Pendry et al., “Extremely low frequency plasmons in metallic mesostructures”, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 76, No. 25, (Jun. 17, 1996), pp. 4773-4776.
- Perilloux, Thin-film Design: Modulated Thickness and Other Stopband Design Methods, SPIE Tutorial texts in optical engineering, vol. TT57, SPIE Press, 2002, 129 pages.
- Peters et al., “Angular confinement and concentration in photovoltaic converters,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 94, (2010), pp. 1393-1398.
- Raman et al., “Passive radiative cooling below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight,” Nature, vol. 515 (Nov. 27, 2014): 540-54.
- Rechtsman et al., “Band gaps in amorphous photonic lattices,” OSA Technical Digest, Optical Society of America (Jul. 1, 2010): 1-2.
- Rephaeli et al., “Tungsten black absorber for solar light with wide angular operation range,” Applied Physics Letters, vol. 92, 211107 (May 29, 2008): 1-3.
- Rinnerbauer et al., “Metallic photonic crystal absorber-emitter for efficient spectral control in high-temperature solar thermophotovoltaics”, Advanced Energy Materials, 4, 1400334, (Apr. 22, 2014), 10 pages.
- Rinnerbauer et al., “Superlattice photonic crystal as broadband solar absorber for high temperature operation,” Optics Express, vol. 22, No. S7 (Dec. 15, 2014), 12 pages.
- Schaefer et al., “Structure of random porous materials: silica aerogel”, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 56, No. 20, (May 19, 1986), pp. 2199-2202.
- Schubert et al., “Low-refractive-index materials: A new class of optical thin-film materials,” Physical Status Solidi B Basic Research, vol. 244, (2007), pp. 3002-3008.
- Schwartz et al., “Total external reflection from metamaterials with ultralow refractive index”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B, vol. 20, No. 12, (Dec. 2003), pp. 2448-2453.
- Shen et al., “Structural colors from fano resonances,” ACSPhotonics 2015;2(1):27-32. doi: 10/1021/ph500400w. Epub Dec. 30, 2014.
- Shen et al., “Air-compatible broadband angular selective material systems,” ArXiv:1502.00243 (Feb. 1, 2015):1-5.
- Shen et al., “Ultra-high-efficiency metamaterial polarizer,” Optica, vol. 1(5) (Nov. 20, 2014): 356-360.
- Shen et al., “Metamaterial broadband angular selectivity”, Phys. Rev. B., vol. 90, (Sep. 15, 2014), DD. 125422(1)-125422(5).
- Shen et al., “Optical broadband angular selectivity”, Science, vol. 343, (Mar. 28, 2014), pp. 1499-1501.
- Shin et al., “Three-dimensional metamaterials with an ultrahigh effective refractive index over a broad bandwidth”, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 102, (Mar. 2009), DD. 093903-1-093903-4.
- Shockley et al., “Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 32, No. 3, (Mar. 1961 ), pp. 510-519.
- Si et al., “Reflective plasmonic color filters based on lithographically patterned silver nanorod arrays,” Nanoscale, vol. 5 (Jul. 21, 2013): 6243-6248.
- Swarup et al., “The giant metre-wave radio telescope,” Current Science, vol. 60(2) (Jan. 25, 1991): 95-105.
- Teeka et al., “Geometrically distributed one-dimensional photonic crystals for all angle optical filters”, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, vol. 54, No. 11, (Nov. 2012), pp. 2533-2536.
- Temelkuran et al., “Photonic crystal-based resonant antenna with a very high directivity,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 87(1) (Jan. 1, 2000): 603-605.
- Tiedje et al., “Limiting efficiency of silicon solar cells,” IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. ED-31, No. 5, (May 1984), pp. 711-716.
- Upping et al., “Direction-selective optical transmission of 3D fcc photonic crystals in the microwave regime”, Photonics and Nanostructures—Fundamentals and Applications—Special Issue, vol. 8, (2010), pp. 102-106.
- Venkatasubramanian et al., “Thin-film thermoelectric devices with high room-temperature figures of merit,” Nature, vol. 413, (Oct. 11, 2001), pp. 597-602.
- Wadley et al., “Biased target ion beam deposition of GMR multilayers”, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A, vol. 18, (2000), 7 pages.
- Wang et al., “Enlargement of omnidirectional total reflection frequency range in one-dimensional photonic crystals by using photonic heterostructures”, Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 80, No. 23, (Jun. 10, 2002), pp. 4291-4293.
- Wang et al., “Enlargement of the nontransmission frequency range of multiple-channeled filters by use of heterostructures”, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 95, No. 2, (Jan. 15, 2004), pp. 424-426.
- Weber et al., “Giant birefringent optics in multilayer polymer minors”, Science, vol. 287, (Mar. 31, 2000), pp. 2451-2456.
- Weinstein et al., “Optical cavity for improved performance of solar receivers in solar-thermal systems,” Solar Energy, vol. 108, (Jun. 2014), pp. 69-79.
- Winn et al., “Omnidirectional reflection from a one-dimensional photonic crystal”, Opt. Lett., vol. 23, No. 20, (Oct. 15, 1998), pp. 1573-1575.
- Xiaoyong et al., “A multichannel filter in a photonic crystal heterostructure containing single-negative materials,” Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics, vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 877-883 (Oct. 1, 2007).
- Xu, “Optimization of construction of multiple one-dimensional photonic crystals to extend bandgap by genetic algorithm”, J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 28, No. 7, (Apr. 1, 2010), pp. 1114-1120.
- Xu et al., “A delay-based multicast overlay scheme for WDM passive optical networks with 10-Gb/s symmetric two-way traffics”, J. Lightwave Technol., vol. 28, No. 18, (Sep. 15, 2010), pp. 2660-2666.
- Xu et al., “Plasmonic nanoresonators for high-resolution colour filtering and spectral imaging,” Nature Communications 1:59 (Aug. 24, 2010): 1-5.
- Yablonovitch, “Inhibited spontaneous emission in solid-state physics and electronics”, Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 58, No. 20, (May 18, 1987), pp. 2059-2062.
- Yablonovitch, “Photonic bandgap structures”, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B, vol. 10, No. 2, (Feb. 1993), p. 283-295.
- Yablonovitch, “Statistical ray optics,” J. Opt. Soc. Am., vol. 72, No. 7, (Jul. 1982), pp. 899-907.
- Yang et al., “Photonic-band-gap effects in two-dimensional polycrystalline and amorphous structures,” Physical Review A. Nov. 2010;82:053838(1-8).
- Yeng et al., “Global optimization of omnidirectional wavelength selective emitters/absorbers based on dielectric-filled antireflection coated two-dimensional metallic photonic crystals,” Optics Express. Sep. 8, 2014;22(18,):21711-18, Epub Aug. 29, 2014.
- Zhang et al., “Enlargement of nontransmission frequency range in photonic crystals by using multiple heterostructures,” Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 87(6) (Mar. 15, 2000): 3174-3176.
- Azzam et al., Ellipsometry and Polarized Light. North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1977, pp. 1-539.
- Hecht, Optics, 4th Ed., Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, CA., 2002, pp. 1-698.
- Rundquist, Broadband Angular Selectivity Achieved with a Birefringent Filter, Master's Thesis, University of Minnesota, Aug. 2002, pp. 1-69.
- Wilson, Reflecting Telescope Optics II, Manufacture, Testing, Alignment, Modern Techniques, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, DE., 1999, Corrected Second Printing 2001, pp. 1-554.
- International Search Report and Written Opinion dated Dec. 28, 2011, in Related International Application No. PCT/US2011/044562.
- International Preliminary Report on Patentability, dated Jan. 31, 2013, in Related International Application No. PCT/US2011/044562.
- [No Author Listed] Chemical Book, Trisodium hexafluoroaluminate. Accessed Oct. 16, 2014. http://www.chemicalbook.com/ChemicalProductProperty_EN_CB8300371.htm. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Chemical Dictionary Online, Sodium hexafluoroaluminate. Accessed Oct. 16, 2014. http://www.chemicaldictionary.org/dic/S/Sodium-hexafluoroaluminate_690.html. 4 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Optical constants of Air, Refractiveindex.info—Refractive indexdatabase. http://refractiveindex.info/?group=GASES&material=Air> Date accessed Aug. 29, 2013. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Merriam-Webster, Definition of Layer. Printed Oct. 16, 2014. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/layer, 1 page
- [No Author Listed] Optical constants of SiO2; http://www.refractiveindex.info/legacy/?group=CRYSTALS&materials=SiO2; accessed Apr. 20, 2014. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Optical constants of Tungsten (W), RefractiveIndex.info. Refractive Index Database, http://refractiveindex.info/group=METALS&material=Tungsten> Date accessed Aug. 29, 2013. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Semiconductor Materials; accessed Oct. 16, 2014. http://www.semilsource.com/materials.default.asp?SearchTerm=Zn. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] The Engineering Toolbox—Relative Permittivity—Dielectric Constant; http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/relative-permittivity-d_1660.html; accessed Apr. 20, 2014. 2 pages.
- [No Author Listed] Titanium dioxide-titania (TiO2). http://www.amazom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1179; accessed Apr. 20, 2014 3 pages.
- Angell et al., Silicon Micromechanical Devices, Scientific American. vol. 248, No. 4, Apr. 1983, 44-55.
- Araghchini et al., Fabrication of two-dimensional tungsten photonic crystals for high-temperature applications. J. Vac. Sci Technol., B 29(6), Nov./Dec. 2011, 061402(1)-(4).
- Arriaga et al., Band structure and reflectivity of omnidirectional Si-based mirrors with a Gaussian profile refractive index. Journal of Applied Physics, Aug. 29, 2006; 100:044911-(1)-(4) http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jap/100/4/10/1063.1.2336078.
- Barwicz et al., Polarization-transparent microphotonic devices in the strong confinement limit, Nature Photonics, vol. 1, Jan. 2007;1:57-60.
- Bermel et al. Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems. TPV-9 Conference 2010, 1-6.
- Bermel et al. Design and global optimization of high-efficiency thermophotovoltaic systems. Optics Express, vol. 18, No. 103, published Aug. 2, 2010, A314-A334.
- Bermel et al., Tailoring photonic metamaterial resonances for thermal radiation. Nanoscale Research Letters, 2011; 6:549, 1-5.
- Bienstman, Rigorous and efficient modelling of wavelength scale photonic components, PhD Thesis, 2001; 1-171.
- Blackwell, Design, Fabrication, and Characterization of a Micro Fuel Processor. PhD Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Mar. 6, 2008; 1-174.
- Celanovic et al, Resonant-cavity enhanced thermal emission, Physical Review B. 2005; 72:075127(1)-(6).
- Celanovic et al., Design and optimization of one-dimensional photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic applications. Optics Letters. vol. 29, No 8, Apr. 15, 2004, 863-865.
- Celanovic et al., Two-dimensional tungsten photonic crystals as selective thermal emitters. Applied Physics Letters, 92, 2008, 193101(1)-(3).
- Chan et al., A high efficiency millimeter-scale thermophotovoltaic generator. TPV-9 Conference 2010, 1-4.
- Chester et al., Design and global optimization of high-efficiency solar thermal systems with tungsten cermets. Optics Express. vol. 19, No. S3, Published Mar. 29, 2011, A245-A257.
- Chigrin et al., Observation of total omnidirectional reflection from a one-dimensional dielectric lattice. Applied Physics A. 1999;68:25-28. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs003390050849.
- Fahr et al., Rugate filter for light-trapping in solar cells. Optics Express. Published Jun. 10, 2008, vol. 16, No. 13, 9332-9343.
- Farjadpour et al., Improving accuracy by subpixel smoothing in the finite-difference time domain. Optics Letters. vol. 31, No. 20, Oct. 15, 2006, 2972-2974.
- Fleming et al., All-metallic three-dimensional photonic crystals with a large infrared bandgap. Nature. vol. 417, May 2, 2002, 52-55.
- Florescu et al., Improving solar cell efficiency using photonic band-gap materials. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells. Jun. 2007;91:1599-1610.
- Franco-Ferreira et al., Long Life Radioisotopic Power Sources Encapsulated in Platinum Metal Alloys. Platinum Metals Rev. Oct. 1997;41(4):154-163.
- Gablonsky et al., A Locally-Biased form of the DIRECT Algorithm. Journal of Global Optimization, 2001;21(1):27-37.
- Ghebrebrhan et al., Tailoring thermal emission via Q matching of photonic crystal resonances. Physical Review, A 83, 2011,033810(1)-(6).
- Green, Limiting photovoltaic monochromatic light conversion efficiency, Progress in photovoltaics: Research and Applications, vol. 9:257-261 (2001).
- Henry, Limiting efficiencies of ideal single and multiple energy gap terrestrial solar cells. J. Appl. Phys. 51, 4494-4500 (1980).
- Herzinger et al., Ellipsometric determination of optical constants for silicon and thermally grown silicon dioxide via a multi-sample, multi-wavelength, multi-angle investigation. Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 83, No. 6, Mar. 15, 1998, 3323-3336.
- Koudelka et al., Radioisotope Micropower System Using Thermophotovoltaic Energy Conversion. Space Technology and Applications International Forum—STAIF 2006, Feb. 12-16, 2006.
- Kucherenko et al., Application of Deterministic Low-Discrepancy Sequences in Global Optimization. Computational Optimization and Applictions. 30, 297-318 (2005).
- Li, Large Absolute Band Gap in 2D Anistropic Photonic Crystals. Physical Review Letters. vol. 81, No. 12, Sep. 21, 1998, 2574-2577.
- Liang et al., Metallodielectric opals of layer-by-layer processed coated colloids. Adv Mater. Aug. 2002;14(16):1160-4.
- Liu et al., Air waveguide in a hybrid 1D and 2D photonic crystal hetero-structure, Optics Communications. Aug. 2009;282:4445-8.
- Mao et al., New development of one-dimensional Si/SiO2 photonic crystals filter for thermophotovoltaic applications. Renewable Energy. 2010;35:249-256.
- Marton, Catalytic Combustion for Direct Thermal-to-Electrical Energy Conversion. Presented at an Interview on Oct. 29, 2009. 9 pages.
- Mutitu et al., Angular Selective Light Filter Based on Photonic Crystals for Photovoltaic Applications. IEEE Photonic Journal. vol. 2, No. 3, Jun. 2010, 489-499.
- O'Sullivan et al., Optical characteristics of one-dimensional Si/SiO2 photonic crystals for thermophotovoltaic applications. Journal of Applied Physics. 2005; 97:033529(1)-(7).
- Oskooi et al., MEEP: A flexible free-software package for electromagnetic simulations by the FDTD method. Computer Physics Communications. 2010;181:687-702.
- Pendry et al., Magnetism from Conductors and Enhanced Nonlinear Phenomena. IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 47, No. 11, Nov. 1999, 2075-2084.
- Pilawa-Podgurski et al., Low-Power Maximum Power Point Tracker with Digital Control for Thermophotovoltaic Generators, Twenty Fifth Annual IEEE, Feb. 21-25, 2010, 961-967.
- Pilawa-Podgurski et al, Integrated CMOS DC-DC Converter with Digital Maximum Power Point Tracking for a Portable Thermophotovoltaic Power Generator. Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2011 IEEE, Sep. 17-22, 2011.
- Rephaeli et al., Absorber and emitter for solar thermo-photovoltaic systems to achieve efficiency exceeding the Shockley-Queisser limit. Optics Express. vol. 17, No. 17, Published Aug. 11, 2009, 15145-15159.
- Rill et al., Negative-index bianisotropic photonic metamaterial fabricated by direct laser writing and silver shadow evaporation. Optical Letters, Optical Society of America. Published Dec. 22, 2008;34(1):19-21.
- Rill et al., Photonic metamaterials by direct laser writing and silver chemical vapour deposition. Nature Materials. Published online May 11, 2008;7:543-546.
- Sai et al., Thermophotovoltaic generation with selective radiators based on tungsten surface gratings. Applied Physics Letters. vol. 85, No. 16, 3399-3401. Oct. 18, 2004.
- Ulbrich et al., Directional selectivity and light-trapping in solar cells. Photonics for Solar Energy Systems II. vol. 7002, 70020A, Apr. 7, 2008.
- Whittaker et al., Scattering-matrix treatment of patterned multilayer photonic structures. Physical Review B. vol. 60, No. 4, Jul. 15, 1999, 2610-2618.
- Wilkinson, Photonic Bloch oscillations and Wannier-Stark ladders in exponentially chirped Bragg gratings. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys. May 2002;65(5 Pt 2):056616.
- Ye et al., Design for 2D anisotropic photonic crystal with large absolute band gaps by using a genetic algorithm. Eur Phys J. B. Apr. 9, 2004;37:417-9.
- Yeng et al., Enabling high temperature nanphotonics for energy applications. PNAS. vol. 109, No. 7, Feb. 14, 2012, 2280-2285.
- Lee, Hyun-Yong et al.; TiO2(ZnS)/SiOs One-Dimensional Photonic Crystals and a Proposal for Vertical Micro-Cavity Resonators; Journal of the Korean Physical Society, vol. 44, No. 2; Feb. 2, 2004; pp. 387-392.
- Chigrin ,D.N. et al.; Observation of total omnidirectional reflection from a one-dimensional dielectric lattice; Applied Physics A; published 1999; pp. 25-28; http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs003390050849.
- Linden, S. et al.; Model System for a One-Dimensional Magnetic Photonic Crystal; Physical Review Letters; published Aug. 25, 2006; pp. 083902-1-083902-4; http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.083902.
- Invitation to Pay Additional Fees, mailed Oct. 31, 2011, in Related International Application No. PCT/US2011/044562.
- Lorenzo et al., Porous silicon-based rugate filters. Appl Opt. Sep. 10, 2005;44(26):5415-21.
- Song et al. Graded refractive index SiOx infrared filters prepared by reactive magetron sputtering. American Vacuum Society. Feb. 6, 2008; 265-269.
Type: Grant
Filed: Jun 12, 2017
Date of Patent: Dec 11, 2018
Assignee: Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA)
Inventors: Rafif E. Hamam (Toronto), Peter Bermel (Cambridge, MA), Ivan Celanovic (Cambridge, MA), Marin Soljacic (Belmont, MA), Adrian Y. X. Yeng (Somerville, MA), Michael Ghebrebrhan (Cambridge, MA), John D. Joannopoulos (Belmont, MA)
Primary Examiner: Alan Diamond
Application Number: 15/620,417
International Classification: G02B 27/42 (20060101); G02B 6/122 (20060101); H01L 31/0232 (20140101); B82Y 20/00 (20110101); H01L 31/0216 (20140101); H01L 31/04 (20140101); H02S 10/30 (20140101);
