Abstract: According to one embodiment, a system for monitoring the performance of satellite communications includes first and second receivers, first and second splitters, a first transmitter, and one or more switches. The first receiver is configured to receive microwave communications signals from a first gateway antenna system. The first splitter is coupled to the first receiver and is configured to collect a copy of microwave communications signals from the first receiver. The second receiver is configured to receive microwave communications signals from a second gateway antenna. The second splitter is coupled to the second receiver and is configured to collect a copy of microwave communications signals from the second receiver. The first transmitter is configured to transmit microwave communications signals to a third gateway antenna system. The one or more switches are collectively configured to selectively couple the first transmitter to a selected one of the first and second splitters.

Abstract: A position determining device is disclosed comprising a satellite navigation receiver for automatically providing computed position information, when the device has changed its position relative to a predetermined location, to a paging transmitter for transmission to a paging receiver for readout of the computed position information. The readout may be in the form of coordinates and may be accompanied by a message or alarm. The device may be configured as a portable unit of small size and economical manufacture.

Abstract: A system and method for tracking the identity and position of an object. The system includes at least one locator unit that is attached to the object to be tracked. The system also includes at least one display unit carried by or with a user. The locator unit obtains its satellite position data from a satellite positioning system such as GPS, GLONASS, LORAN, GALILEO, or the like. The locator unit then measures local position data with one or more sensors such as accelerometers and compasses and augments the satellite position data with the local position data. The locator unit transmits the augmented position data to a display unit. The display unit calculates its own position in the same way and outputs the augmented position of the locator unit relative to the augmented position of the display unit via a user interface.

Abstract: An embodiment of the present invention provides an apparatus, comprising a geolocation receiver and a television receiver, wherein the television receiver is adapted to use location information provided by the geolocation receiver to determine frequency channels and modes of reception of television signals. An embodiment of the present invention may further comprise a processor and memory adapted to use the location information from the geolocation receiver and look up certain information stored in the memory to configure the television receiver appropriately using the looked up information.

Abstract: A method and system detects a target in a cooperative passive radar system. In each of multiple passive sensors, signals are detected that emanate from a target. Information is extracted from the signals and broadcast to other passive sensors. The sensors update parameters according to the information to improve a likelihood of receiving the signals and to increase a probability of detecting the target. The information is also transmitted to a central processor. The central processor determines a position of the target.

Abstract: Techniques for accurate position location and tracking suitable for a wide range of facilities in variable environments are disclosed. In one aspect, a system for position location comprises a plurality of sensors (e.g. a network monitor, an environment sensor) for generating measurements of a plurality of sources, a plurality of objects or tags, each object generating measurements of the plurality of sources, and a processor for receiving the measurements and generating a position location for one or more objects in accordance with the received measurements. In another aspect, a position engine comprises a mapped space of a physical environment, and a processor for updating the mapped space in response to received measurements. The position engine may receive second measurements from an object within the physical environment, and generate a position location estimate for the object from the received second measurements and the mapped space.

Abstract: An antenna optimum design method according to this invention includes the steps of generating blocks by dividing a metal patch on an antenna element plane vertically and horizontally; setting reference point blocks in alternate blocks and assigning chromosomes to the reference point blocks; determining ways to arrange metal patches in blocks contiguous on one side to the reference point blocks, based on the chromosomes assigned to the reference point blocks; and searching for an optimum chromosomes to be assigned to the reference point blocks by a genetic algorithm to optimize antenna characteristics.

Abstract: An inverted F antenna (IFA) which reduces specific absorption rate (SAR) includes a ground; an auxiliary radiator which is attached to one end of the ground and disposed along a plane direction of the ground; a radiator which lies at an interval from the auxiliary radiator in parallel and radiates electromagnetic waves; a feed which supplies current to the radiator; and a short which interconnects the radiator with the ground and discharges the current to the ground. Accordingly, the SAR can be decreased and the antenna size can be miniaturized.

Abstract: A dielectric substrate has a first face which is formed with a cavity, and a second face opposite to the first face. The dielectric substrate formed with a substrate hole which connects the cavity and the second face. An antenna radiation electrode is comprised of a conductive film and is formed on the first face of the dielectric substrate. A ground electrode is comprised of a conductive film, is formed on the second face of the dielectric substrate and is formed with a ground hole which is substantially concentric with the substrate hole and has a diameter larger than that of the substrate hole. One end of a feeding pin is connected to the antenna radiation electrode and the other end of the feeding pin is extended toward the second face of the dielectric substrate through the substrate hole and the ground hole.

Abstract: A mobile wireless communications device may include a portable housing having a surface, a printed circuit board (PCB) carried by the portable housing, and wireless transceiver circuitry carried by the PCB. The device may further include an antenna connected to the transceiver, and at least one electrically floating, electrically conductive, antenna beam shaping element secured to the surface of the portable housing for directing a beam pattern of the antenna.

Abstract: A mobile wireless communications device includes a housing and circuit board carried by the housing. Radio Frequency (RF) circuitry is mounted on the circuit board. A first antenna is supported by the circuit board within the housing and operatively connected to the RF circuitry and configured for cellular phone communications A second antenna is supported by the circuit board within the housing and operatively connected to the RF circuitry and configured for WiFi communications. The second antenna comprises an inverted-F or monopole antenna having an opening gap that is pointed away from the first antenna.

Abstract: A compact tunable antenna for a handheld electronic device and methods for calibrating and using compact tunable antennas are provided. The antenna can have multiple ports. Each port can have an associated feed and ground. The antenna design can be implemented with a small footprint while covering a large bandwidth. The antenna can have a radiating element formed from a conductive structure such as a patch or helix. The antenna can be shaped to accommodate buttons and other components in the handheld device. The antenna may be connected to a printed circuit board in the handheld device using springs, pogo pins, and other suitable connecting structures. Radio-frequency switches and passive components such as duplexers and diplexers may be used to couple radio-frequency transceiver circuitry to the different feeds of the antenna. Antenna efficiency can be enhanced by avoiding the use of capacitive loading for antenna tuning.

Abstract: An antenna device for a portable terminal. The antenna device includes a carrier mounted in a housing of the portable terminal, at least one support extending from the carrier, a main radiator attached onto the carrier and an auxiliary radiator extending from the main radiator and fixed to ends of the supports while being spaced apart from the carrier. Since the antenna device includes the supports extending from the carrier to support the auxiliary radiator extending from the main radiator, the auxiliary radiator can be spaced apart from the carrier and the inner side of the housing of the portable terminal when the antenna device is mounted in the portable terminal. Thus, by reducing interference from a user's body or structures in the housing of the portable terminal, stable radiation performance can be secured.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, an electronic device includes a housing, a storage mechanism, a printed wiring board, an antenna element and a component. The storage mechanism and printed wiring board are accommodated in the housing. The antenna element is mounted on the printed wiring board and executes wireless communication. The component adversely affects the wireless communication by the antenna element. The printed wiring board includes a first surface which is opposed to the component, and a second surface which is located on a side opposite to the first surface. The antenna element is mounted on the second surface.

Abstract: A near field communication loop antenna (308) is mechanically coupled to the cover (300) of a cellular telephone. The antenna (308) is coupled on the inside of the cover (300) between a keypad (302) and the cover (300), whereby the antenna (308) surrounds the keys (314) and is sandwiched between the keypad assembly (302) and the cover (300). A near field communication antenna (406) is coupled to the outside surface of the cover (300) surrounding a display and sandwiched between a lens (400) and the phone cover (300). A near field communication antenna embedded in the phone cover material, whereby the antenna surrounds either the keys or the display, is disclosed as well.

Abstract: A method of matching a receive-only antenna (60) for use in receiving video signals in which measurements made on a transceiver's antenna (14) when in an transmitting mode are used in matching the receive-only antenna. The ratio of the amplitude of the reflected signal to the strength of the transmitted signal strength is used not only in selecting components for matching the transceiver's antenna (14) but also in selecting components for matching the receive-only antenna (60). The ratio may be applied to respective look-up tables (54, 64) for selecting the components to be used in matching the respective antennas.

Abstract: In a window-integrated antenna in vehicles, the heating conductor field is used for FM reception as well as for LMS reception. At least one decoupling element is provided for LMS reception which has a high-frequency, but non-galvanic connection to the heating conductor field. The decoupling element is situated in the heating conductor field, in particular between two adjacent heating conductors.

Abstract: A mobile satellite communication trailer comprising a frame, an antenna assembly coupled to the frame comprising a feed boom, a reflector dish coupled to the feed boom, and at least one bumper coupled to the feed boom intermediate the feed boom and the reflector dish. A shock isolator is positioned intermediate the frame and the feed boom. The mobile satellite system further comprises at least three adjustable stabilizing legs providing rigid support for said antenna assembly when said antenna assembly is in a transmission position, said stabilizing legs being convertible between said transmission position and said transport position, wherein one of said at least three adjustable stabilizing legs is moveably connected to said trailer front portion and at least two of said at least three adjustable stabilizing legs are moveably connected to at least one of said satellite antenna assembly and said trailer frame proximate said satellite antenna assembly.

Abstract: A complex antenna device includes: an antenna base having a main surface and first and second ends opposed to each other; a bar antenna including a metal body and disposed upright on a side of the first end of the antenna base; at least one planar antenna mounted on the main surface of the antenna base between the first and second ends of the antenna base; a metallic member provided on a side of the second end of the antenna base so as to substantially remove physical influence of the bar antenna on the planar antenna.

Abstract: An electronic device and a related antenna module for integrating GPS signals and digital mobile television signals are provided. With variances of both frequency domains and bandwidths between GPS signals and digital mobile television signals in the VHF and UHF bands, said signals may be transmitted inside the electronic device with different paths without interfering with each other.

Abstract: Described is the transformation of a mono-band antenna into a or multi-band antenna by adding matching circuits, in either serial or parallel fashion, to a mono-band antenna. The matching circuits contain reactive elements such as inductors and capacitors which create impedance matching for two or more frequency bands. These multi-band loop antennas can be used for frequencies extending from a few megahertz to several hundred megahertz. The method of tuning such multi-band antennas is also described.

Abstract: A communications apparatus, such as a portable radiotelephone, comprises a housing (40) containing a printed circuit board (PCB) (12) having a ground plane (16) and electronic components in rf shields (18) thereon. A planar antenna (10), for example a planar inverted-L antenna (PILA), is mounted spaced from the ground plane and a dielectric (14), for example, air, is present in a space between the PCB and the planar antenna. A feed (36) couples the planar antenna (10) to the rf components. The feed comprises parallel L-C resonator circuit components (42), a transmission line, or any other predominantly reactive network for reactively tuning the antenna. In the case of a dual band antenna the components are selected so that a lower frequency is tuned inductively and a higher frequency is tuned capacitively. The components, which may be discrete or distributed, are mounted on the PCB or a part of the planar antenna structure which is not subject to detuning by the user in normal operation of the apparatus.

Abstract: A plurality of antenna elements on a dielectric substrate are adapted to launch or receive electromagnetic waves in or from a direction substantially away from either a convex or concave edge of the dielectric substrate, wherein at least two of the antenna elements operate in different directions. Slotlines of tapered-slot endfire antennas in a first conductive layer of a first side of the dielectric substrate are coupled to microstrip lines of a second conductive layer on the second side of the dielectric substrate. A bi-conical reflector, conformal cylindrical dielectric lens, or discrete lens array improves the H-plane radiation pattern. Dipole or Yagi-Uda antenna elements on the conductive layer of the dielectric substrate can be used in cooperation with associated reflective elements, either alone or in combination with a corner-reflector of conductive plates attached to the conductive layers proximate to the endfire antenna elements.

Abstract: There is provided a broadband antenna including: an insulating block having opposing first and second main surfaces and a side surface between the first and second main surfaces; a first radiator pattern formed on the first main surface and having a tapered slot with an open end; and a second radiator pattern including two patterns connected to opposing ends of the first radiator pattern, respectively, and extending to the second main surface.

Abstract: A solar panel may be modified to function both as a solar panel and as a patch antenna. The use of combination solar cell and patch antenna allows for a greater amount of the upper surface of a device to be covered with solar panels, and may reduce the size and cost of the device. The ground layer of a printed circuit board in the device may be used as the ground plane of the patch antenna, further reducing the size and cost of the device.

Abstract: A broad band antenna including: a body formed of a material having a relative permittivity of 2 to 20, a relative permeability of 1 to 10, and a magnetic loss tangent of 0.001 to 0.2, at a usable frequency; and at least one radiator disposed on the body. The material forming the body may be a composite material formed of a polymer resin mixed with a magnetic powder. The composite material may contain the magnetic powder by 90 wt % with respect to a total weight.

Abstract: A flat antenna includes a substrate, a first antenna module having a first grounding unit, a first radiating unit, a first feeding unit and a second radiating unit, and a second antenna module having a second grounding unit, a third radiating unit, a second feeding unit and a fourth radiating unit. The second antenna module is disposed abreast with the first antenna module. The first and the second grounding units, and the first and the third radiating units are disposed on a first surface of the substrate. The first and the second feeding units, and the second and the fourth radiating units are disposed on a second surface of the substrate. The first, the second, the third and the fourth radiating units, which have a first, a second, a third and a forth openings respectively, are electrically connected with the first grounding unit, the first feeding unit, the second grounding unit and the second feeding unit.

Abstract: Disclosed is an antenna apparatus including: an antenna element including a receiving unit to receive an electric wave; a circuit substrate including a circuit surface on which a circuit amplifying an input from the antenna element is formed; a shield cover covering the circuit surface to shield the circuit substrate from a disturbing wave, the shield cover being grounded; a coaxial cable to supply driving power and GND potential to the circuit, and to output a signal from the circuit, the coaxial cable inserted into the shield cover, wherein the shield cover includes a base surface disposed in parallel with the circuit surface and a tongue flap extending to the coaxial cable, and the tongue flap includes a connecting piece formed by bending an end of the tongue flap at a side of the coaxial cable, the connecting piece being soldered to an outer conductor of the coaxial cable.

Abstract: In resonant elements 102 to 105 constituting a resonant circuit, an uncontrolled cross coupling which exists between two resonant elements is controlled by using a coupling element 106 which is newly arranged between the resonant elements, whereby it is possible to create a state where two resonant elements are not coupled with each other or a state where the amount of the coupling is reduced, which states are difficult to be realized on a plane. As a result, it is possible to improve characteristics of a planar filter.

Abstract: An inner antenna of a mobile terminal using a balance-to-unbalance transformer (BALUN) that can expand a frequency bandwidth is provided. The inner antenna includes a radiation plate disposed at the surface of a wiring substrate provided within the main body of a mobile terminal and has a structure in which a BALUN chip is located between a ground pad to which the radiation plate is coupled and a duplexer. Because the BALUN performs the function of a transformer, the BALUN can slowly change impedance, whereby performance deterioration due to abrupt impedance change is reduced. Slow impedance change allows a slow rate of change of the impedance locus in a frequency, thereby expanding the bandwidth of the inner antenna.

Abstract: An antenna apparatus is disclosed that includes a synthetic resin case having an antenna element accommodating portion and a ground element accommodating portion, an antenna element made of punched sheet metal that is accommodated within the antenna element accommodating portion, a ground element made of punched sheet metal that is accommodated within the ground element accommodating portion and aligned with the antenna element, a surface mount coaxial connector that is mounted over an interface between the antenna element and the ground element, and a cover that covers the antenna element and the ground element.

Abstract: An antenna element includes: an antenna plate; an antenna probe formed monolithically with the antenna plate and extending in a vertical direction from the antenna plate; a ground plate disposed in parallel to the antenna plate at a distance; and a dielectric spacer disposed between the antenna plate and the ground plate, wherein the antenna probe is bent from an edge of the antenna plate toward a center thereof.

Abstract: A facade or cover for a satellite dish has a magnet or magnetic base by which the facade is removably attachable to the parabolic structure of the satellite dish. The magnet or magnetic base is magnetically attracted to the metal composition of the parabolic structure of the satellite dish. The facade may have indicia. The facade may comprise a body having a magnetic base and a face coupled to the base. The body is oriented so that the magnetic base is oriented to the rear of the body, and the face is oriented to the front of the body, so that when the body is placed onto the surface of the parabolic structure, the face is visible to onward observers and the magnetic base is adjacent to and coupled with the surface of the parabolic structure.

Abstract: A thin layer or layers of electrically conductive material applied to the exterior surface of the enclosure exploits the skin effect for antenna implementations. Using an additive manufacturing process of the type wherein layers of material are consolidated without melting the material in bulk, at least the electrical interconnection may be completely embedded within the wall of the enclosure. Indeed, the transmitter, receiver, or transceiver and the electrical interconnection may also be completely embedded within the enclosure or the wall thereof. A pair of antennas may be provided to function as a dipole, for example. Alternatively, a plurality of antennas arranged to facilitate frequency tuning, beam steering, or other parameters. The antenna and enclosure are preferably fabricated from materials having different dielectric constants, including different metals.

Abstract: An antenna switch module includes a filter which reduces transmission loss so as to achieve high attenuation in a wide band at harmonic frequencies. This antenna switch module includes the filter, an antenna switch circuit and an adjustment line. The filter passes fundamental frequencies and has an attenuation pole. The antenna switch circuit switches antennas. The adjustment line is connected between the filter and the antenna switch circuit. The adjustment line adjusts its length, and when the filter and the antenna switch circuit are directly connected with each other at a connection point, prevents the impedance when the filter is seen from the connection point and the impedance when the antenna switch circuit is seen from the connection point from becoming complex conjugates of each other at the harmonic frequencies.

Abstract: When illuminated with a plane wave a variable cross-coupling partial reflector reflects a specific amount of a cross-polarized field and a specific amount of a co-polarized field and transmits the remaining power with low attenuation. This is achieved with a pair of frequency selective surfaces (FSS) that are rotated with respect to the incident plane wave. The FSSs can be fixed with a given alignment for a particular application or a tuning mechanism can be provided to independently rotate the surfaces and adapt the reflected co- and cross-polarized fields to changing requirements. Of particular interest is the ability to provide a specific amount of cross-polarized reflected power while reflecting no co-polarized field over a certain range of wavelengths. This will be useful to increase power efficiency in, for example, wave power sources that utilize quasi-optical power by causing oscillations in reflection amplifier arrays.

Abstract: Described herein is a graphics apparatus for displaying video data on a display system having N monitors each containing a screen. The apparatus includes a central controller for receiving from a graphics card a video signal. The central controller divides at least a portion of the video signal into N video streams, each video stream sent to an associated one of the N monitors for producing images on the N screens.

Abstract: A signal receiving apparatus includes: a communication part which communicates with a plurality of display apparatuses, and a controller which determines whether at least one of the plurality of display apparatuses is connected to the signal receiving apparatus, and, if it is determined that the at least one display apparatus is connected to the signal receiving apparatus, controls connection information related to a connection state of the display apparatus to be provided to at least one of the plurality of display apparatuses.

Abstract: A system and method for displaying one or more images on multiple remote displays. An image is selected to be displayed on one or more remote displays and a remote image file is generated for the selected image. The remote image file is transmitted to one or more remote displays and the one or more remote displays are configured to display an image corresponding to the remote image file.

Abstract: A display device for vehicles (a head-up display device for vehicles) includes an indicator 2 emitting display light, and display means 1 for projecting display light L to a projection member. Also included is control means 14 for making the display means 1 display thereon a road shape image indicating the shape of a road in front of a vehicle, and three-dimensional information of the road. As the three-dimensional information, the display means is made to display thereon a height difference index informing a height difference of the road.

Abstract: The image display apparatus is capable of reducing moire fringe when electric inverse-correction is performed on an image output to an image display element. The apparatus includes an optical system for observation of an image displayed on an image display element, a processor performing distorting processing that electrically provides to an input image a distortion in a direction inverse to that of distortion as aberration generated by the optical system, and a filter providing a low-pass filter effect to the image observed through the optical system. When a first image region including a first number of pixels in the input image is converted into a second image region including a second number of pixels by the distorting processing, the filter provides the low-pass filter effect depending on the relationship between the first and second numbers of pixels to the second image region.

Abstract: A method (90) and system (30) of presenting and positioning information on a user interface (56) includes a wearable display device, sensors (32) for detecting a context of use of the wearable display device using at least a vision sensor and a motion sensor, and a processor (42 or 50) coupled to the sensors and the wearable display device. The processor can analyze (93) a user's background view for areas suited for display of information in an analysis, and unobtrusively present (94) information within the user's field of view on the wearable display based on the context of use and the analysis. The processor can also determine (95) the type of information to unobtrusively present based on the context. The processor can optionally detect (92) the context of use by analyzing or recognizing a tool or an instrument used by a user of the wearable display.

Abstract: A technique which relates to discharge in sustain operation of a PDP device and a driving waveform thereof, and which can improve luminous efficiency to achieve stability while reducing a possibility of failure of discharge is provided. In a generating operation of a sustain pulse in a sustain pulse generating circuit, after LU-ON (t1 to t2), a voltage applied on electrodes is raised up to a sufficiently-high voltage, namely, a sustain voltage according to an ON state of a CU circuit (t2 to t3), and discharge is started, CU is once turned OFF (t3), then a first discharge peak is formed (t11). Thereafter, CU is turned ON again before discharge is converged (t12) to raise a voltage value and form a second discharge peak (t14). Since a voltage Vi to start discharge is sufficiently high, a possibility of discharge failure is suppressed, and an effect of improvement in luminous efficiency is not ruined.

Abstract: In a high luminance area having a target luminance L of not lower than a preset reference luminance L0, the light emitting element driver of the invention adopts a direct current drive mode and enables the function of a constant current driving circuit to drive an LED or light emitting diode. In a low luminance area having the target luminance L of lower than the preset reference luminance L0, on the other hand, the light emitting element driver adopts a pulse width modulation drive mode and enables the function of a pulse width modulation driving circuit to drive the LED. This control procedure enables the luminance adjustment by the pulse width modulation drive control in the low luminance area, while ensuring the high power efficiency by the direct current drive control in the high luminance area. The advantage of this arrangement simultaneously satisfies both the luminance adjustment in a wide range including the low luminance area and the high power efficiency.

Abstract: An electro-optical device includes a plurality of scanning lines arranged in rows, a plurality of data lines arranged in columns and grouped in blocks for every m columns (m being an integer more than one), a plurality of pixels, a scanning-line driving circuit, a block selecting circuit, a sampling circuit, and a control circuit. Each pixel is made to have a gray scale level in accordance with a data signal sampled into a corresponding data line of the plurality of data lines when a predetermined selection voltage is applied to a corresponding scanning line of the plurality of scanning lines. The scanning-line driving circuit selects the plurality of scanning lines one by one in a predetermined order in each of a first field and a second field to which a frame is divided and applies the selection voltage to the selected scanning line.

Abstract: A driving method of a plasma display device for reducing power consumption is provided. In the driving method of the plasma display device, a discharge current, which is consumed during a period where a voltage of a first electrode is increased and maintained through an inductor in a sustain discharge circuit, is induced to flow to a capacitor of an energy recovery circuit connected to a second electrode, thereby recovering discharge power. Accordingly, power consumed during a sustain discharge period can be reduced.

Abstract: In a sustain operation in an ALIS PDP device, a combination in which a basic first waveform and a second waveform in which a discharge peak is separated are mixed is applied. In the combination, the probability that the second waveform occurs successively is sufficiently reduced to less than 20%, and the number of times of sustain discharges of various intensities is made equal in the lines to be driven. By this means, the 2L nonuniformity can be prevented, and the deterioration of Vsmin can be reduced.

Abstract: A high voltage gate driver circuit in accordance with an embodiment of the present application includes a first driver operable to provide a first output voltage signal, a second driver operable to provide a second output voltage signal, internal circuitry operable to process the second output voltage signal to provide a processed output voltage signal having different characteristics than the first output voltage signal and a selection circuit operable to select one of the first output voltage signal and the processed output voltage signal as a gate drive signal. The high voltage gate driver may also include a single external power switch connected to the selection circuit such that the gate drive signal is provided to the gate of the external power switch to turn the external power switch on and off as desired.

Abstract: The panel interface control device, which eliminates the necessity of newly producing video data for panel display and flexibly responds to a change in the type of display panel, includes a data conversion circuit and an RGB filter circuit that are both programmable and scale up or down a digital video signal for display horizontally and vertically to conform to the screen size of the display panel. An interface section outputs the output of the RGB filter circuit to the display panel as video data.

Abstract: A method and apparatus of driving a plasma display panel that is adaptive for making a stable operation at both a low temperature and a high temperature. In the apparatus, a scan driver applies a first sustaining pulse to a scan electrode during a sustain period. A sustain driver applies a second sustaining pulse alternating with the first sustaining pulse to a common sustain electrode during the sustain period. A sustain voltage source supplies a driving voltage to the scan driver and the sustain driver such that the first and second sustaining pulses can be applied. A controller controls a voltage value of the driving voltage in correspondence with a driving temperature at which the panel is driven.