Abstract: An electrochemical measurement device includes a chip, a working electrode, a first connection portion, a substrate, a second connection portion, a third connection portion, and an upper plate. The working electrode is disposed on the upper surface of the chip. The first connection portion is disposed on the upper surface of the chip, and is electrically connected to the working electrode. The second connection portion is disposed on the upper surface of the substrate. The third connection portion is disposed on the substrate, is electrically connected to the second connection portion, and is to be electrically connected to an external apparatus. The upper plate is disposed on the upper surfaces of the substrate and chip. The upper plate is provided with a first through hole through which the working electrode is exposed.

Abstract: An electrochemical sensor according to an embodiment, includes a first insulating film, an electrode, a semiconductor layer provided between the first insulating film and the electrode, and a charge storage layer provided between the electrode and the semiconductor layer.

Abstract: An inexpensive ion sensor catalyst capable of detecting hydrogen phosphate ions in water and determining hydrogen phosphate ion concentration on the basis of oxidation current density for the ions, along with an ion sensor and a quantification method, the ion sensor catalyst being characterized by providing higher detection sensitivity than conventional ion sensor catalysts, being capable of maintaining high detection sensitivity over a wide range of hydrogen phosphate ion concentration, achieving a proportional relationship between concentration and oxidation current density, so that the concentration can be determined with accuracy regardless of the concentration range, and allowing oxidation current to reach a steady-state value in a short time, so that time to determine current density is short, resulting in shortened time to quantify hydrogen phosphate ions, and stable response to hydrogen phosphate ion oxidation can be made repeatedly.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, a semiconductor analysis chip for detecting a particle in a sample liquid includes a semiconductor substrate, a first flow channel provided in a surface portion of the semiconductor substrate, a second flow channel provided in a surface portion of the semiconductor substrate, part of the second flow channel contacting or intersecting the first flow channel, a micropore provided in a contact portion or an intersection of the first and second flow channels, and configured to permit the particle to pass therethrough, a first electrode provided in the first flow channels, a second electrode provided in the second passage, and a third electrode provided in the first flow channel downstream of the first electrode.

Abstract: Described herein is an approach using inexpensive, disposable chemical sensor probes that can be mounted on a small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and used to analyze a site (such as one known or suspected to contain explosive residue, spilled material or contaminated soil) without the need for a person to conduct ground operations at the site. The method involves contacting a soil or a surface with a filter paper wetted with a solvent, then subjecting the filter paper to voltammetry and/or spectroscopy, thus detecting a possible variation indicative of one or more analytes, wherein the solvent is the deep eutectic solvent consisting of a mixture of ethylene glycol and choline chloride.

Abstract: The methods herein provide for analysis of ion populations. Certain aspects include: obtaining a first data set that includes: a first binary On-OFF frequency sweep across a range of frequencies resulting in a first raw data in the time domain and obtaining a second data set that includes: a second binary On-OFF frequency sweep 180° out of phase from the first binary On-OFF frequency sweep so as to result in a second raw data in the time domain from received ion current resulting from the second binary On-OFF frequency sweep. Thereafter the two data sets are combined to provide for raw mobility signals of the ion populations in the time domain for each m/z over a range of selected m/z values. Additional aspects include a hybrid system for performing the methods disclosed herein.

Abstract: A method of operating a system comprising a chromatograph, an ion source, a mass spectrometer having a mass analyzer and an ion mobility spectrometer interposed between the ion source and the mass analyzer, comprising: performing a first chromatographic and mass analysis of a sample while operating the ion mobility spectrometer in non-dispersive mode, wherein a respective ion-signal-acquisition time (AT) and a corresponding loss-of-ion-signal time (LT) are identified for each detected m/z ratio that corresponds to a precursor-ion m/z ratio of interest; and performing a second chromatographic and mass analysis of the sample during which, for each identified AT and LT, the corresponding respective precursor ion is fragmented to generate product ions and the product ions are detected by the mass analyzer, wherein the ion mobility spectrometer is operated in dispersive mode such that ions of said each respective precursor-ion species are preferentially transmitted therethrough spectrometer to the mass analyzer.

Abstract: A VOC detection sensor includes: a photoemission acceleration unit including a first electrode and a second electrode spaced apart from each other to face each other and a power source unit forming an electric field between the first electrode and the second electrode, photoemission means disposed within a space formed by the first electrode and second electrode of the photoemission acceleration unit and emitting photoelectrons, a light source supplying light energy by which the photoemission means emits photoelectrons, and an ammeter measuring the amount of charges flowing between the first electrode and the second electrode, wherein VOCs in the space between the first electrode and the second electrode are ionized through a collision against photoelectrons accelerated by the photoemission acceleration unit, and the ammeter detects a concentration of the VOCs by measuring the amount of charges formed by the ionized VOCs between the first electrode and the second electrode.

Abstract: An article is provided with a web of polymer fibers forming a scrim with openings between the polymer fiber elements. A particulate is distributed in, or on the polymer fiber in a quantity to make the scrim detectable by X-ray detection or magnetic detection. One or more layers are laminated to the scrim. A process for detecting a multi-layered laminated scrim-containing article with magnetic or X-ray detection equipment in a production setting is also provided. With process implementation article loss in a product can be detected thereby reducing precautionary product discard.

Abstract: A device for testing a test material for defects within the test material has an acoustic broadband transducer offset from the test material surface during testing by a distance so that the transducer acquires acoustic waves across an air gap from the test material, wherein the acoustic waves arise from impact of an impact member on the test material.

Abstract: Disclosed is a composite focusing wedge for ultrasonic non-destructive testing/inspection. The composite wedge comprises a base made of machined or cast material, and a lens made of a material which is cast in liquid form and subsequently solidifies. The acoustic velocity in the base material is less than that in the lens material. The castable lens material conforms exactly to a convex machined or cast surface of the base, thereby forming a concave lower surface of the lens. A flat ultrasonic probe is coupled to a planar upper surface of the lens. The minimum distance between the lower concave and upper planar surfaces of the lens is less than one acoustic wavelength in the lens material. The ringdown time of reverberations between the two surfaces is then sufficiently short that there is no interference between the reverberations and signals from sub-surface flaws in the object being tested.

Abstract: In accordance with an aspect of the present application, a system is provided for crack monitoring in a structure of interest, comprising means for extracting wave modes existing in a frequency interval of interest, means for finding a source of emission on the structure of interest, means for correcting for dispersion to reconstruct an original ratio of wave modes at the source of emission, and means for correlating the original ratio of wave modes to a crack depth. One advantage of this solution in contrast to prior art techniques is that no a priori knowledge on propagation speed is necessary since actual wave modes can be detected from dispersion relations of wave modes, e.g. Lamb waves at a fixed frequency band in accordance with their calculated speeds. Decentralized acquisition and processing, i.e. monitoring a structure from a localized area, is an important feature of this solution, consequent to which, the data transfer and storage are reduced substantially.

Abstract: According to an embodiment, a detection system includes a detection device, an acoustic emission sensor, and a processing unit. The detection device detects a change that occurs in a structure or a change in an environment related to the structure. The acoustic emission sensor detects an acoustic emission wave produced from the structure. The processing unit performs first signal processing to process an acoustic emission signal indicating the acoustic emission wave, which is input from the acoustic emission sensor until a first period of time elapses after a detection signal is input from the detection device. The detection signal indicates that a change has occurred in the structure or the environment related to the structure.

Abstract: A photoacoustic gas sensor device for analyzing gas includes an emitter module and a pressure-sensitive module. The emitter module is arranged on a carrier substrate and emits light pulses. The pressure-sensitive module is arranged on the carrier substrate within a reference gas volume. The reference gas volume is separated from a volume intended to be filled with a gas to be analyzed. Further, the pressure-sensitive module generates a sensor signal indicating information on an acoustic wave caused by light pulses emitted by the emitter module interacting with a reference gas within the reference gas volume. Additionally, the emitter module is arranged so that light pulses emitted by the emitter module reach the reference gas volume after crossing the volume intended to be filled with the gas to be analyzed.

Abstract: A surface acoustic wave sensor system for determining environmental conditions on a substrate. The system comprises an interrogator for producing an RF interrogating signal transmitted by an antenna to an interdigital transducer mounted on the substrate for producing an incident surface acoustic wave responsive to the interrogating signal. A plurality of reflector arrays mounted on the substrate produce a like plurality of reflected surface acoustic waves; a spacing between adjacent ones of the plurality of reflector arrays comprising a non-uniform distance. The plurality of reflected surface acoustic waves are responsive to the environmental condition and exhibit a characteristic from which the environmental condition can be determined by a processing component.

Abstract: A vibration analysis device calculates a vibration cycle which occurs during a period in which a workpiece is processed by a machine tool, and includes a tangential velocity calculation unit which calculates a velocity in a tangential direction of a movement path of a processing point by using positional information of a drive axis. The vibration analysis device comprises a movement distance calculation unit which calculates a first movement distance of the processing point on the movement path by using the velocity in the tangential direction. The vibration analysis device comprises a vibration cycle calculation unit which calculates a vibration cycle corresponding to streaks on the basis of previously measured streak intervals on the workpiece and the first movement distance of the processing point.

Abstract: An ultrasonic probe, an ultrasonic imaging apparatus including the same, and a method for controlling the same are disclosed, which relate to a method for changing a pulse signal received by an ultrasonic probe by controlling a switching element mounted to an ultrasonic probe during pulse inversion harmonic imaging. The ultrasonic probe includes: a transducer array configured to transmit and receive an ultrasonic signal; a printed circuit board (PCB) electrically connected to the transducer array so as to transmit a pulse signal received from a main body of an ultrasonic imaging apparatus to the transducer array; and a switching circuit configured to change a waveform of the pulse signal received by the PCB and transmitted to the transducer array.

Abstract: A thermal system for use in a column manager of a liquid chromatography system comprises a plurality of spatially separated individually controlled thermoelectric chips. A column module houses a plurality of thermally conductive troughs. Each trough resides in a separate thermal zone to be thermally conditioned individually by one of the individually controlled thermoelectric chips. Each trough is adapted to hold one or more liquid chromatography columns therein. A plurality of spatially separated thermal bridges includes a first thermal bridge thermally coupling one of the thermoelectric chips to a first one of the plurality of troughs and a second thermal bridge of the plurality of thermal bridges thermally coupling another of the thermoelectric chips to a second one of the plurality of troughs.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method and an apparatus for determining a chromatogram. The method includes a first step where a sample is inserted in two separation columns (2.1, 2.2, 2.3), wherein for each separation column (2.1, 2.2, 2.3), a corresponding part of the sample is inserted in the respective separation column (2.1, 2.2, 2.3) with a corresponding insertion device (3.1, 3.2, 3.3) which is controlled by a corresponding modulation function for generating a corresponding modulated part of the sample in the respective separation column (2.1, 2.2, 2.3), wherein the modulation functions with which the parts of the sample are modulated in the separation columns (2.1, 2.2, 2.3) differ from each other. Furthermore, the method includes a second step where each modulated part of the sample is guided through the respective separation column (2.1, 2.2, 2.3), a third step where a signal of each modulated part of the sample is measured with a same detector (4) after having passed the respective separation column (2.

Abstract: The present invention relates to techniques for determining unknown concentration of constituents of any known mixture. The said techniques comprising: obtaining a plurality of chromatograms relating to known concentration of known mixtures and at least one chromatogram relating to unknown concentration of the known mixture; converting each of the chromatograms into signal vectors; condensing the dimensions of each of the signal vectors for obtaining low dimensional signal vectors; processing the low dimensional signal vectors representing the chromatograms relating to known concentrations to obtain output values; and processing the at least one low dimensional signal vector representing the chromatogram relating to unknown concentration by utilizing the obtained output values for determining the unknown concentration of each of the constitutes of the known mixture.

Abstract: Provided are a method of and an apparatus for formulating a multicomponent drug capable of surely making a multicomponent drug meeting criteria for productization with high accuracy into a product. The method and apparatus obtain a chromatogram from an extract or a base of a multicomponent drug, evaluate whether the base meets the criteria for productization based on the obtained chromatogram with high accuracy, and subject the base determined in the high-accuracy evaluating as an accepted one meeting the criteria to dosage form processing, to produce a formulated drug having a given dosage form. The high quality evaluation is realized by performing peak assignment of a target fingerprint obtained from a chromatogram to a reference fingerprint with high accuracy.

Abstract: A method is for the simultaneous identification of one or more chemical compounds contained in a sample, from an analytical measurement of a pool of two or more of the samples. A measured intensity of a first and second signal is representative of an abundance of respectively the first and second chemical compound in the first sample, and a measured intensity of a third and fourth second signal is representative of an abundance of respectively a third and fourth chemical compound in the second sample. The first and third, and the second and fourth compound may be the same or different. The signal intensities are organized in a matrix aij of m columns and n rows, in which n is ?2 and corresponds to the number of chemical compounds in the pool, and m?2 and corresponds to the number of samples in the pool.

Abstract: Thermal ribbon analysis is achieved via various approaches.

Abstract: Described are systems and methods for compensating long term sensitivity drift of catalytic type electrochemical gas sensors used in systems for delivering therapeutic nitric oxide (NO) gas to a patient by compensating for drift that may be specific to the sensors atypical use in systems for delivering therapeutic nitric oxide gas to a patient. In at least some instances, the long term sensitivity drift of catalytic type electrochemical gas sensors can be addressed using calibration schedules, which can factor in the absolute change in set dose of NO being delivered to the patient that can drive one or more baseline calibrations. The calibration schedules can be used reduce the amount of times the sensor goes offline. Systems and methods described may factor in in actions occurring at the delivery system and/or aspects of the surrounding environment, prior to performing a baseline calibration, and may postpone the calibration and/or rejected using the sensor's output for the calibration.

Abstract: Described are systems and methods for compensating long term sensitivity drift of catalytic type electrochemical gas sensors used in systems for delivering therapeutic nitric oxide (NO) gas to a patient by compensating for drift that may be specific to the sensors atypical use in systems for delivering therapeutic nitric oxide gas to a patient. In at least some instances, the long term sensitivity drift of catalytic type electrochemical gas sensors can be addressed using calibration schedules, which can factor in the absolute change in set dose of NO being delivered to the patient that can drive one or more baseline calibrations. The calibration schedules can be used reduce the amount of times the sensor goes offline. Systems and methods described may factor in in actions occurring at the delivery system and/or aspects of the surrounding environment, prior to performing a baseline calibration, and may postpone the calibration and/or rejected using the sensor's output for the calibration.

Abstract: A method for testing a sensor positioned downstream of an engine. The method includes motoring the engine, receiving a signal indicative of a value from the sensor, and determining whether the value is inside or outside of an established range. The established range is based on a known characteristic of an exhaust gas exiting from the engine as it is motoring.

Abstract: A device for monitoring the freshness of food items is provided; made up of plastic and thermos-measuring product. It detects mold or bad gases from the stored food when it reacts with the gasses released by microorganisms during food spoilage or mold. It provides visual indication to the user about the freshness of food items by changing colors. When it stays green the food is safe to eat and when food becomes unsafe it shows red indication to the user. It can be placed in a redesigned Tupperware lid, cup, plates, zip lock bag, or directly built into all prepackaged organic food products; such as prepackaged meat, milk jugs, juices, animal feed, plant seed or anything with an expiration date. It is designed for one time use only.

Abstract: A food packaging arrangement (1) comprising a packaging (2) and a chemical composition (4) which, by reaction with a breakdown product of the food (3) in question, forms a light-emitting or fluorescent compound or emits light.

Abstract: Described here is a test strip for detection of melamine, comprising: a support configured for capillary flow of a fluid sample from a first end of the support to a second end of the support that is downstream from the first end; a conjugation pad disposed adjacent to the first end of the support and including nanoparticles configured for suspension in the sample flowing past the conjugation pad, the nanoparticles configured to produce a colorimetric effect when exposed to melamine; and a test portion downstream of the conjugation pad and including a molecular recognition agent immobilized on the support and having an affinity for melamine.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a sensor for indicating food quality comprising a semi-permeable film layer, the semi-permeable film layer comprising at least one integrally formed well having at least one sensing element disposed therein; wherein the well is sealed by a second film layer, the semi-permeable film layer being impermeable to said sensing element but is permeable to at least one analyte detectable by said sensing element.

Abstract: Solid contents verification systems and methods are provided. The system includes a contents sensor unit, a container-carrying unit and a control unit. The contents sensor unit has at least one contents sensor configured to send and receive sonic pulses to determine a state of contents in a container. The contents sensor unit is configured to send a signal communicating a state of the contents in a container. The container-carrying unit is configured to hold a container in substantial alignment with the contents sensors to expose the contents to the sonic pulses. The control unit is operatively connected to the contents sensor unit. The control unit is configured to receive the signal communicating the state of the contents and to compare the state of the contents with a desired state of the contents.

Abstract: A method and apparatus that includes isolating a sample having a known volume and obtained near a reservoir that has a reserve; extracting hydrocarbons from the sample; and identifying data associated with the hydrocarbons. The data may include the volume of the extracted hydrocarbons. The method also includes using the data to estimate the reserve of the reservoir. The method can also include pulverizing the sample to release additional hydrocarbons.

Abstract: This invention encompasses embodiments for multi-modal integrated simultaneous measurement of various aspects of fluids contained in circulating systems such as automotive reciprocating engines and vehicle transmissions. These circulating systems perform constant internal lubrication, and heat and contaminant removal to protect the internal moving parts from the inherent friction and damage in normal operation. Most commonly this is achieved with fluids based on hydrocarbon and/or related synthetics, which, over time can lose their protective properties, and vary in their performance or breakdown/decay due to internal and external events. Several components within the lubricant fluid can be measured and can provide insight into the efficacy of the system to perform its designed mission.

Abstract: According to one aspect, the disclosure is directed to an example embodiment in which a circuit-based arrangement includes a circuit-based substrate securing a channel, with an effective width that is not limited by the Debye screening length, along a surface of the substrate. A pair of reservoirs are included in or on the substrate and configured for containing and presenting a sample having bio-molecules for delivery in the channel. A pair of electrodes electrically couple a charge in the sample to enhance ionic current flow therein (e.g., to overcome the electrolyte screening), and a sense electrode is located along the channel for sensing a characteristic of the biological sample by using the electrostatic interaction between the enhanced ionic current flow of the sample and the sense electrode. Actual detection occurs by using a charge-signal processing circuit to process the sensed charge signal and, therefrom, provide an output indicative of a signature for the bio-molecules delivered in the channel.

Abstract: Provided are methods and compositions for detecting a target analyte suspected to be present in a sample with background molecules using a nanopore device. A plurality of probes for polymer scaffold identification or for target analyte binding and detection are provided. Also provided are methods and compositions for storing data on a polymer scaffold, and accessing the data using a nanopore device and binding probes.

Abstract: A test sensor (100) for determining an analyte concentration in a biological fluid comprises a strip including a fluid receiving area (128) and a port-insertion region (126). A first row of optically transparent (132) and non-transparent positions forms a calibration code pattern (130) disposed within a first area of the port-insertion region (126). A second row of optically transparent (142) and non-transparent positions forms a synchronization code pattern (140) disposed within a second area of the port-insertion region (126). The second area is different from the first area. The synchronization code pattern (140) corresponds to the calibration code pattern (130) such that the synchronization code pattern (140) provides synchronization of the serial calibration code pattern (130) during insertion of the port-insertion region (126) into the receiving port of the analyte meter.

Abstract: A Self Monitoring And Reporting Therapeutics, SMART® composition, method, apparatus and system are provided which flexibly provide options, by combining different embodiments of the device with different embodiments of the composition, the ability to conduct definitive medication adherence monitoring over the short term (Acute Medication Adherence Monitoring, immediately up to an hour or so after taking a medication), intermediate term (Intermediate Medication Adherence Monitoring, IMAM, an hour or so to a day or so after taking a medication), and longer term (Chronic Medication Adherence Monitoring, CMAM, a day to several days after taking a medication).

Abstract: An intracellular selection system allows screening for peptide bioactivity and stability. Randomized recombinant peptides are screened for bioactivity in a tightly regulated expression system, preferably derived from the wild-type lac operon. Bioactive peptides thus identified are inherently protease- and peptidase-resistant. Also provided are bioactive peptides stabilized by a stabilizing group at the N-terminus, the C-terminus, or both. The stabilizing group can be a small stable protein, such as the Rop protein, glutathione sulfotransferase, thioredoxin, maltose binding protein, or glutathione reductase, an ?-helical moiety, or one or more proline residues.

Abstract: Unmodified graphene oxide conjugated with hydrophilic small molecules for cellular delivery.

Abstract: A three-dimensional cancer culture model is provided suitable for chemotherapeutic testing and metastasis mechanism study.

Abstract: A gel composition that forms a three dimensional gel microenvironment that is formed of an adhesive protein, a maleimide-functionalized poly alkylene oxide, a linking agent and a nanoparticle, the components forming an interpenetrating network that exhibits improved mechanical and biochemical properties, as well as creates a favorable microenvironment for cellular growth and proliferation. The gel composition also creates a favorable microenvironment for testing various agents on normal or diseased cells, including chemotherapeutic agents on cancer cells or other diseased cells.

Abstract: The present invention includes a method of introducing a pathogenic infection into one or more peripheral lymph nodes of an animal for testing of meat, comprising: inoculating at one or more peripheral lymph node drainage areas the animal with a known amount of a known pathogen; harvesting one or more peripheral lymph nodes from the animal; grinding meat or meat trimmings and the one or more peripheral lymph nodes into ground meat; and determining a ratio of a number of peripheral lymph nodes infected to the weight of the meat or meat trimmings used to create the ground meat, wherein the infected ground meat can be used to test interventions against the known pathogen in a grinding process.

Abstract: Disclosed is a blood analyzer including a specimen preparation unit that prepares a measurement specimen by mixing a hemolytic agent that hemolyzes red blood cells, a staining dye that dyes nucleic acids, and a blood specimen; a detector that detects intensity of side scattered light and intensity of fluorescence generated with application of light from the measurement specimen prepared by the specimen preparation unit; and an analysis unit that discriminates white blood cells from giant platelets based on the intensity of side scattered light and the intensity of fluorescence detected by the detector, and counts the white blood cells.

Abstract: A chromogenic absorbent material for an animal litter includes an oxidizing agent responsive to peroxidatic/pseudoperoxidatic activity in an animal excretion or a first catalytic compound generating the oxidizing agent in situ. The material also includes a chromogenic indicator being chromogenically responsive to the oxidizing activity of the oxidizing agent, and an absorptive material which is porous, for absorbing the animal excretion. The absorptive material includes a water-absorbing polysaccharide providing absorptive properties to the chromogenic absorbent material; and may also include a second polysaccharide and a superabsorbent polymer. The material may be obtained in the form of particles having a low density and a high porosity, and is usable in conjunction with an animal litter for detecting various diseases in animals.

Abstract: A dry chemical test strip with multiple layers of membranes based on concentration gradient, comprising a substrate, an indicator layer, a reagent layer and a diffusion layer, further comprises a concentration gradient layer. Wherein a first reagent is uniformly applied on the reagent layer, a second reagent is applied on the concentration gradient layer. The concentration gradient increment V? of the second reagent is 0 in the width direction of the test strip, and is a constant or a function of the variable of length in the length direction of the test strip, a chromogenic reagent is uniformly applied on the indicator layer. The dry chemical test strip with multiple layers of membranes based on concentration gradient can allow all the testing and analysis procedures to be directly carried out on the test strip, test results to be directly obtained on the spot without the help of instruments.

Abstract: A single device to collect, transfer, and measure salivary nitric oxide analyte and metabolite, nitrite, a biomarker for nitric oxide, as well as, a method to assess the effects of diet and exercise on changing an individual's nitric oxide status and health.

Abstract: The application is to antibodies which have been labelled with polyenzymes (multiple enzymes), specifically polyperoxidases, for use in direct immunohistochemical assays of tissues. The antibodies used diagnostically may also be antibodies which are used therapeutically.

Abstract: The present invention relates to methods and compositions for monitoring, diagnosis, prognosis, and determination of treatment regimens in subjects suffering from or suspected of having a renal injury. In particular, the invention relates to using assays that detect one or more of hyaluronic acid (HA) as diagnostic and prognostic biomarker assays in renal injuries.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of reversibly binding polypeptides to a solid phase comprising a hydrophilic surface, preferably for the use in mass spectrometry based proteomics. Kits providing reagents for the method of the invention and uses of said kits.

Abstract: Microfluidic devices for use with reagents bound to microspheres for determination of the concentration of an analyte in a liquid sample are provided. The devices include two sequential mixing channels that promote rapid binding of microsphere-bound reagents with reagents in solution and a means for detecting labeled microsphere-bound reaction products. Also provided are methods for using the devices with microsphere-bound reagents to determine the concentration of an analyte in a liquid sample and to measure the binding affinity of antibody for an antigen.