Abstract: An adapter has a circular body having an outer diameter and a height, a counter-bore concentric with the outer diameter, implemented in a lower extremity of the body, having a first inner diameter from the lowest point of the body to an internal horizontal shoulder, a through bore having a second inner diameter concentric with the outer diameter from an upper extremity of the body to the level of the internal horizontal shoulder, a male thread implemented at the upper extremity of the body adapted to engage a female thread of a commercially-available herb grinder, and a course female thread implemented in the counter-bore from the lower extremity of the body to the internal horizontal shoulder, the course female thread of a form to intimately engage threads under a rim of a regular-mouth Mason jar.

Abstract: Methods are provided for modifying a porous surface of an implantable medical device by subjecting the porous surface to a modified micro-arc oxidation process to improve the ability of the medical device to resist microbial growth, to improve the ability of the medical device to adsorb a bioactive agent or a therapeutic agent, and to improve tissue in-growth and tissue on-growth of the implantable medical device.

Abstract: Subject matter disclosed herein may relate to construction of a correlated electron material (CEM) device. In particular embodiments, after formation of a film comprising layers of a transition metal oxide (TMO) material and a dopant, at least a portion of the film may be exposed to an elevated temperature. Exposure of the at least a portion of the film to the elevated temperature may continue until the atomic concentration of the dopant within the film is reduced, which may enable operation of the film as a correlated electron material CEM exhibiting switching of impedance states.

Abstract: A method for surface treatment of aluminum alloys for forms an oxidation film in the aluminum alloys for casting by adding a metallic anion compound to an electrolytic solution. The method can prevent cracks from occurring on a surface of the aluminum alloys for casting at the time of applying an anodizing method.

Abstract: Nanofluidic passages such as nanochannels and nanopores are closed or opened in a controlled manner through the use of a feedback system. An oxide layer is grown or removed within a passage in the presence of an electrolyte until the passage reaches selected dimensions or is closed. The change in dimensions of the nanofluidic passage is measured during fabrication. The ionic current level through the passage can be used to determine passage dimensions. Fluid flow through an array of fluidic elements can be controlled by selective oxidation of fluidic passages between elements.

Abstract: Provided is a copper-clad laminate obtainable by bonding a copper foil on which roughening treatment including copper-cobalt-nickel alloy plating is performed and a liquid crystal polymer to each other, wherein the copper-clad laminate is free from a roughening particle residue on a surface of the liquid crystal polymer resin after copper foil circuit etching. The copper-clad laminate obtainable by bonding a copper foil and a liquid crystal polymer to each other, wherein the copper foil includes a copper primary particle layer formed on a surface bonded to the liquid crystal polymer and a secondary particle layer formed on the primary particle layer and made from a ternary alloy including copper, cobalt, and nickel; the primary particle layer has an average particle size of 0.25 to 0.45 ?m; and the secondary particle layer has an average particle size of 0.05 to 0.25 ?m.

Abstract: Provided is a rolled copper or copper-alloy foil having a roughened surface, the rolled copper or copper-alloy foil subjected to roughening treatment with copper fine grains wherein a copper base plating layer is provided between the copper roughened layer and the rolled copper or copper-alloy foil. An object of the present invention is to provide a roughened rolled copper-alloy foil having fewer craters, the presence of which is a serious disadvantage unique to a rolled copper-alloy foil having a roughened surface. In particular, provided is a rolled copper or copper-alloy foil in which the development of craters caused by inclusions present in or near a surface of the base material can be controlled.

Abstract: A method for forming a trivalent chromium coating on an aluminum alloy substrate includes adding a chromium-containing solution to a vessel, immersing the aluminum alloy substrate in the chromium-containing solution, immersing a counter electrode in the chromium-containing solution, and applying an electrical potential bias to the aluminum alloy substrate with respect to its equilibrium potential to form a trivalent chromium coating on an outer surface of the aluminum alloy substrate. A method for forming a trivalent chromium coating on a metal substrate includes adding a chromium-containing solution to a vessel, immersing the metal substrate in the chromium-containing solution, immersing a counter electrode in the chromium-containing solution, and modulating an electrical potential difference between the metal substrate and the counter electrode to form a trivalent chromium coating on an outer surface of the metal substrate.

Abstract: The present disclosure generally relates to techniques for electro-depositing nano-patterns. More specifically, systems and methods for fabricating periodic structures in complex nano-patterns are described. An electrical signal may be applied to one or more electrodes that are positioned about a surface of a substrate. The periodicity of the deposited pattern may be influenced by one or more parameters associated with an applied electrical signal, including one or more of frequency, amplitude, period, duty cycle, etc. The weight of each deposited line on the substrate may be influenced by the described parameters, and the shape of the pattern may be influenced by the number, shape, and position of electrodes.

Abstract: A method for the plasma electrolytic oxidation of a bioactive coating onto implant (4) is provided. The implant is placed in an electrolyte solution (3) providing Ca and P ions and then connected to a power supply (1). A counter electrode is also provided in the electrolyte solution. A sequence of voltage pulses having alternating polarity are then applied across the implant and counter electrode to deposit a bioactive coating onto the implant. A intra-bone implant formed by the method is also provided having a coating with a thickness of 10 to 30 microns, a porosity comprised by pores with sizes of 0.5 to 10 microns, and comprising 10 to 30 wt % of hydroxyapatites.

Abstract: An implant and method for producing an implant, in particular an intraluminal endoprosthesis, with a body, wherein the body contains iron or an iron alloy, comprising the following steps: a) providing the implant body (1), b) applying a metallic coating comprising as main constituent at least one element of the group containing tantalum, niobium, zirconium, aluminum, magnesium, vanadium, molybdenum, hafnium, and wolfram onto at least a portion of the body surface, and c) plasmachemical treatment of the portion of the body surface provided with the coating in an aqueous solution for producing a plasmachemically generated layer (3, 5, 7) by means of applying a plasma-generating pulsating voltage to the body of the implant, wherein the pulsating voltage has sufficient energy that the metallic coating (3, 5, 7) is temporarily and sectionally ionized up to the underlying implant body (1) in such a manner that the generated layer has pores (5) which extend at least partially up to the implant body.

Abstract: A method for forming a ZrO2 oxide film by plasma electrolytic oxidation includes a first step of placing an anode, which is a substrate with a ZrN film, and a cathode into an electrolyte of which the temperature range is from 65° C. to 75° C. Said electrolyte contains barium acetate or barium hydroxide ranging from 0.3 M to 0.7 M and sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide ranging from 1.5 M to 2.5 M. The method includes a second step of applying a voltage ranging from 50 V to 1000 V to the anode and cathode to finally form a ZrO2 film on a surface of the ZrN film of the anode. A DC power supply, an AC power supply, unipolar pulse power supply or bipolar pulse power supply is applied to said anode and cathode in constant-voltage mode or constant-current mode. The oxide film can be formed more rapidly than the prior art and has excellent crystallinity.

Abstract: A method for forming an oxide film by plasma electrolytic oxidation includes a first step of placing an anode, which is a substrate with a conductive nitride film, and a cathode into an electrolyte of which the temperature range is from 20° C. to 100° C., and a second step of applying a voltage ranging from 50 V to 1000 V to the anode and cathode to finally form an oxide film on a surface of the conductive nitride film of the anode. The oxide film can be formed more rapidly than the prior art and has excellent crystallinity.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for grafting an organic film onto an electrically conductive or semiconductive surface by electro-reduction of a solution, wherein the solution comprises one diazonium salt and one monomer bearing at least one chain polymerizable functional group. During the electrolyzing process, at least one protocol consisting of an electrical polarization of the surface by applying a variable potential over at least a range of values which are more cathodic that the reduction or peak potential of all diazonium salts in said solution is applied. The invention also relates to an electrically conducting or semiconducting surface obtained by implementing this method. The invention further relates to electrolytic compositions.

Abstract: An anodizing method in which a workpiece made of aluminum or aluminum alloy is immersed in an electrolytic solution, and treatment is performed in which the application of positive voltage for a very short period of time and the removal of charges are repeated alternately between the workpiece and a cathode arranged in the electrolytic solution includes a step of performing treatment in which the positive voltage application and the charge removal are repeated in a tentative cycle, measuring the control point arrival time of a current waveform at the positive voltage application period, and determining normal positive voltage application time based on the control point arrival time; and a step of performing treatment in which the application of positive voltage and the removal of charges are repeated in a cycle corresponding to the normal positive voltage application time, and forming an anodized film on the surface of the workpiece.

Abstract: A surface preparation solution comprises an ionic liquid solvent and a water and oxygen scavenging species. Methods for making the solution, and methods for using the solution to prepare and activate a substrate surface for bulk electrodeposition are also disclosed.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for controlling a catalytic layer deposition process are provided. A feed stream comprising a carbon source is provided to a catalyst layer. An asymmetrical alternating current is applied to the catalyst layer. A polarization impedance of the catalyst layer is monitored. The polarization impedance can be controlled by varying the asymmetrical alternating current. The controlling of the polarization impedance provides control over the structure and amount of carbon particles deposited on the catalyst layer. The carbon particles may be in the form of nanotubes, fullerenes, and/or nanoparticles.

Abstract: The invention relates to methods of preparation of highly sensitive potentiometric sensors with an electroconductive polymer film as a sensing element.

Abstract: A method for forming an oxide film by plasma electrolytic oxidation includes a first step of placing an anode, which is a substrate with a conductive nitride film, and a cathode into an electrolyte of which the temperature range is from 20° C. to 100° C., and a second step of applying a voltage ranging from 50 V to 1000 V to the anode and cathode to finally form an oxide film on a surface of the conductive nitride film of the anode. The oxide film can be formed more rapidly than the prior art and has excellent crystallinity.

Abstract: An aluminum alloy member includes a main body including an aluminum alloy serving as a base material, and an electrolytic oxidation ceramic coating coated at a portion of a surface of the main body and including a most outer layer and an inner layer which is arranged close to the main body relative to the most outer layer, the inner layer in which an aluminum oxide is richer than the most outer layer, the most outer layer in which a volume of a titanium oxide or a total volume of the titanium oxide and a zirconium oxide is richer than the inner surface.

Abstract: The present invention proposes a method for manufacturing an implant, in particular an intraluminal endoprosthesis, having a body such that the body has metallic material. To control the degradation in a desired time window, e.g., between four weeks and six months, the following production method is performed: a) preparing the body of the implant, and b) plasma-chemical treatment of at least a portion of the surface of the body in an aqueous solution by applying a plasma-generating electric alternating voltage to the body (5) of the implant, said voltage having a frequency of at least approximately 1 kHz, to create a first layer. The invention also relates to an implant obtainable by such a method.

Abstract: An initial pulse current cycle is supplied to at least one through-hole via. The pulse current cycle includes a forward pulse current. The magnitude of the forward pulse current is lower than the magnitude of the reverse pulse current. A corresponding forward and reverse current density is generated across the via causing conductive material to be deposited within the via, thereby reducing the effective aspect ratio of the via. At least one subsequent pulse current cycle is supplied. The magnitudes of the forward and reverse pulse currents of the subsequent pulse current cycle are determined in relation to the reduced effective aspect ratio. A subsequent corresponding forward and reverse current density is generated across the through-hole via causing conductive material to be deposited within the via, thereby further reducing the effective aspect ratio of the via.

Abstract: A method for forming front contacts on a silicon solar cell which includes texture etching the front surface of the solar cell, forming an antireflective layer over the face, diffusing a doping material into the face to form a heavily doped region in valleys formed during the texture-etching of the face, depositing an electrically conductive material on the heavily doped regions in the valleys and annealing the solar cell.

Abstract: [Problem] To enable film formation of an extremely-smooth and high-strength plasma electrolytic oxide film (ceramics film) not only on an Al-based metal, but also on a substrate of an Mg-based metal and a Ti-based metal. [Means for Solution] A power distribution pattern disposing an alternating pulse mode in which, before or after one or more positively-polarized anode-type pulse mode or one or more negatively-polarized cathode-type pulse mode, one above described anode-type pulse mode and one above described cathode-type pulse mode alternately appear is used as a pulse mode. A deformed sine waveform in which a peak position of the current waveform of the pulse mode is shifted from the pulse center position is used.

Abstract: An aluminum alloy article includes an aluminum alloy substrate and a micro-arc oxide film formed on the aluminum alloy substrate. The micro-arc oxide film includes a transition layer gradually infiltrating into the aluminum alloy substrate, a middle dense layer formed on the transition layer, and an outer dense layer formed on the middle dense layer, the outer dense layer having a density larger than that of the middle dense layer.

Abstract: A method for coating, a composition suitable for coating and a coating generated with the method of coating on anodizable metallic surfaces, especially on magnesium rich and aluminum rich surfaces. is disclosed. The composition is an aqueous solution including alkali metal or ammonium cations, phosphorus containing anions and silicon containing anions as well as optionally a peroxide or a compound of Al, Ti, Zr or any mixture of them. Preferably, the anodizing is carried out with a micro-arc oxidation process.

Abstract: An article of manufacture and a process for making the article by the anodization of aluminum and aluminum alloy workpieces to provide corrosion-, heat- and abrasion-resistant ceramic coatings comprising titanium and/or zirconium oxides, and the subsequent coating of the anodized workpiece with polytetrafluoroethylene (“PTFE”) or silicone containing coatings. The invention is especially useful for forming longer life PTFE coatings on aluminum substrates by pre-coating the substrate with an anodized layer of titanium and/or zirconium oxide that provides excellent corrosion-, heat- and abrasion-resistance in a hard yet flexible film.

Abstract: Application of a redox polymer of the poly-[Me(R-Salen)] type onto a conducting substrate is accomplished by the method of electrochemical polymerization. Said polymerization is accomplished by supplying a voltage between the substrate (that serves as an anode) and a counter electrode (that serves as a cathode), with both of them being submerged into the electrolyte containing an organic solvent and the compounds capable of dissolving in said solvent. The process is accompanied by the production of electrochemically inactive (at concentrations of no less than 0.01 mol/l) ions within the range of potentials from ?3.0 V to +1.5 V, and metal complex [Me(R-Salen)] dissolved at a concentration of no less than 5-10?5 mol/l, (where: Me is a transition metal having at least two different degrees of oxidation, R is an electron-donating substituent, Salen is a residue of bis-(salicylaldehyde)-ethylenediamine in Schiff's base.

Abstract: Apparatus and method for electrolytic coating of a mould, the internal surfaces of which demarcate a mould cavity, with a coating material for the purpose of achieving or re-achieving intended mould cavity dimensions. The mould, as the cathode, and an anode positioned in the mould cavity and an electrolyte containing the coating material are used. The electrolyte serving as the carrier of the coating material flows through the mould cavity in a controlled manner. During the electrolytic coating, only the internal surfaces of the mould cavity come into contact with the electrolyte and the external surfaces of the s mould therefore do not have to be covered. The mechanical properties can be kept largely uniform over the entire region. The coating can be achieved more rapidly than with the conventional processes.

Abstract: The invention concerns a metal material with a surface which is modified by bonding an aromatic group, optionally substituted by a functional group, on the surface. In one embodiment, an aromatic group is attached to the surface by electrochemical reduction of a diazonium salt containing the aromatic group. The metal material is brought into contact with a solution of the diazonium salt in a solvent and negatively polarized relative to an anode that is also in contact with the solution. A carbon-metal bond of the covalent type is formed.

Abstract: A ceramic coating is formed on a conductive article by immersing a first anodic electrode, including the conductive article, in an electrolyte comprising an aqueous solution of alkali metal hydroxide and an alkali metal silicate, providing a second cathodic electrode in contact with the electrolyte, and passing an alternating current from a resonant power source through the first electrode and to the second electrode while maintaining the angle ? between the current and the voltage at zero degree, while maintaining the voltage within a predetermined range. The resulting ceramic coated article comprises a coating which includes a metal, silicon, and oxygen, wherein the silicon concentration increases in the direction from the article surface toward an outer surface of the ceramic coating surface layer.

Abstract: A process for forming oxide based dense ceramic composite coatings on reactive metal and allow bodies involves suspension of at least two reactive metal or alloy bodies in a non-metallic, non-conducting, non-reactive chamber in such a way that it causes either partial or full immersion of the bodies in a continuously circulating electrolyte. Thyristor controlled, modified shaped wave multiphase alternating current power supply is applied across the bodies where in each body is connected to an electrode. Electric current supplied to the bodies is slowly increased to a particular value till the required current density is achieved and the maintained at the same level throughout the process. Visible arcing at the surface of the immersed regions of the bodies is identified when the applied electric potential crosses 60V. Electric potential is further increased gradually to compensate the increasing resistance of the coating.

Abstract: Process for obtaining a ceramic coating on the surface of a metal having semiconducting properties, such as aluminium, titanium, magnesium, hafnium, zirconium and their alloys, by a physico-chemical transformation reaction of the treated metal. This process consists in immersing the metal workpiece to be coated in an electrolytic bath composed of an aqueous solution of an alkali metal hydroxide, such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, and of an oxyacid salt of an alkali metal, the metal workpiece forming one of the electrodes, and in applying a signal voltage of overall triangular waveform to the electrodes, that is to say a signal having at least a rising slope and a falling slope, with a form factor that can vary during the process, generating a current which is controlled in its intensity, its waveform and its ratio of positive current to negative current.

Abstract: The present invention provides methods and systems for the electrolytic removal of platinum and/or other of the Group 8-11 metals from substrates.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for darkening a superficial layer of a workpiece which contains zinc by anodic oxidation. The workpiece is oxidized in a soaking bath containing an aqueous solution comprised of a hydroxide and of a nitrate. The anodic oxidation may be carried out in an aqueous solution containing NH4NO3 or NaNO3, and having a pH value ranging from 8 to 14, at a dipping bath temperature (T) ranging from 15 to 45° C., and with a current density (i) ranging from 3×10−4 to 0.5 A/cm2. The workpiece is placed in the soaking bath at the beginning of the anodic oxidation after the voltage has already been applied.

Abstract: A method for producing a catalytic converter includes depositing a layer of catalytically active metallic material by electrochemical deposition on a planar substrate by immersing the substrate in an electrolyte that contains the catalytically active metallic material. A high overvoltage at which a large number of seeds of the metallic material are formed on the substrate is set for a predetermined first time period between the substrate and the opposing electrode. The overvoltage is reduced for a predetermined second time period to a value at which the seeds which are deposited in the first time period grow on the substrate.

Abstract: An edge sharpening device has a metal body and at least one honing surface coated with ceramic created in an electrolytic bath. Profiles of the device can be triangular, planar, or V-shaped as well as curved. The ceramic can be deposited by passing a modified shaped wave alternating current through the incipient sharpening device in the presence of a passivating agent and an electrolytic agent.

Abstract: A hard, wear-resistant ceramic surface is applied to spinning rotor cups in an electrolytic bath on which is imposed a shaped-wave electric current. A special electrode has been designed to facilitate application of the coating to the unique shape of a spinning rotor cup under the shaped wave conditions.

Abstract: A method of manufacturing electrode foil for aluminum electrolytic capacitors and an AC power supply unit used therewith are disclosed. An etching is performed on an aluminum foil immersed in an electrolytic solution by applying an AC current to a pair of electrodes in the electrolytic solution. A waveform of the AC current is a deformed sine wave including a period of time (a) when an electric current rises from zero to a peak value, and another period of time (b) when the electric current falls from the peak value to zero. With the periods of time (a) and (b) made different from each other, the surface area of the aluminum foil is efficiently expanded by the etching and an enhancement of electric capacity of the electrode foil is obtained.

Abstract: A method for forming a plated magnetic thin film of high saturation magnetization and low coercivity having the general form Co100-a-bFeaMb, where M can be Mo, Cr, W, Ni or Rh, which is suitable for use in magnetic recording heads that write on narrow trackwidth, high coercivity media. The plating method includes four current application processes: direct current, pulsed current, pulse reversed current and conditioned pulse reversed current.

Abstract: A method is provided for the preparation of nanoscale particle arrays having highly uniform crystals of metal, semiconductor or insulator materials grown in nanopores in the surface of a substrate, wherein the method uses pulse-reverse electrodeposition of metals with a rectangular or square waveform in order to generate high homogeneity of crystals and high in-plane or out-of-plane anisotropy in a controlled manner, enabling the creation of a variety of devices, including but not limited to high density storage media.

Abstract: A plating bath which accommodates an insoluble node and a printed-circuit board, and a copper dissolved bath which supplies copper ions are arranged. The insoluble anode Is arranged as opposed to the printed-circuit board being a cathode, and a forward/reverse current is applied between both of the electrodes. Iron ions are added to a plating solution.

Abstract: A method for plating an electrically conductive substance, which includes the steps of contacting the electrically conductive substance with a plating agent in dilute solution, in which the plating agent is present in a concentration of 200 mM at most, and subjecting the plating agent adjacent to the electrically conducive substance to an electric field.

Abstract: A method for microplasma electrolytic processing a surface of an electroconductive material, involves establishing an electrical circuit between this material, as a first electrode, and a counterelectrode, as a second electrode, by immersing the first electrode into an electrolyte that is in contact with the second electrode and applying an electrical voltage across the first and second electrodes with a power source. In a first step, only a portion of the surface of the material is immersed in the electrolyte, the size of that portion being dependent on an output power of the power source, a composition of the material, an electric regime used, a composition of the electrolyte, and a minimal current density at which a process of microplasma oxidation is stable. The surface of the material is then completely immersed in the electrolyte while the voltage is regulated to cause a current value I(t) between the first and second electrodes ranging from 0.9I<I(t)1.

Abstract: A process and apparatus for forming oxide coatings on bodies of aluminum and aluminum alloys are described. The process includes forming an electrolyte bath in an inert container. At least two reactive metal bodies are suspended in the bath. The bodies are connected to electrodes which, in turn, are connected to a multiphase AC circuit. A multiphase power (preferably three-phase between three bodies) potential is imposed between each of the bodies. The bodies are moved in the electrolyte bath relative to each other until micro-arcs occur on the surfaces of the bodies, whereby to commence oxidation of the bodies. The imposition of the potential between each of the bodies is continued until the desired thickness of oxide is formed on the bodies.

Abstract: The invention concerns a process for producing a gradient coating of calcium phosphat phases and metal oxide phases on metallic implants, in particular made of titanium or titanium alloys, for use as dental, jaw or joint implants. A solution containing calcium ions and phosphate ions is used as electrolyte of which the pH is slightly acidic to approximately neutral. The substrate electrodes are alternately polarized cathodically and anodically. The layer deposited in a gratuated manner is adherent, has a fine structure and is distinguished by a high degree of biocompatibility.

Abstract: A method for low-voltage architectural anodizing of aluminum and aluminum alloy articles by using a direct anodizing current ranging for different machines from 10 kA up to 50 kA and more, plus a superimposed alternating current of industrial frequency. The combination of DC and AC reduces the DC voltage component across the tank to less than 10 VDC thus cutting the power consumption in the tank to half of the usual consumption in the straight DC anodizing. The resonant DC+AC power supply to feed the architectural anodizing machine is derived from the power supply claimed in the U.S. Pat. No. 4,170,739, by employing three one-phase transformers instead of one three-phase transformer, and three one-phase saturable core reactors instead of one three-phase saturable core reactor as a voltage control device. Magnetic cores of all transformers and saturable core reactors are therefore decoupled making it possible to supply the tank with the required level of the direct current component.

Abstract: The invention provides a process for forming a ceramic coating on a valve metal selected from the group consisting of aluminum, zirconium, titanium, hafnium and alloys of these metals. The process comprises the steps of (a) immersing the metal as an electrode in an electrolytic bath comprising water and a solution of an alkali metal hydroxide; (b) providing an opposite electrode immersed in or containing the electrolyte liquid; (c) passing a modified shaped-wave alternate electric current from a high voltage source of at least 700 V through a surface of the metal to be coated and the opposite electrode, thereby causing dielectric breakdown, heating, melting, and thermal compacting of a hydroxide film formed on the surface of the metal to form and weld a ceramic coating thereto, and (d) changing the composition of the electrolyte while the ceramic coating is being formed, the change being effected by adding an oxyacid salt of an alkali metal.

Abstract: A soft-magnetic multilayer thin film produced by electroplating, wherein an anode-dissolution process is effected by intermittently applying a reverse d.c. bias current with respect to the plating-forward current. Involving the anode-dissolution process allows the formation of a re-dissolution effect layer differing in crystal structure from the plated film layer. A soft-magnetic multilayer thin film characterized by having a multilayer film structure which comprises a plated layer and a re-dissolution effect layer laminated to each other and which the plated layer is at least magnetically isolated. Further, a method of manufacturing a soft-magnetic multilayer thin film having a multilayer film structure magnetically isolated only through plating, which is offered by introducing the anode-dissolution process.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for plating metals which delivers a voltage pulse with the possibility of a widely varying current magnitude characteristic to a plating electrode and an object having a large electrical reactance in terms of a parallel resistance and capacitance in order to raise the voltage potential between the electrode and an object to a programmed plating voltage overpotential and underpotential. The programmed plating voltage overpotential determines how fast the electrochemical reaction is allowed to proceed in the diffusion layer, and the programmed voltage underpotential determines how quickly the electrochemical reaction of the diffusion layer will slow down.