Abstract: A method of generating syngas as a primary product from renewable feedstock, fossil fuels, or hazardous waste with the use of a cupola. The cupola operates selectably on inductive heat alone, chemically assisted heat, or plasma assisted heat. Additionally, the operation of the cupola is augmented by the use of direct acting carbon or graphite rods that carry electrical current for additional heat generation into the metal bath that is influenced by the inductive element. The method includes the steps of providing a cupola for containing a metal bath; and operating an inductive element to react with the metal bath. Feedstock in the form of a combination of fossil fuel, a hazardous waste, and a hazardous material is supplied to the cupola. A plasma torch operates on the metal bath selectably directly and indirectly. Steam, air, oxygen enriched air, and oxygen are supplied in selectable combinations.

Abstract: A method of generating syngas as a primary product from renewable feedstock, fossil fuels, or hazardous waste with the use of a cupola. The cupola operates on inductive heat alone, chemically assisted heat, or plasma assisted heat. Cupola operation is augmented by employing carbon or graphite rods to carry electrical current into the metal bath that is influenced by the inductive element. The method includes the steps of providing a cupola for containing a metal bath; and operating an inductive element to react with the metal bath. A combination of fossil fuel, a hazardous waste, and a hazardous material is supplied to the cupola. A plasma torch operates on the metal bath directly, indirectly, or in a downdraft arrangement. Steam, air, oxygen enriched air, or oxygen are supplied to the metal bath. A pregassifier increases efficiency and a duct fired burner is added to a simple cycle turbine with fossil fuel augmentation.

Abstract: A fluorescence detection process begins by localizing rubidium 87 atoms within an optical (all-optical or magneto-optical) trap so that at least most of the atoms in the trap are within a cone defined by an effective angle, e.g., 8°, of a spectral filter. Within the effective angle of incidence, the filter effectively rejects (reflects or absorbs) 778 nanometer (nm) fluorescence and effectively transmits 775.8 nm fluorescence. Any 775.8 nm fluorescence arrive outside the effective angle of incidence. Thus, using an optical trap to localize the atoms within the cone enhances the signal-to-noise ratio of the fluorescence transmitted through the spectral filter and arriving a photomultiplier or other photodetector, resulting fluorescence detection signal with an enhanced S/N.

Abstract: A liquid metal ion source (50) includes: a reservoir (10) configured to hold an ion material (M) forming a liquid metal; a needle electrode (20); an extraction electrode (22) configured to cause an ion of the ion material to be emitted from a distal end of the needle electrode; a beam diaphragm (24), which is arranged on a downstream side of the extraction electrode, and is configured to limit a beam diameter of the ion; and a vacuum chamber (30) configured to accommodate and hold the reservoir, the needle electrode, the extraction electrode, and the beam diaphragm in vacuum, wherein the liquid metal ion source further includes an oxidizing gas introducing portion (40), and wherein the oxidizing gas introducing portion communicates to the vacuum chamber, and is configured to introduce an oxidizing gas into a periphery of the needle electrode.

Abstract: An inner insert for a passage opening in an outer insert for an EUV radiation source is embodied in multiple parts and/or has a plurality of sections that extend in the longitudinal direction and have different internal diameters (di, da).

Abstract: A nuclear fusion reactor includes a chamber containing plasma and two or more devices which include superconducting electromagnetic coils. At least one of the two or more devices may be biased to a high voltage to provide thermal energy to ions in the magnetic confinement region. In some examples, the chamber and the two or more devices can be coaxial and toroid shaped. In some examples, the chamber can be spherical or cylindrical with the two or more devices being toroid or elongated toroid shaped and formed on opposite faces of a cuboid. The two or more devices may be disposed in the chamber to provide a high-beta magnetic confinement region for the plasma.

Abstract: A magnetic nozzle having a converging/diverging contour shape that converts the thermal energy of a propellant into directed kinetic energy, but uses magnetic fields instead of a physical boundary to direct the flow of particles.

Abstract: This invention relates to a plasma chemical vapor deposition microwave resonant cavity, which has a high focusing ability and can be flexibly configured. The resonant cavity is a rotary body formed by two isosceles triangles intersecting at the vertex angles with a Boolean union operation. The base angles of the two triangles are 50°˜75°. Between 2n?˜(2n+0.5) ?, the base lengths of the two triangles are equal or have an n? difference, where n is an integer and ? is the microwave wavelength. The distance between the centroids of the upper and the lower isosceles triangles is 0˜4/5?. A strongly focused electric field can be formed in the cavity by adjusting the base lengths, base angles and centroid distance. Different dielectric windows, microwave coupling modes and gas inlet and outlet modes can be selected in the cavity to fit specific applications. The cavity has simple structures.

Abstract: In a method of diagnosing an RF generator of a laser produced plasma extreme ultra violet (LPP EUV) radiation source apparatus, a testing system is connected to the RF generator of the LPP EUV radiation source apparatus. An output power is measured by the testing system with changing an input power of the RF generator. Using a computer system, the measured output power is analyzed. Based on the analyzed measured output power, whether the RF generator is operating properly is determined.

Abstract: A substrate dry cleaning apparatus, a substrate dry cleaning system, and a method of cleaning a substrate are disclosed. The substrate dry cleaning system includes a substrate support and a reactive species generator. The reactive species generator includes a first conduit defining a first flow channel that extends to an outlet of the first conduit, the outlet of the first conduit facing the substrate support, a first electrode, a second electrode facing the first electrode, the first flow channel disposed between the first electrode and the second electrode, a first inert wall disposed between the first electrode and the first flow channel, and a second inert wall disposed between the second electrode and the first flow channel.

Abstract: A reactor for processing substrates and methods for manufacturing and using the reactor are disclosed. Specifically, the reactor can include a material that forms gas compounds. The gas compounds are then easily removed from the reactor, thus reducing or avoiding contamination of the substrates in the reactor that would otherwise arise.

Abstract: A system for generating cold plasma is presented, suitable for use in in-vivo treatment of biological tissue. The system comprising: a control unit connectable to an elongated member at a first proximal end of the elongated member. The elongated member comprises a plasma generating unit at a second distal end thereof and gas and electricity transmission channels extending from said first proximal end towards said plasma generating unit. The control unit comprises a gas supply unit configured to provide predetermined flow rate of selected gas composition through said gas transmission channel and a power supply unit configured to generate selected sequence of high-frequency electrical pulses, typically in mega Hertz range, directed through said electricity transmission channel, thereby providing power and gas of said selected composition to the plasma generating unit for generating cold plasma.

Abstract: Variable-focus solenoidal lenses for charged particle beams with integrated emittance filtering are disclosed. The emittance may be controlled via selection of collimating irises. The focal length may be changed by altering the spacing between two permanent ring magnets.

Abstract: Embodiments relate to surface treating a substrate, spraying precursor onto the substrate using supercritical carrier fluid, and post-treating the substrate sprayed with the precursor to form a layer with nanometer thickness of material on the substrate. A spraying assembly for spraying the precursor includes one or more spraying modules and one or more radical injectors at one or more sides of the spraying module. A differential spread mechanism is provided between the spraying module and the radical injectors to inject spread gas that isolates the sprayed precursor and radicals generated by the radical injectors. As relative movement between the substrate and the spraying assembly is made, portions of the substrate is exposed to first radicals, sprayed with precursors either one of the spraying modules or both spraying modules using supercritical carrier fluid, and then exposed to second radicals again.

Abstract: A microwave discharge lamp includes a discharge bulb which is discharged by a microwave and emits a light, a cylindrical resonant cavity which has at least a portion formed of a conductive mesh of net structure and is disposed to cover the discharge bulb, a main antenna which has one end supplied with microwave power through a bottom surface of the resonant cavity and the other end electrically contacting a side surface of the resonant cavity to be grounded, and a dummy antenna which has one end electrically grounded to the bottom surface of the resonant cavity and the other end electrically grounded to the side surface of the resonant cavity and is disposed opposite to the main antenna to be symmetrical to the main antenna about a central axis of the resonant cavity.

Abstract: The present invention provides a plasma generating system that includes: a waveguide for transmitting a microwave energy therethrough; an inner wall disposed within the waveguide to define a plasma cavity, wherein a plasma is generated within the plasma cavity using the microwave energy; a first gas inlet mounted on a first side of the waveguide and configured to introduce a first gas into the plasma cavity and generate a first vortex flow within the plasma cavity using the first gas, the first gas inlet having a through hole through which a gas processed by the plasma exits the plasma cavity; and a plasma stabilizer having a shape of a circular hollow cylinder and installed on a second side of the waveguide, an axial direction of the plasma stabilizer being in parallel to a rotational axis of the first vortex flow.

Abstract: An impedance matching system is provided. The impedance matching system includes: an impedance matching device arranged between a radio frequency (RF) power supply and a reaction chamber, adapted to connect the RF power supply to the reaction chamber through a switch, and configured to automatically perform an impedance matching on an output impedance of the RF power supply and an input impedance of the impedance matching device; the switch and a load circuit, the switch being configured to enable the RF power supply to be selectively connected to the reaction chamber or to the load circuit; and a control unit configured to control the switch to connect the RF power supply to the reaction chamber or connect the RF power supply to the load circuit according to a preset timing sequence. The impedance matching device is configured to convert a continuous wave output of the RF power supply into a pulse output according to the preset timing sequence, and provide the pulse output to the reaction chamber.

Abstract: A microwave antenna includes a first spiral conduit having a first conduit end, first plural ports in a floor of the first spiral conduit spaced apart along the length of the first spiral conduit; an axial conduit coupled to a rotatable stage; and a distributor waveguide comprising an input coupled to the axial conduit and a first output coupled to the first conduit end.

Abstract: Provides is an X-ray generation device, an X-ray fluoroscopic image photographing device and a CT image photographing device; the X-ray generation device is capable of facilitating the electrical connection of terminals of an X-ray tube to terminals of a high voltage generation part, capable of preventing wiring bodies which connect these terminals from contacting with each other, and capable of preventing the wiring bodies from separating from the terminals of the X-ray tube or the terminals of the high voltage generation part. A wiring body includes a conductive bar-shaped member having stiffness and contact sockets arranged at two ends of the bar-shaped member. The sockets are fixed to the bar-shaped member using riveting parts. Each socket is electrically connected to a terminal of the high voltage generation part and a terminal of the X-ray tube which function as contact plugs.

Abstract: An ion source having an ion generation container configured to generate ions by reacting ionized gas introduced into the container via a tubular gas introduction pipe with an ion source material emitted in the container. The gas introduction pipe is configured to introduce the ionized gas into an inner space of the gas introduction pipe via a gas supply pipe. In the inner space of the gas introduction pipe, a detachable cooling trap member is disposed and includes a cooling trap portion configured to cool and trap a byproduct produced in the ion generation container. The cooling trap portion is disposed near a supply-side leading end of the gas supply pipe in the inner space of the gas introduction pipe and is not contact with an interior wall face of the gas introduction pipe.

Abstract: A system for controlling RF power supplies applying power to a load, such as a plasma chamber, includes a master power supply and a slave power supply. The master power supply provides a control signal, such as a frequency and phase signal, to the slave power supply. The slave power supply receives the frequency and phase signal and also receives signals characteristic of the spectral emissions detected from the load. The slave RF power supply varies the phase and power of its RF output signal applied to the load. Varying the power controls the width of an ion distribution function, and varying the phase controls a peak of the ion distribution. Depending upon the coupling between the RF generators and the load, different spectral emissions are detected, including first harmonics, second harmonics, and, in the case of a dual frequency drive system, intermodulation distortion.

Abstract: Plasma devices and methods for using such plasma devices in analytical measurements are disclosed. In certain examples, a low flow plasma may be operative using a total argon gas flow of less than about five liters per minute, and in some embodiments, a plasma argon gas flow of less than about four liter per minute. In other examples, a plasma produced using inductive and capacitive coupling is disclosed.

Abstract: A propellant distributor or anode includes a plenum chamber and a plurality of outlets. The at least one plenum chamber is configured to receive a flow of propellant from an inlet, and the plurality of outlets are configured to distribute the flow of propellant into an inner channel wall and an outer channel wall of a discharge channel.

Abstract: A plasma system is disclosed. The plasma system includes a plasma instrument having an elongated body defining a lumen therethrough and a first electrode and a second electrode; an ionizable media source in fluid communication with the lumen and configured to supply ionizable media thereto; and a variable frequency energy source adapted to be coupled to the first and second electrodes and configured to supply energy to the first and second electrodes sufficient to ignite ionizable media supplied by the ionizable media source to generate a plasma influent, wherein a frequency of the energy is adjustable to modify at least one property of the plasma effluent.

Abstract: Systems and methods for adjusting the source impedance of a generator are disclosed. An exemplary method includes generating a first signal and applying the first signal to a first input of a combiner, generating a second signal and applying the second signal to a second input of said combiner, and combining the first and second signals with the combiner at an output of the combiner to produce power that is delivered to the plasma load. A controllable variable impedance is provided to an isolation port of the combiner, and the controllable variable impedance is adjusted to vary the source impedance of the generator.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention provide for movement of a fluid around a small form-factor device, such as a semiconductor device die or package, through use of a microplasma. Embodiments provide for a microplasma generated in an ambient fluid with a lower power than predicted by a Paschen Curve for that fluid. The ionized molecules of the plasma can be manipulated by further generation of an electric field that can be used, for example, to move the ions in a desired direction. The movement of the ionized fluid generates a fluid flow of neighboring, non-ionized fluid molecules in the desired direction.

Abstract: Tissue is treated using a radiofrequency power supply connected to an applicator having a chamber filled with an electrically non-conductive gas surrounded by a thin dielectric wall. A radiofrequency voltage is applied at a level sufficient to ionize the gas into a plasma and to capacitively couple the ionized plasma with the tissue to deliver radiofrequency current to ablate or otherwise treat the tissue.

Abstract: An apparatus for generating high frequency electromagnetic radiation includes a whispering gallery mode resonator, coupled to an output waveguide through a coupling aperture. The resonator has a guiding surface, and supports a whispering gallery electromagnetic eigenmode. An electron source is configured to generate a velocity vector-modulated electron beam, where each electron in the velocity vector-modulated electron beam travels substantially perpendicular to the guiding surface, while interacting with the whispering gallery electromagnetic eigenmode in the whispering gallery mode resonator, generating high frequency electromagnetic radiation in the output waveguide.

Abstract: The invention relates to an assembly for treating wounds and to a hand held unit for treating wounds. The assembly and the hand held unit comprise a device for producing a plasma and/or an excited gas or gas mixture by means of a piezoelectric transformer, which is housed together with a circuit board in a housing of the device, and the assembly comprises an expansion element. A control circuit, to which the piezoelectric transformer is electrically connected, is realized on the circuit board. A second end of the expansion element surrounds a wound region to be treated. A first end of the expansion element is detachably connected to the housing of the device at the opening of the housing. The produced plasma and/or excited gas or gas mixture thus enters the expansion element from the opening of the housing.

Abstract: A method to detect a potential fault in a plasma system is described. The method includes accessing a model of one or more parts of the plasma system. The method further includes receiving data regarding a supply of RF power to a plasma chamber. The RF power is supplied using a configuration that includes one or more states. The method also includes using the data to produce model data at an output of the model. The method includes examining the model data. The examination is of one or more variables that characterize performance of a plasma process of the plasma system. The method includes identifying the fault for the one or more variables. The method further includes determining that the fault has occurred for a pre-determined period of time such that the fault is identified as an event. The method includes classifying the event.

Abstract: An inspection system having an expanded angular coverage, the inspection system may include a line camera; a first curved mirror; a second curved mirror; a first focusing lens that is positioned between the first mirror and an object; a second focusing lens that is positioned between the second mirror and the object; a first light source that is configured to direct a first part of a first light beam towards the first curved mirror and a second part of the first light beam towards the first focusing lens; a second light source that is configured to direct a first part of a second light beam towards the second curved mirror and a second part of the second light beam towards the second focusing lens.

Abstract: A non-thermal plasma is generated to selectively convert a precursor to a product. More specifically, plasma forming material and a precursor material are provided to a reaction zone of a vessel. The reaction zone is exposed to microwave radiation, including exposing the plasma forming material and the precursor material to the microwave radiation. The exposure of the plasma forming material to the microwave radiation selectively converts the plasma forming material to a non-thermal plasma including formation of one or more streamers. The precursor material is mixed with the plasma forming material and the precursor material is exposed to the non-thermal plasma including exposing the precursor material to the one or more streamers. The exposure of the precursor material to the streamers and the microwave radiation selectively converts the precursor material to a product.

Abstract: A miniature Hall current plasma source apparatus having magnetic shielding of the walls from ionized plasma, an integrated discharge channel and gas distributor, an instant-start hollow cathode mounted to the plasma source, and an externally mounted keeper, is described. The apparatus offers advantages over other Hall current plasma sources having similar power levels, including: lower mass, longer lifetime, lower part count including fewer power supplies, and the ability to be continuously adjustable to lower average power levels using pulsed operation and adjustment of the pulse duty cycle. The Hall current plasma source can provide propulsion for small spacecraft that either do not have sufficient power to accommodate a propulsion system or do not have available volume to incorporate the larger propulsion systems currently available. The present low-power Hall current plasma source can be used to provide energetic ions to assist the deposition of thin films in plasma processing applications.

Abstract: This disclosure relates to methods and devices for generating electron dense air plasmas at atmospheric pressures. In particular, this disclosure relate to self-contained toroidal air plasmas. Methods and apparatuses have been developed for generating atmospheric toroidal air plasmas. The air plasmas are self-confining, can be projected, and do not require additional support equipment once formed.

Abstract: The electrosurgical systems and methods of the present disclosure perform cable compensation using an electrosurgical generator that includes a plurality of sensors configured to sense voltage and current waveforms, a plurality of medium-band filters, a plurality of narrowband filters, and a signal processor. The plurality of medium-band filters and narrowband filters pass sensed voltage and current waveforms at a plurality of predetermined frequencies. The signal processor calculates medium-band RMS voltage and current values using the output from the plurality of medium-band filters, calculates narrowband phase and magnitude values using the output from the plurality of narrowband filters, calculates tissue impedance based on the medium-band RMS voltage and current values and the narrowband phase value, and generates a control signal to control the energy generated by the electrosurgical generator based on the calculated tissue impedance.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a liquid treatment device and a liquid treatment method each capable of efficiently generating plasma and treating a liquid in a short time period. A liquid treatment device according to the present disclosure includes a first electrode, a second electrode disposed in a liquid, an insulator disposed surrounding the first electrode through a space, the insulator having an opening portion at a position in contact with the liquid, and a power supply that applies an AC voltage or a pulse voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode.

Abstract: A high frequency plasma apparatus includes a reaction chamber, a first electrode, a second electrode, and a plurality of feed points located at one of the two electrodes at least. The feed points are used to simultaneously generate a first standing wave and a second standing wave, with different temporal and spatial patterns. By adjusting amplitudes of the two standing waves and the temporal and spatial phase differences between the two standing waves appropriately, plasma uniformity of the high frequency plasma apparatus can be effectively improved.

Abstract: Systems and methods for adjusting the source impedance of a generator are disclosed. An exemplary method includes generating a first signal and applying the first signal to a first input of a combiner, generating a second signal and applying the second signal to a second input of said combiner, and combining the first and second signals with the combiner at an output of the combiner to produce power that is delivered to the plasma load. A controllable variable impedance is provided to an isolation port of the combiner, and the controllable variable impedance is adjusted to vary the source impedance of the generator.

Abstract: Systems and methods are described herein for coupling electromagnetic (EM) energy from a remotely-located primary antenna into a plasma ion source. The EM energy is radiated by a first by through an intermediary secondary antenna. The embodiments described herein enable the elevation of the plasma ion source to a high electric potential bias relative to the primary antenna, which can be maintained at or near a grounded electric potential.

Abstract: A hybrid deposition process of CVD and ALD, called NanoLayer Deposition (NLD) is provided. The NLD process is a cyclic sequential deposition process, comprising introducing a first plurality of precursors to deposit a thin layer with the deposition process not self limiting, followed by introducing a second plurality of precursors for plasma treating the thin deposited layer. The plasma can be isotropic, anisotropic, or a combination of isotropic and anisotropic to optimize the effectiveness of the treatment of the thin deposited layers.

Abstract: The microwave plasma processing apparatus includes a power feeding rod that applies high frequency wave for RF bias, the upper end of which is connected to a susceptor, and the lower end of which is connected to a high frequency output terminal of a matcher in a matching unit; a cylindrical external conductor that encloses around the power feeding rod serving as an internal conductor; and a coaxial line. The coaxial line is installed with a choke mechanism configured to block undesired microwave that enters the line from a plasma producing space in a chamber, and leakage of the microwave to an RF feeding line is prevented in the middle of the line, thereby suppressing the microwave leakage.

Abstract: A method for processing substrate in a processing chamber, which has at least one plasma generating source and a gas source for providing process gas into the chamber, is provided. The method includes exciting the plasma generating source with an RF signal having RF frequency. The method further includes pulsing the gas source, using at least a first gas pulsing frequency, such that a first process gas is flowed into the chamber during a first portion of a gas pulsing period and a second process gas is flowed into the chamber during a second portion of the gas pulsing period, which is associated with the first gas pulsing frequency. The second process gas has a lower reactant-gas-to-inert-gas ratio relative to a reactant-gas-to-inert-gas ratio of the first process gas. The second process gas is formed by removing at least a portion of a reactant gas flow from the first process gas.

Abstract: A substrate having a buffer layer and a barrier layer is formed. The buffer and barrier layers have different bandgaps such that an electrically conductive channel comprising a two-dimensional charge carrier gas arises at an interface between the buffer and barrier layers due to piezoelectric effects. The substrate is placed in a fluorine containing gas mixture that includes free radical state fluorine particles and is substantially devoid of ionic state fluorine particles. A first lateral surface section of the substrate is exposed to the gas mixture such that the free radical state fluorine particles contact the first lateral surface section without penetrating the substrate. A semiconductor device that incorporates first lateral surface section in the structure of the device is formed in the substrate.

Abstract: A faceplate or a selectivity modulation device (SMD) for a plasma generation chamber has a plasma resistant ceramic coating on a surface of the faceplate or SMD, wherein the plasma resistant ceramic coating comprises a thickness of less than approximately 30 microns, a porosity of less than 1% and a thickness non-uniformity of less than 4%.

Abstract: A medical device system and method provide an RF electrosurgical generator coupled to an electrosurgical electrode via a patient box disposed in close proximity to the patient. An RF signal is delivered from the generator to the patient box where signal power is increased and the RF signal delivered to the electrosurgical electrode. The patient box is coupled to the electrosurgical electrode by a short cable capable of carrying an HV, high frequency 5 MHz signal without leakage. An electrical characteristic associated with the electrosurgical electrode is monitored and a desired RF power output and duty cycle maintained by adjusting DC input voltage applied to an RF amplifier, responsive to the monitoring. The system determines when the electrosurgical cutting electrode has started cutting and switches from a start mode to a run mode having a different RF duty cycle and a reduced RF power output controlled by a servo system.

Abstract: A plasma light source includes a chamber having an ionizable medium therein, an ignition source configured to provide first electromagnetic radiation to the chamber, a sustaining source configured to separately provide second electromagnetic radiation to the chamber, a first curved mirror positioned adjacent the chamber, and a second curved mirror positioned opposite the first mirror and arranged to direct the first electromagnetic radiation toward the chamber. The second electromagnetic radiation may be different than the first electromagnetic radiation. Related devices and methods of operation are also discussed.

Abstract: The use of the electride form of 12CaO-7Al2O3, or C12A7, as a low work function electron emitter in a hollow cathode discharge apparatus is described. No heater is required to initiate operation of the present cathode, as is necessary for traditional hollow cathode devices. Because C12A7 has a fully oxidized lattice structure, exposure to oxygen does not degrade the electride. The electride was surrounded by a graphite liner since it was found that the C12A7 electride converts to it's eutectic (CA+C3A) form when heated (through natural hollow cathode operation) in a metal tube.

Abstract: Certain embodiments described herein are directed to a torch that includes a suitable amount of a refractory material. In some embodiments, the torch can include one or more non-refractory materials in combination with a refractory material. In some embodiments, the torch can comprise a refractory material and an optically transparent window. In other embodiments, the torch can comprise a material comprising a melting point higher than the melting point of quartz.

Abstract: A method for processing substrate in a processing chamber, which has at least one plasma generating source and a gas source for providing process gas into the chamber, is provided. The method includes exciting the plasma generating source with an RF signal having RF frequency. The method further includes pulsing the gas source, using at least a first gas pulsing frequency, such that a first process gas is flowed into the chamber during a first portion of a gas pulsing period and a second process gas is flowed into the chamber during a second portion of the gas pulsing period, which is associated with the first gas pulsing frequency. The second process gas has a lower reactant-gas-to-inert-gas ratio relative to a reactant-gas-to-inert-gas ratio of the first process gas. The second process gas is formed by removing at least a portion of a reactant gas flow from the first process gas.

Abstract: An electron microscope is provided. In another aspect, an electron microscope employs a radio frequency which acts upon electrons used to assist in imaging a specimen. Furthermore, another aspect provides an electron beam microscope with a time resolution of less than 1 picosecond with more than 105 electrons in a single shot or image group. Yet another aspect employs a super-cooled component in an electron microscope.