Abstract: The object is to provide an evaluation model that can evaluate how much external force is being applied to a brain organ and/or a cranial bone during an endoscopic endonasal surgery. The object can be achieved by an evaluation model for endoscopic endonasal surgery including: a simulated head part; and a distortion sensor, in which the simulated head part includes a simulated cranium part, the simulated cranium part includes a simulated nasal cavity, and the distortion sensor is arranged in a part of the simulated head part.

Abstract: A method and apparatus of automatically locating in an image of a blood vessel the lumen boundary at a position in the vessel and from that measuring the diameter of the vessel. From the diameter of the vessel and estimated blood flow rate, a number of clinically significant physiological parameters are then determined and various user displays of interest generated. One use of these images and parameters is to aid the clinician in the placement of a stent. The system, in one embodiment, uses these measurements to allow the clinician to simulate the placement of a stent and to determine the effect of the placement. In addition, from these patient parameters various patient treatments are then performed.

Abstract: A patient simulator may include a pump, a compressor, a power source, and a simulated torso in which the pump, the compressor, and the power source are contained. The compressor may include an inlet to which a bellows is coupled. A head coupling may detachably couple a simulated neck to the simulated torso. Similarly, an extremity coupling may detachably couple a simulated lower extremity to a simulated upper extremity, which simulated upper extremity is coupled to the simulated torso. The pump, the compressor, and/or the power source may provide hydraulic fluid, pneumatic fluid, and or electrical power, respectively, into: the simulated neck via the head coupling; or the simulated lower extremity via the extremity coupling. In addition, or instead, the patient simulator may include an invasive blood pressure (IBP) assembly having an armature adapted to contact a tube to change a fluid pressure in the IBP assembly.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a device for modeling properties of an ear. The device includes an artificial tympanic membrane and a housing coupled to the artificial tympanic membrane. The housing defines an interior portion coupled to an interior surface of the artificial tympanic membrane. The interior portion has an adjustable volume or an adjustable type of fluid and an adjustable gas pressure. Adjustment of the volume or type of fluid and the gas pressure changes a membrane movement to produce selected movement properties according to a mobility scale.

Abstract: Aspects of the present disclosure are directed toward a device for training emergency eye surgery such as lateral canthotomy and cantholysis training. The device includes a simulated eye, a base configured to receive the simulated eye, a simulated skin, an eye displacer, and a simulated tendon. The simulated skin is configured to attach to the base and at least partially cover the simulated eye, the simulated skin depicting an area immediately surrounding a human eye, and including an eye opening configured to expose at least a portion of the simulated eye through said eye opening when the simulated skin is attached to the base. The eye displacer is configured to displace the simulated eye from a first position to second position, the first position corresponding to an ocular injury and the second position indicating a properly performed ocular surgery.

Abstract: A simulated tissue structure for surgical training is provided. The simulated tissue structure includes a first layer made of silicone and a second layer made of silicone interconnected by a third layer made of polyester fiber that is embedded in part in the first layer and in part in the second layer to create a mechanical linkage between the first layer and the second layer. Part of the third layer that is adjacent to the first layer and part of the third layer that is adjacent to the second layer includes fiber strands coated in silicone. An inclusion that mimics an anatomical structure is located between the first layer and the second layer. The third layer of polyester fibers provides a realistic dissection plane for the practice of the surgical excision of the inclusion.

Abstract: Systems and methods are disclosed for an apparatus and method for practicing injection techniques through an injectable apparatus. The injectable apparatus may contain a camera that is configured to detect the intensity and color of light attenuated from a testing tool after it is injected into a simulated human or animal body parts. A training tool may be connected to a user display device to generate a display of the injection apparatus as well as the performance parameters of a trainee.

Abstract: A projection apparatus including a housing and a first projection module is provided. The housing includes a curved projection area and an opening, wherein the curved projection area includes an inner surface and an outer surface opposite to each other. The first projection module is detachably disposed in the housing through the opening and corresponds to the curved projection area, wherein the first projection module projects an image onto the inner surface of the curved projection area, such that the outer surface of the curved projection area displays the projected image. The projection apparatus provided by the invention has the curved projection area to dynamically display a stereo image.

Abstract: There is provided a method for simulating at least one wet electroencephalogram (EEG) signal from at least one dry EEG signals, comprising: receiving at least one dry EEG signal measured by dry EEG electrode(s) applied to locations on a head of a patient corresponding to at least one of temporal lobe or frontal lobe, computing at least one simulated wet EEG signal by applying a trained statistical model based on at least one dry EEG signal, the at least one simulated wet EEG signal simulating wet EEG signals measured by a wet EEG electrode applied to at least one location corresponding to at least one of: central, parietal lobe, and occipital lobe, and providing the at least one simulated wet EEG signal for adjusting feedback of a neurofeedback treatment applied by a neurofeedback device.

Abstract: Provided is a blood spatter simulation head model including a housing having the shape of a human head; a reservoir inside the housing and capable of storing blood; an injection tube connected to the reservoir and extending to a lower portion of the housing, the injection tube including an injection opening through which blood is injected; and a weight unit in a lower portion of the housing and supporting the housing.

Abstract: The Lateral Canthotomy and Cantholysis Simulation Device of the present disclosure includes a base with a depression to receive a simulated eye, a skin covering, and a plug having a plug head and a plug band that is removably attached to the base under said skin covering, where the band is under tension between the first end and the second end to simulate a canthal tendon. The plug band is pulled through an opening formed into the skin covering and an opening formed into the base. A bending member is attached at one end to a stationary member and the other end to plug. The simulated eye is attached to a hook, which is used with the bending member to move to simulated eye away from the base to simulate proptosis. When plug band is cut, bending member moves to a relaxed configuration and simulated eye moves back towards base.

Abstract: A modular physiological training system including a torso, a rear skull portion, an airway assembly, and a front skull portion. The torso assembly representing a portion of a torso of a patient. The rear skull portion operably coupled to the torso assembly, and representing a rear portion of a patient's skull. The airway assembly representing an airway of the patient. The front skull portion including one or more coupling mechanisms, and representing a front portion of the patient's skull. The torso assembly and the rear skull portion configured to receive a portion of the airway assembly. The one or more coupling mechanisms of the front skull portion configured to operably couple the front skull portion to the airway assembly, and a front skull portion to the rear skull portion.

Abstract: A dummy object is described which is particularly suitable for a functional testing of driver assistance systems for vehicles. The dummy object comprises a torso, at least one extremity-representing an arm or a leg, wherein the extremity includes a proximal extremity portion mounted in an articulated manner at the torso and a distal extremity portion mounted in an articulated manner at the proximal extremity portion, and at least one drive which is arranged in the torso and is designed to move the proximal extremity portion relative to the torso. The proximal extremity portion can be moved in such a manner that a movement of the distal extremity portion, which is correlated with the movement of the proximal extremity portion, can be created by utilizing the mass inertia of the associated distal extremity portion.

Abstract: A system for visual staging includes a staging board having a plurality of receptacles spaced apart from each other and extending into a thickness of the staging board, the staging board has an anatomical image that is viewable on a top surface of the staging board. A plurality of clips are configured to be received by and extend from the plurality of receptacles such that the clips are releasably connected to the staging board. The plurality of receptacles are spaced apart from each other at strategic positions on the staging board in relation to the anatomical image.

Abstract: A surgical training device is provided. The training device includes a model for practicing the passage of needle and suture. The model includes a base with a plurality of openings configured to receive a plurality of suture tabs. The suture tabs are made of elastomeric material. Some suture tabs includes pre-formed tab apertures for the passage of a suture. Other suture tabs include a penetrable area through which a suture needle may penetrate for passing a suture. The suture tabs are movable with respect to the base to orientate them at different angles with respect to the base. The base itself may include portions that are angled with respect to each other. The suture tabs are movable with respect to the base to pull, expose or open the tab apertures and surfaces. Some of the tab apertures are slits that open upon being pulled relative to the base requiring the user to practice holding the tab while passing the needle through the tab.

Abstract: An ophthalmic training simulator with simulated foreign objects and/or canthal tendons. A method of practicing foreign object removal from the eye and lateral canthotomy of the eye using said ophthalmic training simulator.

Abstract: The presently disclosed subject provides a biomimetic eye model, and methods of its production and use. In one exemplary embodiment, the biomimetic eye model can include a scaffold having a convex curvature, a fluidic device coupled to the scaffold, a fabricated eyelid coupled to the fluidic device and a motor coupled to the fabricated eyelid. In certain embodiments, the scaffold can be impregnated with one or more keratocytes and a surface of the convex curvature of the scaffold can be covered with one or more layers of epithelial cells.

Abstract: A set of simulator hardware and software provide a realistic training environment for pressure equalization tube delivery to a tympanic membrane using a semi-automated pressure equalization tube delivery device (“PETDD”). An anatomically realistic ear model is attached to a touch sensitive display so that the ear model aligns with a displayed virtual image of the middle ear, creating a realistic view through the ear canal of the ear model. A training PETDD and other devices of the simulator provide pressure and location data for the training PETDD as a trainee inserts the PETDD tip into the ear canal to rest against the virtual TM and simulate a PE tube delivery event. Resulting data is examined to determine whether the simulated delivery would have been successful if it had been a real scenario.

Abstract: A nasal model simulator for surgical/anatomical training includes (a) an anatomic model representing one or more anatomical structures; (b) a boney midface structure that simulates osseous midface and nasal structures; and (C) a simulated septal cartilage configured to fit within the boney midface structure and is constructed of a material which simulates cartilage tissue.

Abstract: A double-image projection device includes a laser projector, a semi-reflection mirror, and an ear canal model. The semi-reflection mirror is located in front of the laser projector; while the laser projector includes a MEMS (micro-electromechanical system) scanner for projecting scanning light beams, such that the scanning light beams is projected onto an imaging plane as a large image through transmitting through the semi-reflection mirror. The ear canal model is located in a reflective light path of the semi-reflection mirror, with its front end provided with a viewing port, and with its rear end provided with an ear drum piece, such that the scanning light beams emitted by the laser projector is projected onto the ear drum piece of the ear canal model a small image, through reflecting by the semi-reflection mirror.

Abstract: A dummy object is described which is particularly suitable for a functional testing of driver assistance systems for vehicles. The dummy object comprises a torso, at least one extremity representing an arm or a leg, wherein the extremity includes a proximal extremity portion mounted in an articulated manner at the torso and a distal extremity portion mounted in an articulated manner at the proximal extremity portion, and at least one drive which is arranged in the torso and is designed to move the proximal extremity portion relative to the torso. The proximal extremity portion can be moved in such a manner that a movement of the distal extremity portion, which is correlated with the movement of the proximal extremity portion, can be created by utilizing the mass inertia of the associated distal extremity portion.

Abstract: The Tactical Combat Casualty Care Trainer For Hyper-Realistic™ Emergency Medical Training (“TCCC”) of the present invention includes a tactical combat training device for the purpose of providing an emergency medical services provider hands-on training. The TCCC includes an artificial human skeleton having specific anatomical features which provide the trainee or provider with appropriate tactile response analogous to a real human patient, thereby increasing the fidelity of training and improving the skills necessary to conduct procedures such as cricothyrotomy, intrasosseous infusion, CPR and other medical services to human patients. The skeleton is covered by a realistic coating that simulates human skin, which adds to the TCCC's training value. The TCCC also includes a removable trachea module and training pucks located at the sternum as well as the left and right proximal humeral heads to simulate the use of infusion-type devices.

Abstract: A shoulder assembly for a crash test dummy includes a shoulder assembly having a spring housing and a shoulder pivot member pivotally connected to the spring housing. The shoulder assembly includes a spring element disposed in the spring housing and an adjustable member to adjust the friction of the spring element.

Abstract: An educational system for visualizing sound by a student in a laboratory. The system includes a speaker powered by an audio amplifier. A function generator or a microphone controls the amplitude and frequency of pressure waves originating from the speaker. A model of the ear canal is suspended over the speaker, the model having a plastic pipe with two open ends and a membrane stretched taut over one of the open ends with constant tension. A mirror is affixed to the membrane, creating a mass-loaded membrane. A laser pointer emits light directed toward the mirror. A screen receives a light reflection pattern created by the light reflected from the minor, with the model ear canal, speaker, membrane, and mirror placed equidistant between the screen and the laser pointer. The system is adapted to demonstrate hearing sensitivity to a deaf or hearing-impaired person in an educational setting.

Abstract: An anatomical model assembly of the human head for use in teaching medical personnel. The anatomical model has an inner base that is shaped as part of the human skull. A first layer of material covers the base. The first layer of material provides a visual indication of at least some muscle groups contained within a human head. A second layer of material is provided that covers the first layer. The second layer of material has an exterior that is shaped with at least some human facial features. The second layer of material and the first layer of material are separate, unattached layers. The material selected for the first layer mimics the suppleness of muscle. The material selected for the top second layer mimics the feel and elasticity of skin. The result is an anatomical model that can be used to accurately teach, plan and practice medical procedures.

Abstract: A swallowing simulation apparatus that facilitate approximately reproducing an actual phenomenon of swallowing and allows quantifying a physical quantity related to a behavior and a physical property of an orally-ingested product is provided.

Abstract: A phantom comprises at least one first means for generating at least one dipole and at least one second means for actuating the first means in a non-electrical manner.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a patient-simulating mannequin, which comprises at least one main smart board card. The main smart board card stores simulation scenarios. The patient-simulating mannequin also comprises at least one removable body part module having at least one peripheral smart board card in communication with the main smart board card. In another aspect, the present disclosure relates to a method for assembling a patient-simulating mannequin. The method comprises selecting a physiologic model and a simulation scenario. The method then determines removable body parts required to reproduce the physiologic model and run the simulation scenario. Removable body parts required to run the simulation scenario are then selected and connected to at least one main smart board card. Each body part comprises a peripheral smart board card. Then, the content of the main smart board card is updated and the simulation is run.

Abstract: A computer-implemented method for training a user in a procedure includes registering a profile of the user, and receiving a selection of a training aid from a menu using a graphical user interface of the computer. The method further includes displaying the training aid on the graphical user interface of the computer. The training aid is responsive to an input from the user. The training aid accesses a storage space of the computer including a first database storing a graphical representation associated with the procedure, and a second database storing a multitude of questions and a multitude of associated answers. The storage space further includes a third database storing a multitude of symptoms and a multitude of associated solutions, and a fourth database storing a multitude of sequences associated with the procedure.

Abstract: An artificial anatomical model used in an embodiment as a simulation and training device for performing a cricothyroidotomy procedure on a patient having an upper airway obstruction is provided. Furthermore, the simulation device includes a mandible and neck base structure that geometrically mimicsa human mandible and neck region with corresponding anatomical landmarks such that a cricothyroidotomy procedure can be performed on the device for training purposes in some embodiments. Moreover, various components of the device are easily removable and replaceable independent of one another, further simplifying the training process.

Abstract: An apparatus for teaching and practicing an ophthalmologic surgical technique of creating the continuous curvilinear capsulorhexis comprises a housing with a first base end and a second suction cup end for holding a malleable body; a flexible film or cellophane-type membrane covers the operating area of the malleable body; this flexible film can be held into place on the first base end with a first cap with an aperture or opening; in between the first base end and the second suction cup end, there can be a flexible stock with a threaded connection. There can also be a second cap addition, which simulates a cornea and anterior chamber, which can be filled with viscoelastic material, which can increase the pressure in the eye and flattens the anterior capsule.

Abstract: The present invention provides a manikin comprising a chest area and a head, for training of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The manikin is distinctive in that it comprises a means for providing gasping movements of the head, and a means for simulating the sound of agonal breathing, which means are operatively connected to a device for actuating said means, for simulation of agonal breathing.

Abstract: The invention relates to an appliance for simulating the chewing action of a mammal, said appliance comprising two elements (21, 22) simulating a mobile lower maxilla and a fixed upper maxilla. The two elements are formed by two parallel disks (21, 22) aligned on a common axis (A-A?), a face of each disk, facing the other disk (21, 22), being provided with at least one raised part (31, 33) projecting from said face. The appliance comprises means (16, 17,18,19) for driving at least one (21) of said disks in relation to the other disk (22), rotationally about the common axis (A-A?) and in translation (12,13,14) parallel to said axis.

Abstract: Devices, systems, and methods appropriate for use in medical training are disclosed. In some instances, a patient simulator system is provided that includes a maternal patient simulator and a fetal patient simulator. The maternal patient simulator includes an internal chamber sized to receive the fetal patient simulator and a birthing mechanism disposed within the internal chamber configured to translate and rotate the fetal patient simulator with respect to the maternal patient simulator to simulate a birth. In some instances, the fetal patient simulator an internal support structure that includes a head, spinal components, left arm components, right arm components, left leg components, and right leg components with a continuous silicon skin layer covering the internal support structure.

Abstract: Devices, systems, and methods appropriate for use in medical training are disclosed. In some instances, a patient simulator system is provided that includes a maternal patient simulator and a fetal patient simulator. The maternal patient simulator includes an internal chamber sized to receive the fetal patient simulator and a birthing mechanism disposed within the internal chamber configured to translate and rotate the fetal patient simulator with respect to the maternal patient simulator to simulate a birth. In some instances, the fetal patient simulator an internal support structure that includes a head, spinal components, left arm components, right arm components, left leg components, and right leg components with a continuous silicon skin layer covering the internal support structure.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method of manufacturing a molded object. The method includes: supplying a first liquid material to a first region out of a molding enabling region where a powder material is arranged and curing the powder material of the first region using a lamination molding technology to form a first insoluble part insoluble in a solvent; supplying a second liquid material different from the first liquid material to the powder material of a second region, which is provided so as to be surrounded by the first region, out of the molding enabling region and curing the powder material of the second region using the lamination molding technology to form a second soluble part soluble in the solvent; and dissolving the second part in the solvent.

Abstract: Systems and methods are disclosed for an apparatus and method for practicing injection techniques through an injectable apparatus. The injectable apparatus may contain a camera that is configured to provide three-dimensional location information for a testing tool based on light attenuated from the testing tool after it is injected into a simulated human or animal body parts. A training tool may be connected to a user display device to generate a display of the injection apparatus as well as the performance parameters of a trainee.

Abstract: A system for medical training includes an anatomical simulator modeled after at least a portion of a body, the simulator including at least one external surface, and at least one cavity in fluidic communication with the external surface via a cavity. The system further includes at least one internal sensor positioned at an internal location of the anatomical simulator, the internal sensor positioned to receive an internal input based on forces applied from within the cavity, at least one external sensor positioned at an external location of the anatomical simulator and to receive an external input based on forces applied to the external surface, and a feedback display system in communication with the sensors to simultaneously record external sensor readings from the at least one external sensor and internal sensor readings from the at least one internal sensor and at least one time measurement device.

Abstract: A technique for fabricating a surgical splint for use in correcting a dental condition of a patient. The technique involves obtaining a three-dimensional digital model of lower and upper arch dentitions of the patient having the dental condition. Relative positions of the lower and upper arch dentitions are adjusted with respect to each other in the three-dimensional digital model using a computing device. A relative positioning structure is added to the three-dimensional digital model using the computing device. A physical model of the patient's corrected dentition is then generated from the three-dimensional digital model. The physical model includes the relative positioning structure that connects the lower and upper arch dentitions of the physical model at the adjusted relative position. The surgical splint is then formed using the physical model. A non-surgical splint is also described.

Abstract: A head form for testing a variety of respirators. The head form can prevent false leak failures by having a mask registration member upon which the mask under test is mounted, the mask registration member being self lubricating. In one embodiment, the registration member is an inflatable bladder. The bladder can be configured to limit lift away of the inflatable bladder from the recess, thereby mitigating leaks in the head form assembly. The bladder may be configured to limit roll away of portions of the bladder that register against the head form, thereby reducing or eliminating leaks between the inflatable bladder and the mask under test.

Abstract: A doll for educating caregivers about Shaken Baby Syndrome comprises a head portion, a body, and may comprise transparent skin. The head portion may have a simulated brain disposed therein. The head portion is floppably connected to the body. The doll may further comprise a first chamber and a second chamber containing simulated blood, the simulated blood being visible in the first chamber after acceleration experienced during a shaking episode, but otherwise being concealed from view in the second chamber. A plurality of acceleration sensors may be disposed within the doll to detect acceleration experienced during a shaking episode, and the plurality of acceleration sensors may trigger warnings to the caregiver when portions of the doll experience acceleration sufficient to endanger an infant.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a medical training device, preferably being shaped as at least a part of a human or animal skull. The training device comprises at least three elements: an element imitating the skull, an element imitating soft tissue, typically being a brain or a part thereof, and an element imitating a meninge or part thereof, preferably being the dura mater. The invention also relates to a method of training surgeons.

Abstract: Devices, systems, and methods appropriate for use in combat medical training are provided. In some instances, the combat medical simulators facilitate training of common field medical techniques including tracheostomy, wound care, tourniquet use, pneumothorax, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and/or other medical treatments. Further, the combat medical simulators have joints that provide realistic ranges of motions to enhance the realism of the training experience.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method and device to teach hair coloring. In particular, the present invention provides a three dimensional mannequin head with hair dyed to correspond to a traditional two-dimensional color wheel, i.e., in the configuration of a three-dimensional color wheel that is used to teach others, such as, for example, hairdressers, beauticians, or any person who may have occasion to color hair, how to select the appropriate dye colors to achieve a desired hair color. The present invention also provides teaching methods utilizing the three dimensional mannequin head.

Abstract: The present invention is an obstructive sleep apnea demonstration model device for a user and a patient. The device includes a vertical display stand with a horizontal base, a vertical front surface and a horizontal flange, a vertical side profile base with a removed oral cavity portion attached to the display stand and disposed within the horizontal flange, a top movable side piece with an upper lip, a set of upper teeth, a hinge and a palate. The device also includes a back elongated movable side piece disposed behind the top side piece that hinges on the palate, a chin assembly side piece with a chin, a lower lip, a set of lower teeth and a tongue and an intraoral appliance that is placed between the upper teeth and the lower teeth to treat the patient with an obstructive sleep apnea condition.

Abstract: A craniofacial anatomic simulator with cephalometer is disclosed and omnidirectional osteogenesis is provided as an example thereof. The craniofacial anatomic simulator (CAS) includes an articulator in which a stereolithographic medical model is mounted. The medical model hereof is modified for this purpose so that the mandibular portion is mounted together with the craniomaxillary portion in a manner which simulates the excursive movement of the temporomandibular joint and the masseteric sling providing both rotational and translational motion. The cephalometer consists of three digital calipers that provide locational data—height, depth and lateral position for any point on the stereolithographic model.

Abstract: Models, kits and methods useful in the demonstration of sialendoscopy devices and techniques are described. An exemplary demonstration apparatus comprises a support structure, an insert structure contacting the support structure, and a duct structure contacting the insert structure. The insert structure has a top surface defining a first opening and a bottom surface defining a second opening, and defines a channel with a first end in communication with the first opening and a second end in communication with the second opening. The duct structure comprises an elongate tubular member and has a first end in fluid communication with the first opening of the insert member, a second end, and defines a lumen extending from the first end to the second end. A portion of the duct structure is releasably disposed within the channel defined by the insert structure.

Abstract: This invention relates generally to breastfeeding training and more specifically to devices comprised of a doll and chest piece used for breastfeeding training.

Abstract: An interface device and method for interfacing instruments to a medical procedure simulation system serve to interface peripherals in the form of mock medical instruments to the medical procedure simulation system computer to enable simulation of medical procedures. The interface device includes a housing having a mock bodily region of interest to facilitate insertion of a mock instrument, such as an endoscope tube, into the interface device. The mock bodily region of interest may be pivotable to simulate various patient orientations. The instrument is engaged by a capture mechanism in order to measure rotational and translational motion of the instrument. An actuator is disposed within the interface device to provide force feedback to the instrument. The measured motion is provided to the computer system to reflect instrument motion on the display during the simulation. Alternatively, the interface device may be configured to accommodate instrument assemblies having a plurality of nested instruments (e.g.

Abstract: A fluid percussion system for modeling penetrating brain injury includes a fluid percussion device that takes inputs in the form of pressurized gas and electrical signals from a computer and outputs a single hydraulic pulse, or multiple hydraulic pulses in quick succession. The fluid percussion device may include a pneumatic cylinder assembly and a hydraulic cylinder assembly that is actuated by the pneumatic cylinder assembly to produce the hydraulic pulse(s) of pressurized fluid. Each pulse may be used to rapidly inflate and deflate an attached balloon (representing a brain penetrating device). The balloon may be inserted in a test specimen, and the rapid inflation and deflation of the balloon creates a lesion that simulates a penetrating brain injury. A calibration system that employs an optical sensor may be used to determine maximum balloon diameter achieved during rapid inflation.