Abstract: Methods, apparatus, systems, and articles of manufacture to reduce thermal fluctuations in semiconductor processors are disclosed. An apparatus includes a temperature analyzer to determine a current temperature of a processor. The apparatus further includes a controller to provide an idle workload to the processor to execute in response to the current temperature falling below a setback temperature.

Abstract: A vibrating structure gyroscope comprises a resonant structure arranged to vibrate under stimulation from a primary drive electrode. A drive system is arranged to vibrate the vibrating structure at a resonance frequency. An automatic gain control unit varies an amplitude of a primary drive signal (PD). A controller operates the gyroscope such that in a first mode of operation, the automatic gain control unit varies an amplitude of the drive signal (PD) between an operating range defined by upper and lower bounds and in a second mode operation, in which the automatic gain control unit sets the amplitude of the drive signal (PD) to a predetermined level outside of the operating range. In the second mode of operation an amplitude of a primary sense signal (PP) is measured after a predetermined time period to determine an oscillation cycle count during said predetermined time period.

Abstract: A self-testing measuring system includes at least three modes: an operating mode and at least two test modes. In a third test mode, a digital signal generating unit stimulates the digital input circuit directly by means of test signals. In a second test mode, the digital signal generating unit stimulates the analogue signal string and the digital input circuit by means of test signals. In a first test mode, the digital signal generating unit stimulates the analogue signal string, the measuring unit (typically an ultrasound transducer) and the digital input circuit by means of test signals, thereby allowing this signal string to be tested. In the operating mode, the digital signal generating unit stimulates the analogue signal string, the measuring unit (typically an ultrasound transducer) and the digital input circuit by means of output signals, thereby allowing the signal string to be monitored for parameter compliance.

Abstract: The invention relates to a bioprocess container (10) having an optical measuring device (100) for non-invasive spectroscopic measurement comprising: a container housing (12), a port housing (102), which is connected to the container housing (12) and is sealed off with respect to the interior (18) of the container housing (12); at least one radiation-emitting element (124), which is designed to transmit electromagnetic radiation through the at least one fluid contained in the container housing (12); at least one radiation-receiving element (126), which is designed to at least partly receive the radiation which was transmitted by the radiation-emitting element (124); and at least one measuring insert (122), which holds and supports the at least one radiation-emitting element (124) and/or the at least one radiation-receiving element (126).

Abstract: A wheel impact load detection system for detecting defects in wheel of railroad vehicles is presented. The system can receive data from sensors and/or a weather station to determine a maximum force applied to a rail, and subsequently calibrate the determined maximum force to account to environmental conditions. Additionally, the present disclosure can assign severity levels and generate alerts with the assigned severity levels, and such severity levels can facilitate the proper prioritization of the alerts. It is an object of the invention to provide a system for accounting for variable environmental conditions and/or variable rail tension in assigning severity levels to mitigate unneeded stoppage of railway traffic.

Abstract: The disclosed embodiments relate to methods, systems and apparatus for dynamic temperature aware functional safety. The disclosed embodiments provide adaptive techniques to track extended dynamic temperature range of a System-on-Chip (SOC) and automatically tune critical IP components of the SOC so that system can operate reliably even at high temperatures. The disclosed embodiments relax the overdesign of the SOC components by reusing existing components such as a ring oscillator to determine temperature at different regions of the SOC. In one embodiment, the disclosed principles use a Calibrated Ring Oscillator (CRO) temperature sensors. The CRO-based temperature sensors provide fast temperature measurement suitable for detecting dynamic temperature ranges and temperature rate of change. The CROs are existing on the SOC and do not require addition of additional sensors.

Abstract: A networked system for providing and maintaining a set of liquid dispenser stations is described. The fluid dispensers communicate with a managing/supervisory cloud server via an interposed base station. The fluid dispensers communicate locally with the base station via wireless communication network links. The base station operates as an accumulator of status/usage information provided by the dispenser stations and bridge for passing information and control commands between the cloud server and the individual dispenser stations. The dispenser stations are configured with control processors (controllers) to facilitate performing a variety of local control operations associated with dispensing liquids that have been cooled (or heated) prior to dispensing by the dispenser stations.

Abstract: An example system includes a processor to receive temperature data from a plurality of sensors disposed at locations more sensitive to temperature change in a plurality of server racks. The processor is to also generate a statistical model comprising a continuous spatial statistical distribution of temperature values based on the temperature data. The processor is to further generate a pseudo heat map based on the statistical model.

Abstract: A heat dissipation system for a smart piano may include a heat dissipation driver, a heat dissipation device, a sensor, a protection circuit and a hardware processor. The sensor may be configured to detect a thermal parameter of an execution device of the smart piano. The protection circuit may be configured to analyze the thermal parameter to generate a protection signal. The hardware processor may be configured to determine a preset algorithm, generate a control signal according to the protection signal and the preset algorithm, and control a heat dissipation condition of the smart piano. The controlling the heat dissipation condition of the smart piano may include control an operation condition of the execution device and/or the heat dissipation device. The controlling may include controlling an output power of the execution device and/or the heat dissipation device.

Abstract: Initial data and target data are frequency-analyzed to obtain an initial Rayleigh-scattering spectrum (RSS) and a target RSS, respectively. A distance correction is performed for the target RSS by comparing the target RSS with the initial RSS, and a Rayleigh spectrum shift is determined on the basis of a correlation coefficient between the initial RSS and the target RSS after distance-corrected.

Abstract: The temperature sensor circuit includes a diode that is connected to a first potential at a cathode thereof. The temperature sensor circuit includes a voltage dividing circuit that is connected to an anode of the diode at a second end thereof and outputs a divided voltage. The temperature sensor circuit includes a second amplifying circuit that receives the first signal at a first input end thereof, receives the divided voltage at a second input end thereof, is connected to a first end of the voltage dividing circuit at an output end thereof and outputs a second signal so as to make the divided voltage equal to the first signal. The temperature sensor circuit includes a measuring circuit that calculates a voltage difference between the first signal and the second signal and outputs an output signal based on the result of the calculation.

Abstract: A system is provided for monitoring physiological parameter(s) and providing a context under which the physiological parameter is measured. The system may include a data processing device. The data processing device may be configured to receive data corresponding to physiological parameter(s) measured from a body. The data processing device may be further configured to receive data that enables determination of one or more of orientation of the body and determination of movements of the body. The data processing device may be additionally configured to correlate and present the correlation between the measured physiological parameter(s) and one or more of orientation a body and activity the body is indulged in, which is derived based on the movements of the body.

Abstract: A networked system for providing and maintaining a set of liquid dispenser stations is described. The fluid dispensers communicate with a managing/supervisory cloud server via an interposed base station. The fluid dispensers communicate locally with the base station via wireless communication network links. The base station operates as an accumulator of status/usage information provided by the dispenser stations and bridge for passing information and control commands between the cloud server and the individual dispenser stations. The dispenser stations are configured with control processors (controllers) to facilitate performing a variety of local control operations associated with dispensing liquids that have been cooled (or heated) prior to dispensing by the dispenser stations.

Abstract: Provided is a current detection device in which, to a bus bar type shunt resistor, another member can be easily connected and fixed by means of rotational fastening of screw members. The current detection device is provided with: a pair of wiring members (11, 12) consisting of electrically conductive metal material; a resistor body (13) consisting of metal material having a smaller temperature coefficient of resistance than the wiring members and which is bonded to the wiring members; and a screw member (16) which is fixed to at least one of the wiring members and which is a separate member from the wiring members. One screw member (16) is fixed to one surface of the wiring members (11, 12), and another screw member (17) is rotationally fastened to the one screw member (16) sandwiching another member (18, 19) disposed on the other surface of the wiring members (11,12).

Abstract: A small antenna device having good communications performance and a wide communications area even when a metal plate is present in the antenna communications direction, even when the antenna is arranged, for example, inside a box-shaped metal case, and even when a through hole is used that has a smaller area than the antenna. This device comprises: the antenna; a rear surface cover overlapping with the antenna and being a conductor that faces the winding of the antenna; two first insulating areas provided in the rear surface cover and extending in a direction that intersects the winding axis of the antenna; and a second insulating area that connects between the first insulating areas. At least part of the area sandwiched by the first insulating areas faces the antenna.

Abstract: An apparatus and method are described for measuring the thermal performance of a wafer chuck, such as an electrostatic chuck. In one example, the apparatus ha a chamber, a base to support a wafer chuck in the chamber, a heater to heat the chuck, a window through the exterior of the chamber, and an infrared imaging system to measure the temperature of the chuck while the chuck is heated.

Abstract: A physical-quantity sensor is configured to be used with a physical-quantity sensor element that outputs a sensor signal in response to a physical quantity. A physical-quantity detection circuit of the physical-quantity sensor includes a signal generating unit for generating a detecting signal and a multiplier that multiplies the sensor signal by the detecting signal. The signal generating unit converts a first phase of a predetermined signal having a frequency corresponding to a frequency of the sensor signal, into a second phase, and calculates an amplitude value corresponding to the second phase as to generate the detecting signal. This physical-quantity sensor improves accuracy of phase adjustment without increasing a sampling frequency.

Abstract: A networked system for providing and maintaining a set of liquid dispenser stations is described. The fluid dispensers communicate with a managing/supervisory cloud server via an interposed base station. The fluid dispensers communicate locally with the base station via wireless communication network links. The base station operates as an accumulator of status/usage information provided by the dispenser stations and bridge for passing information and control commands between the cloud server and the individual dispenser stations. The dispenser stations are configured with control processors (controllers) to facilitate performing a variety of local control operations associated with dispensing liquids that have been cooled (or heated) prior to dispensing by the dispenser stations.

Abstract: A method for calibrating a magnetometer following a temperature event is described. The magnetometer includes three sensors, including a Hall Effect sensor associated with a first sensing axis and a sensor of another type associated with a second sensing axis. The method includes: maintaining a cache of gyroscope data and magnetometer data representing magnetometer readings obtained from the magnetometer; detecting a temperature event; determining an expected magnetometer reading following the temperature event; comparing the expected magnetometer reading to a magnetometer reading obtained from the magnetometer after the temperature event to determine a calibration correction amount; compare a difference between the magnetometer reading obtained after the temperature event and the expected magnetometer reading for the second sensing axis to a threshold and, based on the comparison to the threshold, generating new calibration data for the magnetometer based on the calibration correction amount.

Abstract: Eddy current non-destructive examination and evaluation of physical properties of a component, such as a generator retaining ring, after experiencing potentially degrading thermal exposure during any stage of manufacture, assembly and service use, is performed to determine whether it is acceptable for service use, requires further modification (e.g., additional heat treatment processing) or whether is permanently unsuitable for service. Eddy current test measurements are correlated with component temperature exposure (e.g., absolute temperature and/or cumulative time-temperature heat absorption) and cumulative alteration of the component physical properties, such as, among others, material yield strength (YS), toughness, and tensile ductility. Using the eddy current test measurements and reference data correlating electrical conductivity with ring material thermal exposure, the component's physical properties are evaluated to determine its serviceability.

Abstract: A rotation speed control circuit with function of auto-calibrating rotation speed error is disclosed. The rotation speed control circuit includes a first multiplexer, a second multiplexer, an error amplifier and a current compensation circuit. In calibration mode, the rotation speed control circuit selects a calibration clock signal and a calibration voltage through the first multiplexer and the second multiplexer correspondingly according to a mode switch signal, and adjusts current value of a first current accordingly. In other words, the rotation speed control circuit utilizes the first current to compensate error of the external capacitor through the calibration clock signal fixed and the calibration voltage fixed in the duration of calibration mode, so as to avoid that aging of the external capacitor leads to rotation speed error and then affects the whole operation.

Abstract: An exemplary method of determining location information includes sensing a temperature of an object or person in a sensing field of at least one temperature sensor at each of a plurality of measurement periods. A relationship between the sensed temperature at a first one of the measurement periods and the sensed temperature at a second, later one of the measurement periods is determined. A determination is made from the determined relationship whether the object or person moved relative to the temperature sensor during a time from the first one of the measurement periods to the second one of the measurement periods.

Abstract: Implementations are presented herein that include a plurality of on-chip monitor circuits and a controller. Each of the plurality of on-chip monitor circuits is configured to measure a parameter of a semiconductor chip. The controller is coupled to the plurality of on-chip monitor circuits. The controller is configured to receive a measurement result from at least one of the plurality of on-chip monitor circuits and to control a calibration of another one of the plurality of on-chip monitor circuits in accordance with the measurement result.

Abstract: The invention relates to systems and methods for calibrating and using resistance temperature detectors. In one embodiment, the system includes a calibration circuit comprising a resistance temperature detector in a bridge circuit with at least one potentiometer, and a programmable gain amplifier coupled to the bridge circuit. Embodiments of the invention further comprise methods for calibrating the bridge circuit and the programmable gain amplifier for use with the resistance temperature detector and methods for determining the self heating voltage of the bridge circuit.

Abstract: A method of calibrating a temperature sensor of a chemical microreactor envisages: determining an airflow along a path in such a way as to cause a thermal exchange between the airflow and a chemical microreactor, which is provided with an on-board temperature sensor and is set along the path; and detecting a temperature in the airflow downstream of the microreactor, in conditions of thermal equilibrium.

Abstract: A thermal sensor includes a comparator having a first and second input nodes. A reference voltage generator is electrically coupled with the first input node. The reference voltage generator is configured to provide a reference voltage that is substantially temperature-independent. A temperature sensing circuit is electrically coupled with the second input node. The temperature sensing circuit is configured to provide a temperature-dependent voltage. The temperature sensing circuit includes a current mirror. A first metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistor is electrically coupled between the current mirror and ground. A first resistor is electrically coupled with the current mirror. A second MOS transistor is electrically coupled with the first resistor in series. The second MOS transistor and the first resistor are electrically coupled with the first MOS transistor in a parallel fashion.

Abstract: An I/O circuit for measuring temperatures uses multiple cold-junction compensation sensors permanently affixed near the terminals of the terminal block in order to compensate significant temperature variation across the terminals of the I/O module (up to 3° C.) that can substantially affect the accuracy of thermocouple measurements. The use of these multiple sensors is enabled by a compensation system that corrects for the distance between the built-in sensors and the terminals, a multiplexer that accommodates the additional signal burden produced by the sensors, and a compensation system that allows low-cost sensors to be used and calibrated to as little as a single high accuracy sensor. In one embodiment, a third temperature sensor with relatively higher accuracy is used to compensate for lower accuracy of permanently affixed sensors.

Abstract: Temperature is determined by measuring the time it takes to charge a capacitor with a resistive temperature sensor. A clock, time counter, a voltage comparator and voltage reference are used in determining a coarse time measurement. The time measurement resolution is enhanced with the addition of a constant current source charging another timing capacitor within a single clock pulse time to provide a fine time measurement.

Abstract: A system and method for evaluating equipment in a data center, the equipment including a plurality of equipment racks, and at least one cooling provider. In one aspect, a method includes receiving data regarding each of the plurality of equipment racks and the at least one cooling provider, the data including a layout of the equipment racks and the at least one cooling provider, and a power draw value for each of the equipment racks, storing the received data, determining air flow between the at least one cooling provider and each of the equipment racks, determining inlet and exit air temperature for the at least one cooling provider based on the layout, the power draw and the airflow, and for each equipment rack, determining inlet and exit air temperature based on the layout, the power draw and the airflow.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to methods and apparatus for measuring, calibrating, and controlling substrate temperature during low temperature and high temperature processing.

Abstract: An electronic thermometer includes a probe adapted to be heated by a subject for use in measuring a temperature of the subject. At least one temperature sensor detects a temperature of the probe. A probe sensor detects a condition at the probe. The probe sensor has an idle condition when the probe is not inserted into the subject. A processor is operatively connected to the probe sensor and programmed to monitor a change in the condition of the probe sensor from the idle condition to determine whether the probe has been received in a probe cover and inserted into the subject.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a method and apparatus for reducing measurement error resulting from temperature variations across a wafer, without measuring the wafer temperature, the temperature gradient in the surrounding air, or the distribution of the index of refraction of the air.

Abstract: Method and system for measuring the resistance of a resistive structure having at least three nodes. A first calibration signal is determined by measuring a voltage at an output of the resistance structure when no calibration current is injected into a third node between the first and second nodes of the structure. A calibration current is then injected into the third node and a second calibration signal is determined. The absolute value of the difference between the first calibration signal and the second calibration signal is determined, the absolute value being proportional to a product of the resistance of the resistive structure and the calibration current.

Abstract: In one embodiment, a current sensing circuit corrects for the transient and steady state temperature measurement errors due to physical separation between a resistive sense element and a temperature sensor. The sense element has a temperature coefficient of resistance. The voltage across the sense element and a temperature signal from the temperature sensor are received by processing circuitry. The processing circuitry determines a power dissipated by the sense element, which may be instantaneous or average power, and determines an increased temperature of the sense element. The resistance of the sense element is changed by the increased temperature, and this derived resistance Rs is used to calculate the current through the sense element using the equation I=V/R or other related equation. The process is iterative to continuously improve accuracy and update the current.

Abstract: A method and system for calibrating temperature measurement devices, such as pyrometers, in thermal processing chambers are disclosed. According to the present invention, the system includes a calibrating light source that emits light energy onto a substrate contained in the thermal processing chamber. A light detector then detects the amount of light that is being transmitted through the substrate. The amount of detected light energy is then used to calibrate a temperature measurement device that is used in the system.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present disclosure provide self-calibrated thermal sensors of an integrated circuit (IC) die and associated techniques and configurations. In one embodiment, a self-calibrating thermal sensing device includes a resonator configured to oscillate at a frequency corresponding with a temperature of circuitry of an integrated circuit (IC) die, wherein the resonator is thermally coupled with the circuitry and configured to operate in a first mode and a second mode and logic operatively coupled with the resonator, and configured to calculate a first temperature corresponding with a first frequency of the resonator in the first mode using a first equation, calculate a second temperature corresponding with a second frequency of the resonator in the second mode using a second equation, and add an offset to the first equation and the second equation based on a result of a comparison of the first temperature and the second temperature. Other embodiments may be described and/or claimed.

Abstract: A heat sensor has the ability to correct for errors introduced during temperature changes of the hot junction of the thermopile for the heat sensor. For example, the effect of temperature changes at the hot junction of the heat sensor relative to the cold junction is mathematically modeled such that the effect on the temperature determination can be corrected given certain information relating to the thermopile, its electrical output, and the temperature history and current temperature of the cold junction. By accounting for these factors, a processing device can modify the temperature determination output for the heat sensor while correcting for error introduced by temperature changes at the hot junction as determined by the mathematical model.

Abstract: An air flow measurement device measures a flow amount of air. A flow sensor is configured to output a voltage value corresponding to a given flow amount of the air. A temperature sensor is configured to output temperature of the air. A correction coefficient memory portion is configured to store a correction coefficient for correcting the voltage value of the flow sensor to a corrected voltage value associated with the given flow amount based on a predetermined standard temperature. A relationship between the voltage value of the flow sensor and the flow amount of the air changes based on temperature of the air. A correction portion is configured to correct the output voltage value of the flow sensor to the corrected voltage value using the correction coefficient.

Abstract: A temperature sensing circuit includes a signal generation unit including a delay line and generating a source signal with a pulse width corresponding to a delay value of the delay line, a pulse width expansion unit configured to generate a comparison signal by expanding a pulse width of the source signal, and a change detection unit configured to sense a temperature change using a difference between the pulse widths of the comparison signal and a reference signal.

Abstract: A battery temperature monitoring circuit, which has a cold comparator and a hot comparator, achieves high accuracy in a small cell size by utilizing a cold current optimized for the cold comparator and a cold reference voltage, and a hot current optimized for the hot comparator and a hot reference voltage, along with switching circuitry that provides the cold current to the cold comparator as the battery temperature approaches the cold trip temperature, and the hot current to the hot comparator as the battery temperature approaches the hot trip temperature.

Abstract: There is provided a system and method for automatically calibrating a temperature sensor. More specifically, there is provided a system including a temperature sensor that includes a first resistance configured to indicate a temperature of the temperature sensor and a second resistance, in series with the first resistor, wherein the second resistance is adjustable to calibrate the first resistance, and a calibration circuit, coupled to the temperature sensor and configured to automatically calibrate the first resistance.

Abstract: A system, and computer usable program product for discovering thermal relationships in a data processing environment are provided in the illustrative embodiments. An output temperature of a cooling unit operating in the data processing environment is changed from a previous output temperature to a new output temperature. The difference between the previous and the new output temperatures is a change in the output temperature. A change in an ambient temperature proximate to a data processing system is measured. The change in the ambient temperature is a difference between a previous ambient temperature and a new ambient temperature. An expression that represents a relationship between the change in the output temperature and corresponding change in the ambient temperature is determined. The expression is used to determine a cooling correspondence between the cooling unit and the data processing system.

Abstract: A method for calculating the probability of moisture build-up in a compressor includes the steps of sensing a temperature of the ambient air, sensing a discharge pressure of the compressor, sensing a temperature of the compressor, processing the ambient air temperature and operating pressure sensed to obtain a required temperature at which condensation will form, and comparing the temperature of the compressor to the required temperature.

Abstract: In a method for determining a state of an apparatus, detected temperatures are received from a plurality of sensors and are compared to at least one preset condition. The state of the apparatus is determined based upon the comparison.

Abstract: This system can capture information about conditions or events that may have impacted goods which had been stored for shipment or warehousing. This may include time-of-departure, geo-position, in-transit temperature ranges and time the shipment may have been maintained outside required temperature levels. Information may also include motion or acceleration data which may correlate to driving incidents or mishaps. This information is harvested from sensors that are fixed inside the storage crates or shipping cases, captured wirelessly, analyzed and reported out through the internet to a secure server. Additional time and date stamped data is obtained from warehouse attendants, drivers or receiving personnel who can file photographic evidence of signed receipts, damaged goods or crushed crates to the same secure servers. This information can be made available before the goods are received. This data could suggest a particular shipment should be closely inspected.

Abstract: An exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides systems and methods of compensating sensor drift. In one example embodiment, a system may comprise a primary sensor having a primary full-scale range and configured to output a primary environmental condition signal indicative of an environmental condition; a reference sensor having a reference full-scale range and configured to output a reference environmental condition signal indicative of the environmental condition, wherein the reference full-scale range is less than the primary full-scale range; and a drift compensation system configured to determine a drift compensation signal using the primary environmental signal and the reference environmental condition signal responsive to the reference environmental conditional signal being in the reference full-scale range and compensate the primary environmental condition signal using the drift compensation signal.

Abstract: A temperature measuring method includes: transmitting a light to a measurement point of an object to be measured, the object being a substrate on which a thin film is formed; measuring a first interference wave caused by a reflected light from a surface of the substrate, and a second interference wave caused by reflected lights from an interface between the substrate and the thin film and from a rear surface of the thin film; calculating an optical path length from the first interference wave to the second interference wave; calculating a film thickness of the thin film; calculating an optical path difference between an optical path length of the substrate and the calculated optical path length; compensating for the optical path length from the first interference wave to the second interference wave; and calculating a temperature of the object at the measurement point.

Abstract: A calibration device, capable of calibrating a gain of a radiometer, includes an actuator and a micro-electromechanical-system (MEMS) unit. The actuator receives a calibration signal outputted from a control unit. The MEMS unit is coupled to the actuator, in which the actuator enables the MEMS unit to shield an antenna of the radiometer according to the calibration signal, such that the radiometer generates an environmental signal according to an equivalent radiant temperature received from the MEMS unit, and the control unit calibrates the gain of the radiometer according to the environmental signal.

Abstract: In a screen protection system and method, a first operation temperature of an electronic device is detected from each of one or more first temperature sensors, and a first ambient temperature is detected from a second temperature sensor, when a display screen is activated. Once there is no operation on the electronic device, a timer is started timing. Once the electronic device is being operated, a duration is temporarily stored and the timer is reset. If the duration is equal to a screensaver time, a second operation temperature of the electronic device is detected from each of the first temperature sensors, and a second ambient temperature is detected from a second temperature sensor. The method further determines whether the electronic device is currently being held by a hand of a user, according to the above-mentioned temperatures. If the electronic device is not being held by a hand of the user, the display screen is controlled to be in an inactive state.

Abstract: A system and method for calibrating an integrated circuit. The method includes configuring a first impedance for a first output of the integrated circuit according to a first configuration code and measuring a first voltage at the first output which corresponds to the first configuration code. The method further includes configuring a second impedance for a second output of the integrated circuit according to a second configuration code and measuring a second voltage at the second output which corresponds to the second configuration code. A determination of which of the first voltage and the second voltage is nearest to a predetermined voltage value. Based on the voltage determination, the integrated circuit is configured according a code of said first and second codes that corresponds to the voltage nearest to the predetermined voltage.