Compositions, preparations and uses of human papillomavirus L1 protein

Abstract

Large quantities of soluble multimers of human papillomavirus L1 proteins can be produced in bacterial expression systems and used as therapeutic and diagnostic tools. L1 multimers can be used in immunogenic vaccine compositions, as diagnostic reagents, and as tools for mapping cell surface receptor interactions.

Description

RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §121 as a divisional application of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/520,822 filed Mar. 8, 2000 which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/125,208 filed Mar. 18, 1999, and No. 60/148,544 filed Aug. 12, 1999.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The invention relates to preparation and use of viral coat proteins. In particular, the invention relates to preparations of human papillomavirus L1 protein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Human papillomaviruses are involved in a variety of disease states, including benign warts and cancer. There has been considerable effort to produce vaccines against human papillomaviruses, especially against types 16 and 18, which are associated with cervical cancer. Papillomaviruses contain two structural proteins that encapsidate the viral minichromosome, L1 and L2. In the virus particle, 72 pentamers of L1 form an outer shell; L2, probably one copy per L1 pentamer, is located on the inside of the L1 shell. The L1 and L2 proteins are therefore important candidates to use as immunogens. Because papillomaviruses cannot be propagated in cell culture, however, recombinant methods must be used to produce papillomavirus proteins.

[0004] Bacterial expression systems are generally effective and inexpensive ways to produce large quantities of recombinant proteins, but it has been difficult to produce large quantities of papillomavirus L1 protein in bacterial expression systems. Thus, there is a need in the art for methods of obtaining preparations of human papillomavirus L1 proteins which can be used as immunogens and as diagnostic reagents from bacterial expression systems.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0005] It is an object of the present invention to provide stable preparations of human papillomavirus L1 protein for use as immunogens and as diagnostic tools.

[0006] One embodiment of the invention is a composition which comprises a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein and a physiologically compatible carrier. As used herein, the term “L1 protein” refers to a truncated L1 polypeptide that does not include amino terminal residues 1-8 of HPV16 L1, or the corresponding structural residues of the L1 protein of other HPV subtypes.

[0007] As used herein, the term “multimer” refers to more than one L1 monomers; however, the invention is most advantageous where “multimer” refers to 5 L1 monomers (i.e., a pentamer) up to and including 60 monomers (12 pentamers).

[0008] As used herein, the term “stable” means that the preparation of L1 protein is not proteolytically degraded or denatured by proteases when placed in 10 mM salt, 0.1 mM EDTA at 10° C. for 24 hours.

[0009] Preferably, the preparation of human papillomavirus L1 protein is also soluble.

[0010] As used herein, “soluble” means that the preparation of L1 protein remains in the supernatant after centrifugation in a table-top centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 5 minutes.

[0011] These and other objects of the invention are provided by one or more of the embodiments which are described below.

[0012] Another embodiment of the invention is a method of immunizing a human against a human papillomavirus. A composition which comprises a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein is administered to a human at a dose effective to induce an immune response against the L1 protein in the human. As used herein, “effective to induce an immune response” refers to the ability to induce an antibody response to the L1 protein or to induce a CTL response to L1.

[0013] Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method of detecting the presence of antibodies against a human papillomavirus in a biological sample. A biological sample is contacted with a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein. Antibodies which bind to the multimer are detected. Detection of antibodies which are bound to the multimer identifies the presence of antibodies against the human papillomavirus in the biological sample.

[0014] A further embodiment of the invention is a method of detecting a specific subtype of human papillomavirus in a biological sample. A biological sample is contacted with an antibody which specifically binds to an L1 protein of a specific subtype of human papillomavirus. L1 protein which is bound to the antibody is detected. Detection of L1 protein which is bound to the antibody identifies the presence of the specific subtype of human papillomavirus in the biological sample.

[0015] Even another embodiment of the invention is a solid support comprising a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein.

[0016] Another embodiment of the invention is a solid support comprising an antibody which specifically binds to an L1 protein of a specific type of human papillomavirus.

[0017] Still another embodiment of the invention is a method of producing a soluble multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein which is truncated at its amino terminus. A recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein is expressed in a bacterial host cell. The recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein comprises amino acids 9-505 as shown in SEQ ID NO:1. Preferably the L1 protein comprises amino acids 10-505, 11-505, 12-505, and even 13-505 as shown in SEQ ID NO:1. The recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein is treated to remove bacterial host cell proteins. A soluble multimer of the human papillomavirus L1 protein is thereby formed.

[0018] The present invention thus provides the art with a simple and effective method of producing large quantities of human papillomavirus L1 protein. Preparations of human papillomavirus protein can be used, inter alia, as immunogens and diagnostic tools.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0019] FIG. 1. Two views of the HPV16 L1 subunit. The outward facing loops are at the top of the figure.

[0020] FIG. 2. Interaction between L1 monomers in a pentameric capsomere.

[0021] FIG. 3. A pentameric capsomere of HPV16 L1, viewed normal to the five-fold axis.

[0022] FIG. 4. View of pentameric HPV16 L1 capsomere from a direction corresponding to the outside of the icosahedral particle.

[0023] FIG. 5. The HPV16 L1 T=1 icosahedral particle.

[0024] FIG. 6. Interactions between pentamers in an L1 T=1 icosahedral particle.

[0025] FIGS. 7A-7B. FIG. 7A, HPV16 L1 pentamer, with polypeptide chains in a worm-like representation. Positions of residues that vary significantly among HPV types are indicated by arrows. FIG. 7B, surface representation of outer (left) and inner (right) views of L1 pentamer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0026] It is a discovery of the present invention that L1 coat proteins of human papillomaviruses can be expressed in large quantities from bacterial host cells, particularly E. coli cells. The expressed L1 proteins associate to form soluble multimers. L1 multimers can be used, for example, as immunogens, to induce an immune response against human papillomavirus infection, as diagnostic tools for detecting the presence of human papillomavirus in biological samples, and as tools for mapping receptor interactions.

[0027] Multimers of Human Papillomavirus L1 Protein

[0028] An L1 multimer of the invention can comprise 2 or more, 3, 4, preferably 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, or 60 or more molecules of human papillomavirus L1 protein. Pentamers of L1 protein are preferred. A 60-subunit (12-pentamer) T=1 icosahedral particle, as described below, is particularly preferred. Preferably, the multimers are soluble in an aqueous solution. Multimers of L1 protein from any human papillomavirus can be produced including, but not limited to, HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66. Optionally, an L1 multimer can comprise a molecule of human papillomavirus L2 protein from the same or from a different human papillomavirus type.

[0029] In one embodiment, the L1 molecules in the multimers are less than full-length. For example, truncated forms of human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein which lack 9, 10, 11, or 12 consecutive amino acids beginning at the amino terminus can be used to form L1 multimers. In order to be soluble, however, the expressed human papillomavirus 16 L1 proteins must comprise at least amino acids 13-505 as shown in SEQ ID NO:1. L1 proteins from other human papillomavirus types, such as HPV18, are also expected to be soluble with amino terminus truncations. The precise extent of the amino terminal amino acids which can be deleted will depend upon the particular amino acid sequence of the L1 protein and can be predicted by structurally aligning the L1 protein with residues of the L1 protein of HPV16. Amino acid sequences of other human papillomaviruses can be obtained, for example, from databases such as Genbank, Swiss-prot, PIR protein Data Base, PDB Protein Data Bank, or EMBL, or from the HPV sequence database, which can be accessed at <http://hpv-web.lanl.gov>. The amino acid sequences of the HPV16 and HPV18 L1 proteins are provided herein as SEQ ID NOS:1 and 3, respectively.

[0030] L1 molecules in the multimers can comprise the natural carboxy terminus of the protein or can be truncated at the carboxy terminus by up to 30 amino acids. Again, the precise extent of the truncation will depend on the particular amino acid sequence of the L1 protein.

[0031] Icosahedral Particles

[0032] L1 multimers comprising L1 protein which is truncated at its amino terminus associate to form multimeric particles. For example, pentamers of L1 protein can associate to form 12-pentamer (60-subunit) particles with icosahedral symmetry (T=1 icosahedral particles). T=1 icosahedral particles are L1 multimers which form naturally at a pH of 4-5 and a concentration of at least 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, or 20 mg/ml. Preferably, however, the T=1 icosahedral particles are stable at pH values above 4.5, such as pH 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, or 7. Most preferably, the T=1 icosahedral particles are stable at neutral pH.

[0033] Any means known in the art which will maintain immunogenicity of the particles can be used to stabilize the particles. For example, L1 pentamers can be cross-linked to stabilize the structure of a T=1 icosahedral particle. In one embodiment, cysteine residues are introduced at particular positions in the L1 protein, to generate inter-pentamer disulfide bonds that will keep the particles assembled at higher pH values. Methods of substituting or adding codons for one or more amino acids to a coding sequence for a polypeptide are well known in the art. The positions at which cysteine residues can be introduced to result in the placement of two cysteine residues at the correct distance for formation of a disulfide bond can readily be determined by inspection of the crystal structure of the assembled L1 pentamers. Alternatively, mutations can be introduced into the L1 amino acid sequence which would improve non-covalent interactions between L1 pentamers, such as the formation of salt bridges between oppositely charged amino acids. Chemical cross-linking can also be used to stabilize the T=1 icosahedral particles.

[0034] Pentamers of L1 proteins contain outward-facing “loops” of amino acids which are clearly responsible for antigenic differences among human papillomavirus types and may also confer specificity for particular cell-surface receptors (see Example 4, below). The discovery that the outward facing loops contain most of the sequence variability (and hence type variation) and that other surfaces, as well as the hydrophobic core, are conserved can be exploited to produce antibodies and vaccines which are specific for particular types of human papillomavirus. The term “outward facing loop” refers to residues in the BC, BE, FG, and HI loops of the L1 protein. The ability of the L1 pentamers to associate to form T=1 icosahedral particles is also important for the generation of effective vaccines against human papillomavirus. The T=1 icosahedral particles are highly polyvalent and are therefore effective immunogens. Moreover, because of their polyvalency, the T=1 icosahedral particles will bind tightly to cells with the appropriate receptor. Thus, they might penetrate those cells and produce an even broader immune response, including, for example, CTL immunity as well as antibody production.

[0035] Expression of L1 Multimers in Bacterial Host Cells

[0036] Polynucleotide segments encoding human papillomavirus L1 proteins can be inserted into expression constructs using standard molecular biology techniques and used to express large quantities of L1 protein which is capable of associating to form soluble multimers. Amino acid sequences of human papillomavirus proteins, as well as nucleotide sequences which encode the proteins, can be obtained from databases such as Genbank, Swiss-prot, EMBL, PIR Protein Data Base, PDB Protein Data Bank, or from the HPV sequence database, found at <http://hpv-web.lanl.gov/>.

[0037] An L1 expression construct comprises a promoter which is functional in a chosen bacterial host cell. The skilled artisan can readily select an appropriate promoter from the large number of cell type-specific promoters known and used in the art. The expression construct can also contain a transcription terminator which is functional in the bacterial host cell. The expression construct comprises a polynucleotide segment which encodes the desired portion of the L1 protein. The polynucleotide segment is located downstream from the promoter. Transcription of the polynucleotide segment initiates at the promoter. The expression construct can be linear or circular and can contain sequences, if desired, for autonomous replication.

[0038] A variety of bacterial host cells are available and can be used to express or to propagate L1 expression constructs. Suitable bacterial host cells include strains of E. coli and Bacillus. Preferably, L1 protein is produced in E. coli cells. Expression constructs can be introduced into bacterial host cells using any standard transfer technique for bacterial cells known in the art.

[0039] To facilitate purification, the L1 protein can be expressed as a fusion protein, such as a GST fusion protein. After expression of the recombinant L1 protein from the bacterial host cells, the recombinant L1 protein is treated to remove bacterial host cell proteins. This can be accomplished using any method known in the art. When L1 protein is expressed in E. coli cells, the expressed protein must be treated to remove the E. coli protein GroEL. Treatment with 2 mM ATP and 3.5 M urea is especially effective at removing GroEL protein from the expressed L1 protein (see Example 1, below).

[0040] If inclusion of human papillomavirus L2 protein in an L1 multimer is desired, expression constructs encoding L2 can be introduced into the bacterial host cell, as described above, and used to co-express L2 protein in the cell. The amino acid sequences of L2 proteins from HPV16 and HPV18 are shown in SEQ ID NOS: 2 and 4, respectively. Amino acid sequences of other human papillomavirus L2 proteins can be found in databases such as Genbank, Swiss-prot, EMBL, PIR Protein Data Base, PDB Protein Data Bank, and the HPV sequence database at <http://hpv-web.lanl.gov/>. Alternatively, L1 and L2 proteins can be expressed from the same expression construct.

[0041] Compositions of L1 Multimers

[0042] L1 multimers of the invention, including T=1 icosahedral particles, can be used in a composition. L1 multimer compositions are useful, for example, in immunoassays, as vaccine compositions, and as tools for use in characterizing cell-surface receptors which bind to L1 proteins.

[0043] In one embodiment of the invention, the composition can consist essentially of L1 multimers without the presence of L2 molecules. Alternatively, an L1 multimer composition can consist of L1 multimers alone.

[0044] Compositions of the invention can be used as vaccine compositions, for example, to enhance or induce an immune response of a human to a human papillomavirus. Immune responses which can be enhanced or induced include both humoral and cell-mediated responses. Compositions comprising particular preparations of L1 multimers can be tested for the ability to induce an immune response using assays well known in the art. For example, a composition can be injected into a laboratory animal, such as a rat or mouse, and the animal can be monitored for the appearance of immune reactants, such as antibodies, directed against L1 protein. Alternatively, assays such as cytotoxic T lymphocyte assays can be performed to determine whether a particular composition of L1 multimers is immunogenic.

[0045] For use as a vaccine, a composition of the invention preferably comprises a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein, preferably a pentamer or a T=1 icosahedral particle comprising twelve L1 pentamers which is stable at neutral pH. Stable L1 multimers are resistant to proteolytic degradation or denaturation. Optionally, the L1 multimer can include a molecule of an human papillomavirus L2 protein.

[0046] Vaccine compositions of the invention typically comprise a physiologically compatible carrier. Physiologically compatible carriers are well known to those in the art. Such carriers include, but are not limited to, a simple low salt solution which permits preservation of the integrity of the L1 protein, e.g., 10 mM NaCl, 0.1 mM EDTA, or to large, slowly metabolized macromolecules, such as proteins, polysaccharides, polylactic acids, polyglycolic acids, polymeric amino acids, amino acid copolymers, and inactive virus particles. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts can also be used in L1 multimer compositions, for example, mineral salts such as hydrochlorides, hydrobromides, phosphates, or sulfates, as well as salts of organic acids such as acetates, proprionates, malonates, or benzoates. Compositions of the invention can also contain liquids, such as water, saline, glycerol, and ethanol, as well as substances such as wetting agents, emulsifying agents, or pH buffering agents.

[0047] Administration of L1 Multimer Compositions as Vaccines

[0048] Various methods can be used to administer an L1 multimer vaccine composition to a human, including intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous injection. Vaccine compositions of the invention are administered at a dose effective to induce an immune response against the L1 protein. The particular dosages of the composition used to enhance an immune response will vary, for example, according to the L1 composition being used and the mammal to which the composition is administered. Generally, about 5 &mgr;g to about 50 &mgr;g of L1 multimers per kg of patient body weight, about 50 &mgr;g to about 5 mg/kg, about 100 &mgr;g to about 500 &mgr;g/kg, or about 200 to about 250 &mgr;g/kg will be administered to an adult human.

[0049] Such ranges by no means preclude use of a higher or lower amount of a component, as might be warranted in a particular application. For example, the actual dose and schedule may vary depending on whether the compositions are administered in combination with other pharmaceutical compositions, or depending on individual differences in pharmacokinetics, drug disposition, and metabolism.

[0050] Diagnostic Assays

[0051] Because of the polyvalency of L1 multimers, particularly the T=1 icosahedral particles, L1 multimers of the invention can be used to produce antibodies which specifically bind to human papillomavirus L1 proteins. Taking advantage of the high variability of the outward-facing loops of L1 pentamers, for example, antibodies can be generated which can distinguish among L1 proteins of different human papillomaviruses. These antibodies can be used, for example, in diagnostic assays, to detect directly the presence of human papillomavirus or specific types of human papillomavirus associated with a particular disease state in a biological sample. Similarly, L1 multimers themselves can be used in immunoassays, to detect the presence of antibodies to human papillomavirus in a biological sample. Use of type-specific antibodies or L1 multimers represents a significant improvement over immunoassays which use polyclonal antisera directed against a prototype human papillomavirus.

[0052] Polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies, including single-chain antibodies, which specifically bind to L1 proteins can be constructed using techniques well known in the art. Preferably, antibodies which specifically bind to human papillomavirus L1 proteins do not bind to human papillomavirus L2 proteins or to human proteins. Most preferably, the antibodies specifically bind to a specific type of human papillomavirus, such as HPV16, HPV18, or any of the other specific types of human papillomavirus disclosed above. Antibodies which specifically bind to L1 proteins typically do not detect other proteins in immunochemical assays and can immunoprecipitate an L1 protein or multimer from solution.

[0053] Immunoassays which can be used to detect binding of L1 proteins and antibodies include, but are not limited to, Western blots, ELISAs, radioimmunoassays, immunohistochemical assays, immunoprecipitations, or other immunochemical assays known in the art. Typically, such assays provide a detection signal at least 5-, 10-, or 20-fold higher than a background signal. Optionally, either the antibody or the L1 multimer can comprise a detectable label, such as a fluorescent, chemiluminescent, or enzymatic tag or a radiolabel.

[0054] An antibody or an L1 multimer can be bound to a solid support, such as a glass or plastic slide, tissue culture plate, microtiter well, tube, column, column matrix, protein, or particle such as a bead, including but not limited to a latex, polystyrene, or glass bead, or a flexible membrane, such as a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane. Means of coupling protein moieties to such surfaces are well known in the art, and any coupling means which does not destroy the ability of an antibody and an L1 protein to bind to each other can be used.

[0055] A biological sample to be tested is contacted with the antibody or L1 multimer. The biological sample can be any sample suspected of comprising a human papillomavirus, such as a biopsy, smear, or tissue section of a tissue such as skin, cervix, anogenital epithelium, larynx, upper respiratory tract, conjunctiva, or tissues of the oral cavity.

[0056] The following examples are provided for exemplification purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

EXAMPLE 1

[0057] Expression of Soluble Human Papillomavirus L1 Pentamers

[0058] We expressed the L1 protein of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) as a recombinant product in E. coli. Specifically, we observed that a form containing residues 10 to 505 (where 505 is the C-terminus of L1) is soluble when overexpressed from a tac promoter in E. coli strain XA90. Soluble L1 protein remains in the supernatant after centrifugation in a table-top centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 5 minutes. Forms that start C-terminal to residue 13 are not soluble.

[0059] The L1 protein was overexpressed as a GST fusion protein, in which the GST segment of the fusion protein was coupled to the L1 segment using a protease sensitive site. A large fraction of the overexpressed L1 fusion protein is complexed with GroEL (an E. coli protein that is known to aid in folding) in a non-native state. To purify the fusion protein from the GroEL protein, cell lysates were treated with 2 mM ATP, 3.5 M urea, and 5 mM MgCl2. The cell lysate was then applied to a glutathione column and washed with 2.3 M urea to remove any additional GroEL. After the column was washed with buffer, a protease was added to cleave the protease sensitive site of the fusion protein. The L1 protein was then eluted from the column and further purified by gel filtration. This procedure yielded homogeneous, soluble L1 pentamers.

EXAMPLE 2

[0060] Crystallization of L1 Pentamers

[0061] Crystallization trials, using a standard variation of precipitants, pH, ionic strength, etc., resulted in crystals at low pH. Several crystal forms were obtained; all turned out to have unusually large unit cells, showing that we had crystallized an assembly of L1 pentamers.

[0062] X-ray crystallographic structure determination revealed that the assembly is a 12-pentamer (60-subunit) particle with icosahedral symmetry. Thus, under the crystallization conditions, a “small icosahedral particle” or “T=1 particle” is formed. Electron microscopy of the particles demonstrated that the T=1 icosahedral particle forms in solution at low pH (pH 4-5), at concentrations of L1 pentamer of 0.2 mg/ml or greater. Forms of L1 that start at the authentic N-terminus or that start before amino acid residue 10 do not form crystallizable T=1 icosahedral particles.

EXAMPLE 3

[0063] Structure of the L1 Pentamers

[0064] The structure of the L1 pentamer, assembled into T=1 icosahedral particles, was revealed by X-ray crystallography. The L1 subunit folds into a beta-roll domain, as found in many virus structures. The arrangement of the subunits in the pentamer resembles what has been seen in the pentamers of VP1 from SV40 and polyomavirus.

[0065] A segment of the polypeptide chain of one subunit (the segment denoted strand “G1”) contributes to a beta sheet (the “C-H-E-F” sheet) in the clockwise-related neighbor (viewed from the “outside” surface of the pentamer). The shape and packing of the subunits is such that the body of the pentamer resembles a pentagonal prism, with a conical hollow along the 5-fold axis that opens “inward” (that is, toward the surface that would face inward in the virus particle) and closes down to a diameter of about 12 angstroms at its narrowest point.

[0066] The C-terminal residues of each subunit project away from the body of the pentamer and interact with C-terminal residues from other pentamers around the icosahedral threefold axis of the T=1 particle. In SV40 and polyomavirus, the C-terminal 60-70 residues of each VP1 subunit project away from the body of the pentamer and “invade” neighboring pentamers, effectively tieing the virus particle together. In the HPV16 T=1 icosahedral particles we have crystallized, the C-terminally projecting arms do not invade other pentamers, but rather fold back into the subunit from which they emanated. It is possible that in the 72-pentamer shell of the HPV16 virion, the C-terminal arms in fact “invade” neighboring pentamers, as in SV40 and polyoma. At least at low pH, the papilloma L1 C-terminal arms do not “dangle” but rather “return” to their subunit of origin, so they form anchored projections that can interact in a threefold way to stabilize the T=1 particles.

EXAMPLE 4

[0067] Conserved and Non-Conserved Residues

[0068] We have examined the amino acid sequences of 49 different HPV types. The most variable amino-acid positions are in the various loops that project from the outward-facing surface of the L1 pentamer. The core of each subunit, the residues facing the lateral walls of the pentamer, and the residues facing the conical hollow and its constriction near the outside of the pentamer are all highly conserved. We believe that the conical hollow is the binding site for the other structural protein, L2 (by analogy with our results with polyoma VP2 and VP1) and that the conservation of residues that face into it has to do with a conserved L2 interaction.

[0069] The high variability of the outward-facing loops is clearly responsible for antigenic differences among HPV types and may also confer specificity for particular cell-surface receptors. There is a pocket at the outward-facing surface of the pentamer that might be a receptor interaction site, because its position is homologous to the position of the known receptor-binding site on polyoma VP1.

Claims

1. A method of immunizing a human against a human papillomavirus, comprising the step of:

administering to a human a composition which comprises a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein, wherein the L1 protein is truncated at its amino terminus, at a dose effective to induce an immune response against the L1 protein in the human.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the multimer of the human papillomavirus L1 protein is a T=1 icosahedral particle comprising at least one pentamer of L1 protein.

3. The method of claim 2 wherein the at least one pentamer of the human papillomavirus L1 protein comprises a human papillomavirus L2 protein.

4. The method of claim 1 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV 1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein the human papillomavirus is a human papillomavirus 16.

6. A method of detecting the presence of antibodies against a human papillomavirus in a biological sample, comprising the steps of:

contacting a biological sample with a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein, wherein the L1 protein is truncated at its amino terminus; and

detecting antibodies which bind to the multimer, wherein detection of antibodies which are bound to the multimer identifies the presence of antibodies against the human papillomavirus in the biological sample.

7. The method of claim 6 wherein the multimer is a T=1 icosahedral particle.

8. The method of claim 6 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

9. The method of claim 6 wherein the multimer is bound to a solid support.

10. The method of claim 6 wherein the multimer is in solution.

11. The method of claim 6 wherein the multimer comprises a detectable label.

12. A method of detecting a specific subtype of human papillomavirus in a biological sample, comprising the steps of:

contacting a biological sample with an antibody which specifically binds to an L1 protein of a specific subtype of human papillomavirus, wherein the L1 protein is truncated at its amino terminus; and

detecting L1 protein which is bound to the antibody, wherein detection of L1 protein which is bound to the antibody identifies the presence of the specific subtype of human papillomavirus in the biological sample.

13. The method of claim 12 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

14. The method of claim 12 wherein the human papillomavirus is HPV16.

15. The method of claim 12 wherein the antibody is bound to a solid support.

16. The method of claim 12 wherein the antibody is in solution.

17. The method of claim 12 wherein the antibody comprises a detectable label.

18. A solid support comprising a multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein, wherein the L1 protein is truncated at its amino terminus.

19. The solid support of claim 18 wherein the multimer is a T=1 icosahedral particle.

20. The solid support of claim 18 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

21. The solid support of claim 18 wherein the human papillomavirus is HPV16.

22. The solid support of claim 18 wherein the multimer comprises a detectable label.

23. A solid support comprising an antibody which specifically binds to an L1 protein of a specific human papillomavirus.

24. The solid support of claim 23 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

25. The solid support of claim 23 wherein the human papillomavirus is HPV18.

26. The solid support of claim 23 wherein the human papillomavirus is HPV16.

27. The solid support of claim 23 wherein the antibody comprises a detectable label.

28. A method of producing a soluble multimer of a human papillomavirus L1 protein, comprising the steps of:

expressing a recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein in a bacterial host cell, wherein the recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein comprises amino acids 13-505 as shown in SEQ ID NO:1; and

treating the recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein to remove bacterial host cell proteins, whereby a soluble multimer of the human papillomavirus L1 protein is formed.

29. The method of claim 28 wherein the human papillomavirus is selected from the group consisting of HPV1, HPV2, HPV3, HPV4, HPV5, HPV6, HPV7, HPV8, HPV9, HPV11, HPV12, HPV14, HPV15, HPV16, HPV17, HPV18, HPV19, HPV20, HPV21, HPV22, HPV23, HPV24, HPV25, HPV26, HPV27, HPV28, HPV29, HPV31, HPV33, HPV34, HPV35, HPV36, HPV37, HPV38, HPV42, HPV43, HPV44, HPV45, HPV51, HPV52, HPV56, HPV58, and HPV66.

30. The method of claim 28 wherein the human papillomavirus is a human papillomavirus type 16.

31. The method of claim 28 wherein the human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein is truncated by 12 consecutive amino acids at its amino terminus.

32. The method of claim 30 wherein the human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein is truncated by 11 consecutive amino acids at its amino terminus.

33. The method of claim 30 wherein the human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein is truncated by 10 consecutive amino acids at its amino terminus.

34. The method of claim 30 wherein the human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein is truncated by 9 consecutive amino acids at its amino terminus.

35. The method of claim 28 wherein the bacterial host cell is an E. coli cell.

36. The method of claim 28 wherein the step of treating removes GroEL protein from the expressed human papillomavirus L1 protein.

37. The method of claim 28 wherein the soluble multimer is a pentamer.

38. The method of claim 37 wherein twelve soluble pentamers of the human papillomavirus L1 protein are capable of associating to form a T=1 icosahedral particle.

39. The method of claim 38 wherein the T=1 icosahedral particle is stable at a pH above 4.5.

40. The method of claim 39 wherein the T=1 icosahedral particle is stable at neutral pH.

41. The method of claim 39 wherein the T=1 icosahedral particle is held together by means of crosslinking between soluble L1 pentamers.

42. The method of claim 41 wherein the T=1 icosahedral particle is held together by means of at least one disulfide bond.

43. The method of claim 28 wherein the soluble multimer of the human papillomavirus L1 protein comprises a human papillomavirus L2 protein.

44. The method of claim 28 wherein the recombinant human papillomavirus L1 protein comprises at least one cysteine residue.

45. A method of producing an T=1 icosahedral particle which comprises twelve pentamers of a human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein, comprising the steps of:

expressing a recombinant human papillomavirus 16 L1 protein in an E. coli cell, wherein the recombinant L1 protein is truncated by 9, 10, 11, or 12 consecutive amino acids at its amino terminus;

treating the recombinant L1 protein to remove GroEL protein, whereby soluble pentamers of L1 protein are formed; and

placing the soluble pentamers at pH 4-5 at a concentration of at least 0.2 mg/ml, whereby T=1 icosahedral particles comprising twelve L1 pentamers are formed.