Mutant luciferases

Abstract

The invention provides active, non-naturally occurring mutants of beetle luciferases and DNAs which encode such mutants. A mutant luciferase of the invention differs from the corresponding wild-type luciferase by producing bioluminescence with a wavelength of peak intensity that differs by at least 1 nm from the wavelength of peak intensity of the bioluminescence produced by the wild-type enzyme. The mutant luciferases and DNAs of the invention are employed in various biosensing applications.

Description

TECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] This invention generally relates to luciferase enzymes that produce luminescence, like that from fireflies. More particularly, the invention concerns mutant luciferases of beetles. The mutant luciferases of the invention are made by genetic engineering, do not occur in nature, and, in each case, include modifications which cause a change in color in the luminescence that is produced. The luciferases of the invention can be used, like their naturally occurring counterparts, to provide luminescent signals in tests or assays for various substances or phenomena.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The use of reporter molecules or labels to qualitatively or quantitatively monitor molecular events is well established. They are found in assays for medical diagnosis, for the detection of toxins and other substances in industrial environments, and for basic and applied research in biology, biomedicine, and biochemistry. Such assays include immunoassays, nucleic acid probe hybridization assays, and assays in which a reporter enzyme or other protein is produced by expression under control of a particular promoter. Reporter molecules, or labels in such assay systems, have included radioactive isotopes, fluorescent agents, enzymes and chemiluminescent agents.

[0003] Included in the assay system employing chemiluminescence to monitor or measure events of interest are assays which measure the activity of a bioluminescent enzyme, luciferase.

[0004] Light-emitting systems have been known and isolated from many luminescent organisms including bacteria, protozoa, coelenterates, molluscs, fish, millipedes, flies, fungi, worms, crustaceans, and beetles, particularly click beetles of genus Pyrophorus and the fireflies of the genera Photinus, Photuris, and Luciola. In many of these organisms, enzymes catalyze monooxygenations and utilize the resulting free energy to excite a molecule to a high energy state. Visible light is emitted when the excited molecule spontaneously returns to the ground state. This emitted light is called “bioluminescence.” Hereinafter it may also be referred to simply as “luminescence.”

[0005] The limited occurrence of natural bioluminescence is an advantage of using luciferase enzymes as reporter groups to monitor molecular events. Because natural bioluminescence is so rare, it is unlikely that light production from other biological processes will obscure the activity of a luciferase introduced into a biological system. Therefore, even in a complex environment, light detection will provide a clear indication of luciferase activity.

[0006] Luciferases possess additional features which render them particularly useful as reporter molecules for biosensing (using a reporter system to reveal properties of a biological system). Signal transduction in biosensors (sensors which comprise a bilogical component) generally involves a two step process: signal generation through a biological component, and signal transduction and amplification through an electrical component. Signal generation is typically achieved through binding or catalysis. Conversion of these biochemical events into an electrical signal is typically based on electrochemical or caloric detection methods, which are limited by the free energy change of the biochemical reactions. For most reactions this is less than the energy of hydrolysis for two molecules of ATP, or about 70 kJ/mole. However, the luminescence elicited by luciferases carries a much higher energy content. Photons emitted from the reaction catalyzed by firefly luciferase (560 nm) have 214 Kj/einstein. Furthermore, the reaction catalyzed by luciferase is one of the most efficient bioluminescent reactions known, having a quantum yield of nearly 0.9. This enzyme is therefore an extremely efficient transducer of chemical energy.

[0007] Since the earliest studies, beetle luciferases, particularly that from the common North American firefly species Photinus pyralis, have served as paradigms for understanding of bioluminescence. The fundamental knowledge and applications of luciferase have been based on a single enzyme, called “firefly luciferase,” derived from Photinus pyralis. However, there are roughly 1800 species of luminous beetles worldwide. Thus, the luciferase of Photinus pyralis is a single example of a large and diverse group of beetle luciferases. It is known that all beetle luciferases catalyze a reaction of the same substrate, a polyheterocyclic organic acid, D-(−)-2-(6′-hydroxy-2′-benzothiazolyl)-&Dgr;2-thiazoline-4-carboxylic acid (hereinafter referred to as “luciferin”, unless otherwise indicated), which is converted to a high energy molecule. It is likely that the catalyzed reaction entails the same mechanism in each case.

[0008] The general scheme involved in the mechanism of beetle bioluminescence appears to be one by which the production of light takes place after the oxidative decarboxylation of the luciferin, through interaction of the oxidized luciferin with the enzyme. The color of the light apparently is determined by the spatial organization of the enzyme's amino acids which interact with the oxidized luciferin.

[0009] The luciferase-catalyzed reaction which yields bioluminescence (hereinafter referred to simply as “the luciferase-luciferin reaction”) has been described as a two-step process involving luciferin, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and molecular oxygen. In the initial reaction, the luciferin and ATP react to form luciferyl adenylate with the elimination of inorganic pyrophosphate, as indicated in the following reaction:

E+LH2+ATPE·LH−AMP+PPi

[0010] where E is the luciferase, LH2 is luciferin, and PPi is pyrophosphate. The luciferyl adenylate, LH2−AMP, remains tightly bound to the catalytic site of luciferase. When this form of the enzyme is exposed to molecular oxygen, the enzyme-bound luciferyl adenylate is oxidized to yield oxyluciferin (L=0) in an electronically excited state. The excited oxidized luciferin emits light on returning to the ground state as indicated in the following reaction: 1

[0011] One quantum of light is emitted for each molecule of luciferin oxidized. The electronically excited state of the oxidized luciferin is a characteristic state of the luciferase-luciferin reaction of a beetle luciferase; the color (and, therefore, the energy) of the light emitted upon return of the oxidized luciferin to the ground state is determined by the enzyme, as evidenced by the fact that various species of beetles having the same luciferin emit differently colored light.

[0012] Luciferases have been isolated directly from various sources. The cDNAs encoding luciferases of various beetle species have been reported. (See de Wet et al., Molec. Cell. Biol 7, 725-737 (1987); Masuda et al., Gene 77, 265-270 (1989); Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989)). With the cDNA encoding a beetle luciferase in hand, it is entirely straightforward for the skilled to prepare large amounts of the luciferase by isolation from bacteria (e.g., E. coli), yeast, mammalian cells in culture, or the like, which have been transformed to express the cDNA. Alternatively, the cDNA, under control of an appropriate promoter and other signals for controlling expression, can be used in such a cell to provide luciferase, and ultimately bioluminescence catalyzed thereby, as a signal to indicate activity of the promoter. The activity of the promoter may, in turn, reflect another factor that is sought to be monitored, such as the concentration of a substance that induces or represses the activity of the promoter. Various cell-free systems, that have recently become available to make proteins from nucleic acids encoding them, can also be used to make beetle luciferases.

[0013] Further, the availability of cDNAS encoding beetle luciferases and the ability to rapidly screen for cDNAS that encode enzymes which catalyze the luciferase-luciferin reaction (see de Wet et al., supra and Wood et al., supra) also allow the skilled to prepare, and obtain in large amounts, other luciferases that retain activity in catalyzing production of bioluminescence through the luciferase-luciferin reaction. These other luciferases can also be prepared, and the cDNAs that encode them can also be used, as indicated in the previous paragraph. In the present disclosure, the term “beetle luciferase” or “luciferase” means an enzyme that is capable of catalyzing the oxidation of luciferin to yield bioluminescence, as outlined above.

[0014] The ready availability of cDNAS encoding beetle luciferases makes possible the use of the luciferases as reporters in assays employed to signal, monitor or measure genetic events associated with transcription and translation, by coupling expression of such a cDNA, and consequently production of the enzyme, to such genetic events.

[0015] Firefly luciferase has been widely used to detect promoter activity in eucaryotes. Though this enzyme has also been used in procaryotes, the utility of firefly luciferase as genetic reporter in bacteria is not commonly recognized. As genetic reporters, beetle luciferases are particularly useful since they are monomeric products of a single gene. In addition, no post-translational modifications are required for enzymatic activity, and the enzyme contains no prosthetic groups, bound cofactors, or disulfide bonds. Luminescence from E.coli containing the gene for firefly luciferase can be triggered by adding the substrate luciferin to the growth medium. Luciferin readily penetrates biological membranes and cannot be used as a carbon or nitrogen source by E.coli. The other substrates required for the bioluminescent reaction, oxygen and ATP, are available within living cells. However, measurable variations in luminescence color from luciferases would be needed for systems which utilize two or more different luciferases as reporters (signal geneators).

[0016] Clones of different beetle luciferases, particularly of a single genus or species, can be utilized together in bioluminescent reporter systems. Expression in exogenous hosts should differ little between these luciferases because of their close sequence similarity. Thus, in particular, the click beetle luciferases may provide a multiple reporter system that can allow the activity of two or more different promoters to be monitored within a single host, or for different populations of cells to be observed simultaneously. The ability to distinguish each of the luciferases in a mixture, however, is limited by the width of their emissions spectra.

[0017] One of the most spectacular examples of luminescence color variation occurs in Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus, a large click beetle indigenous to the Caribbean. This beetle has two sets of light organs, a pair on the dorsal surface of the prothorax, and a single organ in a ventral cleft of the abdomen. Four different luciferase clones have been isolated from the ventral organ. The luciferin-luciferase reactions catalyzed by these enzymes produces light that ranges from green to orange.

[0018] Spectral data from the luciferase-luciferin reaction catalyzed by these four luciferases show four overlapping peaks of nearly even spacing, emitting green (peak intensity: 546 nanometers), yellow-green (peak intensity: 560 nanometers), yellow (peak intensity: 578 nanometers) and orange (peak intensity: 593 nanometers) light. The respective proteins are named LucPplGR, LucPplYG, LucPplYE and LucPplOR. Though the wavelengths of peak intensity of the light emitted by these luciferases range over nearly 50 nm, there is still considerable overlap among the spectra, even those with peaks at 546 and 593 nm. Increasing the difference in wavelength of peak intensity would thus be useful to obtain greater measurement precision in systems using two or more luciferases.

[0019] The amino acid sequences of the four luciferases from the ventral organ are highly similar. Comparisons of the sequences show them to be 95 to 99% identical.

[0020] It would be desirable to enhance the utility of beetle luciferases for use in systems using multiple reporters to effect mutations in luciferase-encoding cDNAs to produce mutant luciferases which, in the luciferase-luciferin reaction, produce light with differences between wavelengths of peak intensity that are greater than those available using currently available luciferases.

[0021] Beetle luciferases are particularly suited for producing these mutant luciferases since color variation is a direct result of changes in the amino acid sequence.

[0022] Mutant luciferases of fireflies of genus Luciola are known in the art. Kajiyama et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,219,737 and 5,229,285.

[0023] In using luciferase expression in eukaryotic cells for biosensing, it would be desirable to reduce transport of the luciferase to peroxisomes. Sommer et al., Mol. Biol. Cell 3, 749-759 (1992), have described mutations in the three carboxy-terminal amino acids of P. pyralis luciferase that significantly reduce peroxisome-targeting of the enzyme.

[0024] The sequences of cDNAs enoding various beetle luciferases, and the amino acid sequences deduced from the cDNA sequences, are known, as indicated in Table I. 1 Luciferase Reference LucPplGR K. Wood, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego (1989), see also SEQ ID NO:1; Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989) LucPplYG K. Wood, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego (1989); Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989) LucPplYE K. Wood, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego (1989); Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989) LucPplOR K. Wood, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego (1989); Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989) Photinus pyralis de Wet et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 7, 725-737 (1987); K. Wood, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, San Diego (1989); Wood et al., Science 244, 700- 702 (1989) Luciola cruciata Kajiyama et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,229,285; Masuda et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,968,613 Luciola lateralis Kajiyama et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,229,285 Luciola mingrelica Devine et al., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1173, 121-132 (1993)

[0025] The cDNA and amino acid sequences of LucPplGR, the green-emitting luciferase of the elaterid beetle Pyrophorus plagiophthalamus, are shown in SEQ ID NO:1 (See FIG. 1).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0026] The present invention provides mutant luciferases of beetles and DNAs which encode the mutant luciferases. Preferably, the mutant luciferases produce a light of different color from that of the corresponding wild-type luciferase and preferably this difference in color is such that the wavelength of peak intensity of the luminescence of the mutant differs by at least 1 nm from that of the wild-type enzyme.

[0027] The mutant luciferases of the invention differ from the corresponding wild-type enzymes by one or more, but typically fewer than three, amino acid substitutions. The luciferases of the invention may also entail changes in one or more of the three carboxy-terminal amino acids to reduce peroxisome targeting.

[0028] In one surprising aspect of the invention, it has been discovered that combining in a single mutant two amino acid substitions, each of which, by itself, occasions a change in color (shift in wavelength of peak intensity) of bioluminescence, causes the mutant to have a shift in wavelength of peak intensity that is greater than either shift caused by the single amino acid substitutions.

[0029] cDNAs encoding the mutant luciferases of the invention may be obtained straightforwardly by any standard, site-directed mutagenesis procedure carried out with a cDNA encoding the corresponding wild-type enzyme or another mutant. The mutant luciferases of the invention can be made by standard procedures for expressing the cDNAs which encode them in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.

[0030] A fuller appreciation of the invention will be gained upon examination of the following detailed description of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0031] In the following description and examples, process steps are carried out and concentrations are measured at room temperature (about 20° C. to 25° C.) and atmospheric pressure unless otherwise specified.

[0032] All amino acids referred to in the specification, except the non-enantiomorphic glycine, are L-amino acids unless specified otherwise. An amino acid may be referred to using the one-letter or three-letter designation, as indicated in the following Table II. 2 TABLE II Designations for Amino Acids Three-Letter One-Letter Amino Acid Designation Designation L-alanine Ala A L-arginine Arg R L-asparagine Asn N L-aspartic acid Asp D L-cysteine Cys C L-glutamic acid Glu E L-glutamine Gln Q glycine Gly G L-histidine His H L-isoleucine Ile I L-leucine Leu L L-lysine Lys K L-methionine Met M L-phenylalanine Phe F L-proline Pro P L-serine Ser S L-threonine Thr T L-tryptophan Trp W L-tyrosine Tyr Y L-valine Val V

[0033] “X” means any one of the twenty amino acids listed in Table II.

[0034] Peptide or polypeptide sequences are written and numbered from the initiating methionine, which is numbered “1,” to the carboxy-terminal amino acid.

[0035] A substitution at a position in a polypeptide is indicated with [designation for original amino acid][position number][designation for replacing amino acid]. For example, substitution of an alanine at position 100 in a polypeptide with a glutamic acid would be indicated by Ala100Glu or A100E. Typically, the substitution will be preceded by a designation for the polypeptide in which the substitution occurs. For example, if the substitution A100E occurs in an hypothetical protein designated “Luck,” the substitution would be indicated as Luck-Ala100Glu or Luck-A100E. If there is more than one substitution in a polypeptide, the indications of the substitutions are separated by slashes. For example, if the hypothetical protein “Luck” has a substitution of glutamic acid for alanine at position 100 and a substitution of asparagine for lysine at position 150, the polypeptide with the substitutions would be indicated as Luck-Ala100Glu/Lys150Asn or Luck-A100E/K150N. To indicate different substitutions at a position in a polypeptide, the designations for the substituting amino acids are separated by commas. For example, if the hypothetical “Luck” has substitutions of glutamic acid, glycine or lysine for alanine at position 100, the designation would be Luck-Ala100/Glu, Gly, Lys or Luck-A100/E, G, K.

[0036] The standard, one-letter codes “A,” “C,” “G,” and “T” are used herein for the nucleotides adenylate, cytidylate, guanylate, and thymidylate, respectively. The skilled will understand that, in DNAs, the nucleotides are 2′-deoxyribonucleotide-5′-phosphates (or, at the 5′-end, triphosphates) while, in RNAs, the nucleotides are ribonucleotide-5′-phosphates (or, at the 5′-end, triphosphates) and uridylate (U) occurs in place of T. “N” means any one of the four nucleotides.

[0037] Oligonucleotide or polynucleotide sequences are written from the 5′-end to the 3′-end.

[0038] The term “mutant luciferase” is used herein to refer to a luciferase which is not naturally occurring and has an amino acid sequence that differs from those of naturally occurring luciferases.

[0039] In one of its aspects, the present invention is a mutant beetle luciferase which produces bioluminescence (i.e., catalyzes the oxidation of luciferin to produce bioluminescence) which has a shift in wavelength of peak intensity of at least 1 nm from the wavelength of peak intensity of the bioluminescence produced by the corresponding wild-type luciferase and has an amino acid sequence that differs from that of the corresponding wild-type luciferase by a substitution at one position or substitutions at two positions; provided that, if there is a substitution at one position, the position corresponds to a position in the amino acid sequence of LucPplGR selected from the group consisting of position 214, 215, 223, 224, 232, 236, 237, 238, 242, 244, 245, 247, 248, 282, 283 and 348; provided further that, if there are substitutions at two positions, at least one of the positions corresponds to a position in the amino acid sequence of LucPplGR selected from the group consisting of position 214, 215, 223, 224, 232, 236, 237, 238, 242, 244, 245, 247, 248, 282, 283 and 348; and provided that the mutant optionally has a peroxisome-targeting-avoiding sequence at its carboxy-terminus.

[0040] Exemplary mutant luciferases of the invention are those of the group consisting of LucPplGR-R215H, -R215G, -R215T, -R215M, -R215P, -R215A, -R215L, -R223L, -R223Q, -R223M, -R223H, -V224I, -V224S, -V224F, -V224Y, -V224L, -V224H, -V224G, -V232E, -V236H, -V236W, -Y237S, -Y237C, -L238R, -L238M, -L238Q, -L238S, -L238D, -H242A, -F244L, -G245S, -G245E, -S247H, -S247T, -S247Y, -S247F, -I248R, -I248V, -I248F, -I248T, -I248S, -I248N, -H348N, -H348Q, -H348E, -H348C, -S247F/F246L, -S247F/I248C, -S247F/I248T, -V224F/R215G, -V224F/R215T, -V224F/R215V, -V224F/R215P, -V224F/P222S, -V224F/Q227E, -V224F/L238V, -V224F/L238T, -V224F/S247G, -V224F/S247H, -V224F/S247T, and -V224F/S247F.

[0041] The following Table III shows spectral properties of these and other exemplary mutant luciferases. 3 TABLE III Protein Spectral Properties LucPplGR- peak shift width w.t. 545 0 72 V214S * Q * Y * K * L * G * C * E * F * P * H * R * R215H 562 17 82 Q 567 22 81 G 576 31 82 T 576 31 84 M 582 37 83 P 588 43 91 S * Y * K * L * C * E * F * R223L 549 4 75 Q 549 4 73 R223M 549 4 75 H 551 6 75 S * Y * K * G * C * E * F * P * V224I 546 1 75 S 556 11 70 F 561 16 84 Y 565 20 87 L 578 33 94 H 584 39 69 G 584 39 70 V232E 554 9 83 V236H 554 9 74 W 554 9 74 Y237S 553 8 73 C 554 9 74 L238R 544 −1 72 M 555 10 75 Q 557 12 76 S 559 14 73 D 568 23 76 H242A 559 14 75 H242S 561 16 74 F244L 555 10 73 G245S 558 13 75 E 574 29 79 S247H 564 19 72 Y 566 21 79 F 569 24 84 I248R 544 −1 72 V 546 1 72 F 548 3 74 T 554 9 75 S 558 13 80 N 577 32 90 H348A 592 47 67 C 593 48 66 N 597 52 67 Q 605 60 72 V214C/V224A 559 14 72 S247F/F246L 567 22 79 S247F/I248C 586 41 84 S247F/I248T 596 51 80 T233A/L238M 555 10 75 V282I/I283V 563 3 73 V224F/R215G 584 39 80 V224F/R215T 587 42 80 V224F/R215V 589 44 80 V224F/R215P 597 52 81 V224F/P222S 564 3 86 V224F/Q227E 583 38 85 V224F/L238V 575 30 85 V224F/L238M 576 31 87 V224F/S247G 581 36 84 V224F/S247H 581 36 79 V224F/S247Y 595 50 88 V224F/S247F 597 52 85 *Spectral shift (≧2 nm) observed by eye.

[0042] “Corresponding positions” in luciferases other than LucPplGR can be determined either from alignments at the amino acid level that are already known in the art (see, e.g., Wood et al., Science 244, 700-702 (1989); Devine et al., Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 1173, 121-132(1993)) or by simply aligning at the amino acid level to maximize alignment of identical or conservatively substituted residues, and keeping in mind in particular that amino acids 195-205 in the LucPplGR sequence are very highly conserved in all beetle luciferases and that there are no gaps for more than 300 positions after that highly conserved 11-mer in any beetle luciferase aminio acid sequence.

[0043] A “peroxisome-targeting-avoiding sequence at its carboxy-terminus” means (1) the three carboxy-terminal amino acids of the corresponding wild-type luciferase are entirely missing from the mutant; or (2) the three carboxy-terminal amino acids of the corresponding wild-type luciferase are replaced with a sequence, of one, two or three amino acids that, in accordance with Sommer et al., supra, will reduce peroxisome-targeting by at least 50%. If the three carboxy-terminal amino acids of the wild-type luciferase are replaced by a three-amino-acid peroxisome-targeting-avoiding sequence in the mutant, and if the sequence in the mutant is X1X2X3, where X3 is carboxy-terminal, than X1 is any of the twenty amino acids except A, C, G, H, N, P, Q, T and S, X2 is any of the twenty amino acids except H, M, N, Q, R, S and K, and X3 is any of the twenty amino acids except I, M, Y and L. Further, any one or two, or all three, of X1, X2, and X3 could be absent from the mutant (i.e., no amino acid corresponding to the position). The most preferred peroxisome-targeting-avoiding sequence is IAV, where V is at the carboxy-terminus.

[0044] In another of its aspects, the invention entails a combination of luciferases, in a cell (eukaryotic or prokaryotic), a solution (free or linked as a reporter to an antibody, antibody-fragment, nucleic acid probe, or the like), or adhererd to a solid surface, optionally through an antibody, antibody fragment or nucleic acid, and exposed to a solution, provided that at least one of the luciferases is a mutant, both of the luciferases remain active in producing bioluminescence, and the wavelengths of peak intensities of the bioluminescence of the luciferases differ because the amino acid sequences of the luciferases differ at at least one of the positions corresponding to positions 214, 215, 223, 224, 232, 236, 237, 238, 242, 244, 245, 247, 248, 282, 283 and 348 in the amino acid sequence of LucPplGR, provided that one or both of the luciferases optionally have peroxisome-targeting-avoiding sequences.

[0045] In another of its aspects, the invention entails a DNA molecule, which may be an eukaryotic or prokaryotic expression vector, which comprises a segment which has a sequence which encodes a mutant beetle luciferase of the invention.

[0046] Most preferred among the DNAs of the invention are those with segments which encode a preferred mutant luciferase of the invention.

[0047] From the description of the invention provided herein, the skilled will recognize many modifications and variations of what has been described that are within the spirit of the invention. It is intended that such modifications and variations also be understood as part of the invetion.

Claims

1. An isolated DNA molecule comprising a segment having a sequence which encodes a synthetic mutant beetle luciferase comprising an amino acid sequence that differs from that of the corresponding wild-type luciferase by at least one amino acid substitution, the position of the amino acid substitution corresponding to a position in the amino acid sequence of LucPplGR of SEQ ID NO:2 selected from the group consisting of position 215, 224, 238, 242, 247 and 348, wherein the mutant luciferase produces bioluminescence having a shift in wavelength of peak intensity of at least 1 nanometer relative to the bioluminescence produced by the wild-type luciferase, wherein for the encoded amino acid sequence, the corresponding wild-type luciferase is LucPplGR of SEQ ID NO:2, and wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luciferase includes an amino acid substitution selected from the group consisting of LucPplGR-R215Q, -R215S, -R215Y, -R215K, -R215C, -R215E, -R215F, -H242S, -H348A, -V224F/L238M, and -V224F/S247Y.

2. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded mutant luciferase has one amino acid substitution.

3. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded mutant luciferase has two amino acid substitutions.

4. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215Q.

5. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215S.

6. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215Y.

7. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215K.

8. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215C.

9. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215E.

10. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-R215F.

11. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-H242S.

12. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-H348A.

13. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-V224F/L238M.

14. An isolated DNA molecule according to claim 1, wherein the encoded synthetic mutant luceriferase is LucPplGR-V224F/S247Y.

15. An isolated DNA molecule comprising a segment having a sequence which encodes a mutant beetle luciferase having an amino acid sequence that differs from that of the corresponding wild-type luciferase LucPplGR by at least one amino acid substitution, wherein the encoded mutant luciferase is selected from the group consisting of LucPplGR-R215Q, -R215S, -R215Y, -R215K, -R215C, -R215E, -R215F, -H242S, -H238A, -V224F/L238M, and -V224F/S247Y and the encoded mutant luciferase produces bioluminescence having a shift in wavelength of peak intensity of at least 1 nanometer relative to the bioluminescence produced by the wild-type luciferase.