MICROORGANISMS FOR PRODUCING 1,4-BUTANEDIOL AND METHODS RELATED THERETO

Abstract

The invention provides non-naturally occurring microbial organisms comprising a 1,4-butanediol (BDO), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutanal or putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutanal or putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutanal or putrescine and further optimized for expression of BDO. The invention additionally provides methods of using such microbial organisms to produce BDO, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutanal or putrescine.

Description

This application claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 61/500,120, filed Jun. 22, 2011, and U.S. Provisional application Ser. No. 61/502,837, filed Jun. 29, 2011, each of which the entire contents are incorporated herein by reference.

Incorporated herein by reference is the Sequence Listing being concurrently submitted via EFS-Web as an ASCII text file named 12956-144-999 SEQLIST.TXT, created Jun. 21, 2012, and being 227,850 bytes in size.

This invention relates generally to in silico design of organisms and engineering of organisms, more particularly to organisms having 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutanal or putrescine biosynthesis capability.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The compound 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-hydroxybutanoate, 4-hydroxybutyrate, 4-HB) is a 4-carbon carboxylic acid that has industrial potential as a building block for various commodity and specialty chemicals. In particular, 4-HB has the potential to serve as a new entry point into the 1,4-butanediol family of chemicals, which includes solvents, resins, polymer precursors, and specialty chemicals. 1,4-Butanediol (BDO) is a polymer intermediate and industrial solvent. BDO is currently produced from petrochemical precursors, primarily acetylene, maleic anhydride, and propylene oxide.

For example, acetylene is reacted with 2 molecules of formaldehyde in the Reppe synthesis reaction (Kroschwitz and Grant, Encyclopedia of Chem. Tech., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1999)), followed by catalytic hydrogenation to form 1,4-butanediol. It has been estimated that 90% of the acetylene produced in the U.S. is consumed for butanediol production. Alternatively, it can be formed by esterification and catalytic hydrogenation of maleic anhydride, which is derived from butane. Downstream, butanediol can be further transformed; for example, by oxidation to γ-butyrolactone, which can be further converted to pyrrolidone and N-methyl-pyrrolidone, or hydrogenolysis to tetrahydrofuran. These compounds have varied uses as polymer intermediates, solvents, and additives, and have a combined market of nearly 2 billion lb/year.

It is desirable to develop a method for production of these chemicals by alternative means that not only substitute renewable for petroleum-based feedstocks, and also use less energy- and capital-intensive processes. The Department of Energy has proposed 1,4-diacids, and particularly succinic acid, as key biologically-produced intermediates for the manufacture of the butanediol family of products (DOE Report, “Top Value-Added Chemicals from Biomass”, 2004). However, succinic acid is costly to isolate and purify and requires high temperatures and pressures for catalytic reduction to butanediol.

Thus, there exists a need for alternative means for effectively producing commercial quantities of 1,4-butanediol and its chemical precursors. The present invention satisfies this need and provides related advantages as well.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides non-naturally occurring microbial organisms containing a 1,4-butanediol (BDO), 4-hydroxybutanal (4-HBal), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (4-HBCoA) and/or putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO, 4-HBal and/or putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine. The microbial organisms can be further optimized for expression of BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine. The invention additionally provides methods of using such microbial organisms to produce BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing biochemical pathways to 4-hydroxybutyurate (4-HB) and to 1,4-butanediol production. The first 5 steps are endogenous to E. coli, while the remainder can be expressed heterologously. Enzymes catalyzing the biosynthetic reactions are: (1) succinyl-CoA synthetase; (2) CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase or succinate reductase; (3) α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase; (4) glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase; (5) glutamate decarboxylase; (6) CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (7) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (8) α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; (9) 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; (10) butyrate kinase; (11) phosphotransbutyrylase; (12) aldehyde dehydrogenase; (13) alcohol dehydrogenase.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram showing homoserine biosynthesis in E. coli.

FIG. 3 shows the production of 4-HB in glucose minimal medium using E. coli strains harboring plasmids expressing various combinations of 4-HB pathway genes. (a) 4-HB concentration in culture broth; (b) succinate concentration in culture broth; (c) culture OD, measured at 600 nm. Clusters of bars represent the 24 hour, 48 hour, and 72 hour (if measured) timepoints. The codes along the x-axis indicate the strain/plasmid combination used. The first index refers to the host strain: 1, MG1655 lacI^Q; 2, MG1655 ΔgabD lacI^Q; 3, MG1655 AgabD ΔaldA lacI^Q. The second index refers to the plasmid combination used: 1, pZE13-0004-0035 and pZA33-0036; 2, pZE13-0004-0035 and pZA33-0010n; 3, pZE13-0004-0008 and pZA33-0036; 4, pZE13-0004-0008 and pZA33-0010n; 5, Control vectors pZE13 and pZA33.

FIG. 4 shows the production of 4-HB from glucose in E. coli strains expressing α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Strains 1-3 contain pZE13-0032 and pZA33-0036. Strain 4 expresses only the empty vectors pZE13 and pZA33. Host strains are as follows: 1 and 4, MG1655 lacI^Q; 2, MG1655 AgabD lacI^Q; 3, MG1655 ΔgabD ΔaldA lacI^Q. The bars refer to concentration at 24 and 48 hours.

FIG. 5 shows the production of BDO from 10 mM 4-HB in recombinant E. coli strains. Numbered positions correspond to experiments with MG1655 lacI^Q containing pZA33-0024, expressing cat2 from P. gingivalis, and the following genes expressed on pZE13: 1, none (control); 2, 0002; 3, 0003; 4, 0003n; 5, 0011; 6, 0013; 7, 0023; 8, 0025; 9, 0008n; 10, 0035. Gene numbers are defined in Table 6. For each position, the bars refer to aerobic, microaerobic, and anaerobic conditions, respectively. Microaerobic conditions were created by sealing the culture tubes but not evacuating them.

FIG. 6 shows the mass spectrum of 4-HB and BDO produced by MG1655 lacI^Q pZE13-0004-0035-0002 pZA33-0034-0036 grown in M9 minimal medium supplemented with 4 g/L unlabeled glucose (a, c, e, and g) uniformly labeled ¹³C-glucose (b, d, f, and h). (a) and (b), mass 116 characteristic fragment of derivatized BDO, containing 2 carbon atoms; (c) and (d), mass 177 characteristic fragment of derivatized BDO, containing 1 carbon atom; (e) and (f), mass 117 characteristic fragment of derivatized 4-HB, containing 2 carbon atoms; (g) and (h), mass 233 characteristic fragment of derivatized 4-HB, containing 4 carbon atoms.

FIG. 7 is a schematic process flow diagram of bioprocesses for the production of γ-butyrolactone. Panel (a) illustrates fed-batch fermentation with batch separation and panel (b) illustrates fed-batch fermentation with continuous separation.

FIGS. 8A and 8B show exemplary 1,4-butanediol (BDO) pathways. FIG. 8A shows BDO pathways from succinyl-CoA. FIG. 8B shows BDO pathways from alpha-ketoglutarate.

FIGS. 9A-9C show exemplary BDO pathways. FIGS. 9A and 9B show pathways from 4-aminobutyrate. FIG. 9C shows a pathway from acetoactyl-CoA to 4-aminobutyrate.

FIG. 10 shows exemplary BDO pathways from alpha-ketoglutarate.

FIG. 11 shows exemplary BDO pathways from glutamate.

FIG. 12 shows exemplary BDO pathways from acetoacetyl-CoA.

FIG. 13 shows exemplary BDO pathways from homoserine.

FIG. 14 shows the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of E. coli succinyl-CoA synthetase. FIG. 14A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:46) of the E. coli sucCD operon. FIGS. 14B (SEQ ID NO:47) and 14C (SEQ ID NO:48) show the amino acid sequences of the succinyl-CoA synthetase subunits encoded by the sucCD operon.

FIG. 15 shows the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of Mycobacterium bovis alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase. FIG. 15A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:49) of Mycobacterium bovis sucA gene. FIG. 15B shows the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:50) of M. bovis alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase.

FIG. 16 shows biosynthesis in E. coli of 4-hydroxybutyrate from glucose in minimal medium via alpha-ketoglutarate under anaerobic (microaerobic) conditions. The host strain is ECKh-401. The experiments are labeled based on the upstream pathway genes present on the plasmid pZA33 as follows: 1) 4hbd-sucA; 2) sucCD-sucD-4hbd; 3) sucCD-sucD-4hbd-sucA.

FIG. 17 shows biosynthesis in E. coli of 4-hydroxybutyrate from glucose in minimal medium via succinate and alpha-ketoglutarate. The host strain is wild-type MG1655. The experiments are labeled based on the genes present on the plasmids pZE13 and pZA33 as follows: 1) empty control vectors 2) empty pZE13, pZA33-4hbd; 3) pZE13-sucA, pZA33-4hbd.

FIG. 18A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:51) of CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (sucD) from Porphyromonas gingivalis, and FIG. 18B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:52).

FIG. 19A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:53) of 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (4-hbd) from Porphyromonas gingivalis, and FIG. 19B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:54).

FIG. 20A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:55) of 4-hydroxybutyrate CoA transferase (cat2) from Porphyromonas gingivalis, and FIG. 20B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:56).

FIG. 21A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:57) of phosphotransbutyrylase (ptb) from Clostridium acetobutylicum, and FIG. 21B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:58).

FIG. 22A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:59) of butyrate kinase (buk1) from Clostridium acetobutylicum, and FIG. 22B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:60).

FIG. 23 shows alternative nucleotide sequences for C. acetobutylicum 020 (phosphtransbutyrylase) with altered codons for more prevalent E. coli codons relative to the C. acetobutylicum native sequence. FIGS. 23A-23D (020A-020D, SEQ ID NOS:61-64, respectively) contain sequences with increasing numbers of rare E. coli codons replaced by more prevalent codons (A<B<C<D).

FIG. 24 shows alternative nucleotide sequences for C. acetobutylicum 021 (butyrate kinase) with altered codons for more prevalent E. coli codons relative to the C. acetobutylicum native sequence. FIGS. 24A-24D (021A-021B, SEQ ID NOS:65-68, respectively) contain sequences with increasing numbers of rare E. coli codons replaced by more prevalent codons (A<B<C<D).

FIG. 25 shows improved expression of butyrate kinase (BK) and phosphotransbutyrylase (PTB) with optimized codons for expression in E. coli. FIG. 25A shows sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) stained for proteins with Coomassie blue; lane 1, control vector with no insert; lane 2, expression of C. acetobutylicum native sequences in E. coli; lane 3, expression of 020B-021B codon optimized PTB-BK; lane 4, expression of 020C-021C codon optimized PTB-BK. The positions of BK and PTB are shown. FIG. 25B shows the BK and PTB activities of native C. acetobutylicum sequence (2021n) compared to codon optimized 020B-021B (2021B) and 020C-021C (2021C).

FIG. 26 shows production of BDO and gamma-butyrylactone (GBL) in various strains expressing BDO producing enzymes: Cat2 (034); 2021n; 2021B; 2021C.

FIG. 27A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:69) of the native Clostridium biejerinckii ald gene (025n), and FIG. 27B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:70).

FIGS. 28A-28D show alternative gene sequences for the Clostridium beijerinckii ald gene (025A-025D, SEQ ID NOS:71-74, respectively), in which increasing numbers of rare codons are replaced by more prevalent codons (A<B<C<D).

FIG. 29 shows expression of native C. beijerinckii ald gene and codon optimized variants; no ins (control with no insert), 025n, 025A, 025B, 025C, 025D.

FIG. 30 shows BDO or BDO and ethanol production in various strains. FIG. 30 shows BDO production in strains containing the native C. beijerinckii ald gene (025n) or variants with optimized codons for expression in E. coli (025A-025D). FIG. 30B shows production of ethanol and BDO in strains expressing the C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 enzyme (002C) compared to the codon optimized variant 025B. The third set shows expression of P. gingivalis sucD (035). In all cases, P. gingivalis Cat2 (034) is also expressed.

FIG. 31A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:75) of the adh1 gene from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius, and FIG. 31B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:76).

FIG. 32A shows the expression of the Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius adh1 gene in E. coli. Either whole cell lysates or supernatants were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and stained with Coomassie blue for plasmid with no insert, plasmid with 083 (Geotrichum capitatum N-benzyl-3-pyrrolidinol dehydrogenase) and plasmid with 084 (Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius adh1) inserts. FIG. 32B shows the activity of 084 with butyraldehyde (diamonds) or 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde (squares) as substrates.

FIG. 33 shows the production of BDO in various strains: plasmid with no insert; 025B, 025B-026n; 025B-026A; 025B-026B; 025B-026C; 025B-050; 025B-052; 025B-053; 025B-055; 025B-057; 025B-058; 025B-071; 025B-083; 025B-084; PTSlacO-025B; PTSlacO-025B-026n.

FIG. 34 shows a plasmid map for the vector pRE118-V2.

FIG. 35 shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO:77) of the ECKh-138 region encompassing the aceF and lpdA genes. The K. pneumonia lpdA gene is underlined, and the codon changed in the Glu354Lys mutant shaded.

FIG. 36 shows the protein sequence comparison of the native E. coli lpdA (SEQ ID NO:78) and the mutant K. pneumonia lpdA (SEQ ID NO:79).

FIG. 37 shows 4-hydroxybutyrate (left bars) and BDO (right bars) production in the strains AB3, MG1655 ΔldhA and ECKh-138. All strains expressed E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd on the medium copy plasmid pZA33, and P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 on the high copy plasmid pZE13.

FIG. 38 shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:80) of the 5′ end of the aceE gene fused to the pflB-p6 promoter and ribosome binding site (RBS). The 5′ italicized sequence shows the start of the aroP gene, which is transcribed in the opposite direction from the pdh operon. The 3′ italicized sequence shows the start of the aceE gene. In upper case: pflB RBS. Underlined: FNR binding site. In bold: pflB-p6 promoter sequence.

FIG. 39 shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:81) in the aceF-lpdA region in the strain ECKh-456.

FIG. 40 shows the production of 4-hydroxybutyrate, BDO and pyruvate (left to right bars, respectively) for each of strains ECKh-439, ECKh-455 and ECKh-456.

FIG. 41A shows a schematic of the recombination sites for deletion of the mdh gene. FIG. 41B shows the sequence (nucleotide sequence, SEQ ID NO: 82; amino acid sequence, SEQ ID NO: 83) of the PCR product of the amplification of chloramphenicol resistance gene (CAT) flanked by FRT sites and homology regions from the mdh gene from the plasmid pKD3.

FIG. 42 shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO:84) of the arcA deleted region in strain ECKh-401.

FIG. 43 shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO:85) of the region encompassing a mutated gltA gene of strain ECKh-422.

FIG. 44 shows the citrate synthase activity of wild type gltA gene product and the R163L mutant. The assay was performed in the absence (diamonds) or presence of 0.4 mM NADH (squares).

FIG. 45 shows the 4-hydroxybutyrate (left bars) and BDO (right bars) production in strains ECKh-401 and ECKh-422, both expressing genes for the complete BDO pathway on plasmids.

FIG. 46 shows central metabolic fluxes and associated 95% confidence intervals from metabolic labeling experiments. Values are molar fluxes normalized to a glucose uptake rate of 1 mmol/hr. The result indicates that carbon flux is routed through citrate synthase in the oxidative direction and that most of the carbon enters the BDO pathway rather than completing the TCA cycle.

FIG. 47 shows extracellular product formation for strains ECKh-138 and ECKh-422, both expressing the entire BDO pathway on plasmids. The products measured were acetate (Ace), pyruvate (Pyr), 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB), 1,4-butanediol (BDO), ethanol (EtOH), and other products, which include gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), succinate, and lactate.

FIG. 48 shows the sequence (SEQ ID NO:86) of the region following replacement of PEP carboxylase (ppc) by H. influenzae phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (pepck). The pepck coding region is underlined.

FIG. 49 shows growth of evolved pepCK strains grown in minimal medium containing 50 mM NaHCO₃.

FIG. 50 shows product formation in strain ECKh-453 expressing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald on the plasmid pZS*13. The products measured were 1,4-butanediol (BDO), pyruvate, 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB), acetate, γ-butyrolactone (GBL) and ethanol.

FIG. 51 shows BDO production of two strains, ECKh-453 and ECKh-432. Both contain the plasmid pZS*13 expressing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald. The cultures were grown under microaerobic conditions, with the vessels punctured with 27 or 18 gauge needles, as indicated.

FIG. 52 shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:87) of the genomic DNA of strain ECKh-426 in the region of insertion of a polycistronic DNA fragment containing a promoter, sucCD gene, sucD gene, 4hbd gene and a terminator sequence.

FIG. 53 shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:88) of the chromosomal region of strain ECKh-432 in the region of insertion of a polycistronic sequence containing a promoter, sucA gene, C. kluyveri 4hbd gene and a terminator sequence.

FIG. 54 shows BDO synthesis from glucose in minimal medium in the ECKh-432 strain having upstream BDO pathway encoding genes intergrated into the chromosome and containing a plasmid harboring downstream BDO pathway genes.

FIG. 55 shows a PCR product (SEQ ID NO:89) containing the non-phosphotransferase (non-PTS) sucrose utilization genes flanked by regions of homology to the rrnC region.

FIG. 56 shows a schematic diagram of the integrations site in the rrnC operon.

FIG. 57 shows average product concentration, normalized to culture OD600, after 48 hours of growth of strain ECKh-432 grown on glucose and strain ECKh-463 grown on sucrose. Both contain the plasmid pZS*13 expressing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald. The data is for 6 replicate cultures of each strain. The products measured were 1,4-butanediol (BDO), 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB), γ-butyrolactone (GBL), pyruvate (PYR) and acetate (ACE) (left to right bars, respectively).

FIG. 58 shows exemplary pathways to 1,4-butanediol from succcinyl-CoA and alpha-ketoglutarate. Abbreviations: A) Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), B) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, C) 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, D) 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase, E) 1,4-Butanediol dehydrogenase.

FIG. 59A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:90) of carboxylic acid reductase from Nocardia iowensis (GNM_—720), and FIG. 59B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:91).

FIG. 60A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:92) of phosphpantetheine transferase, which was codon optimized, and FIG. 60B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:93).

FIG. 61 shows a plasmid map of plasmid pZS*-13S-720 721opt.

FIGS. 62A and 62B show pathways to 1,4-butanediol from succinate, succcinyl-CoA, and alpha-ketoglutarate. Abbreviations: A) Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), B) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, C) 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, D) 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase, E) 1,4-Butanediol dehydrogenase, F) Succinate reductase, G) Succinyl-CoA transferase, H) Succinyl-CoA hydrolase, I) Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or Succinyl-CoA ligase), J) Glutamate dehydrogenase, K) Glutamate transaminase, L) Glutamate decarboxylase, M) 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase, N) 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, O) 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase, P) Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, Q) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), R) 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase, S) Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), T) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, U) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, V) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase (or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase), W) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), X) Alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, Y) 5-Hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase, Z) 5-Hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase, AA) 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (decarboxylation).

FIG. 63 shows pathways to putrescine from succinate, succcinyl-CoA, and alpha-ketoglutarate. Abbreviations: A) Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), B) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, C) 4-Aminobutyrate reductase, D) Putrescine dehydrogenase, E) Putrescine transaminase, F) Succinate reductase, G) Succinyl-CoA transferase, H) Succinyl-CoA hydrolase, I) Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or Succinyl-CoA ligase), J) Glutamate dehydrogenase, K) Glutamate transaminase, L) Glutamate decarboxylase, M) 4-Aminobutyrate dehydrogenase, N) 4-Aminobutyrate transaminase, O) Alpha-ketoglutarate reductase, P) 5-Amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase, Q) 5-Amino-2-oxopentanoate transaminase, R) 5-Amino-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase, S) Ornithine dehydrogenase, T) Ornithine transaminase, U) Ornithine decarboxylase.

FIG. 64A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:94) of carboxylic acid reductase from Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 (designated 890), and FIG. 64B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:95).

FIG. 65A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:96) of carboxylic acid reductase from Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis K-10 (designated 891), and FIG. 65B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:97).

FIG. 66A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:98) of carboxylic acid reductase from Mycobacterium marinum M (designated 892), and FIG. 66B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:99).

FIG. 67A shows the nucleotide sequence (SEQ ID NO:100) of carboxylic acid reductase designated 891GA, and FIG. 67B shows the encoded amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:101).

FIG. 68 shows the reverse TCA cycle for fixation of CO₂ on carbohydrates as substrates. The enzymatic transformations are carried out by the enzymes as shown.

FIG. 69 shows the pathway for the reverse TCA cycle coupled with carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and hydrogenase for the conversion of syngas to acetyl-CoA.

FIG. 70 shows Western blots of 10 micrograms ACS90 (lane 1), ACS91 (lane 2), Mta98/99 (lanes 3 and 4) cell extracts with size standards (lane 5) and controls of M. thermoacetica CODH (Moth_—1202/1203) or Mtr (Moth_—1197) proteins (50, 150, 250, 350, 450, 500, 750, 900, and 1000 ng).

FIG. 71 shows CO oxidation assay results. Cells (M. thermoacetica or E. coli with the CODH/ACS operon; ACS90 or ACS91 or empty vector: pZA33S) were grown and extracts prepared. Assays were performed at 55° C. at various times on the day the extracts were prepared. Reduction of methylviologen was followed at 578 nm over a 120 sec time course.

FIGS. 72A and 72B show exemplary pathways to 1,4-butanediol. FIG. 72A shows the pathways for fixation of CO2 to acetyl-CoA using the reductive TCA cycle. FIG. 72B shows exemplary pathways for the biosynthesis of 1,4-butanediol and 4-hydroxybutyrate from acetyl-CoA; the enzymatic transformations shown are carried out by the following enzymes: 1) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (AtoB), 2) 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (Hbd), 3) Crotonase (Crt), 4) Crotonyl-CoA hydratase (4-Budh), 5) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 6) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), 7) 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase, 8) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase, and 9) 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase.

FIGS. 73A and 73B show exemplary pathways to 4-hydroxybutyrate and gamma-butyrolactone. FIG. 73A shows the pathways for fixation of CO2 to acetyl-CoA using the reductive TCA cycle. FIG. 73B shows exemplary pathways for the biosynthesis of gamma-butyrolactone and 4-hydroxybutyrate from acetyl-CoA; the enzymatic transformations shown are carried out by the following enzymes: 1) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (AtoB), 2) 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (Hbd), 3) Crotonase (Crt), 4) Crotonyl-CoA hydratase (4-Budh), 5) 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, hydrolase or synthetase, 6) Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 7) 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase, 8) spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed, and 9) spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed.

FIGS. 74A and 74B show exemplary pathways to 1,4-butanediol and gamma-butyrolactone. FIG. 74A shows the pathways for fixation of CO2 to alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate and succinyl-CoA using the reductive TCA cycle. FIG. 74B shows exemplary pathways for the biosynthesis of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and gamma-butyrolactone from alpha-ketoglutarate, succinate and succinyl-CoA; the enzymatic transformations shown are carried out by the following enzymes: A. Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase), B. Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), C. 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, D. 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase, E. Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, F. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming), G. 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase, H. Succinate reductase, I. Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), J. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, K. 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase, L. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase, M. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), N. Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase), O. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to the design and production of cells and organisms having biosynthetic production capabilities for 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB), γ-butyrolactone, 1,4-butanediol (BDO), 4-hydroxybutanal (4-HBal), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (4-HBCoA) and/or putrescine. The invention, in particular, relates to the design of microbial organisms capable of producing BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine by introducing one or more nucleic acids encoding a BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine pathway enzyme.

In one embodiment, the invention utilizes in silico stoichiometric models of Escherichia coli metabolism that identify metabolic designs for biosynthetic production of 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB), 1,4-butanediol (BDO), 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine. The results described herein indicate that metabolic pathways can be designed and recombinantly engineered to achieve the biosynthesis of 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA or 4-HB and downstream products such as 1,4-butanediol or putrescine in Escherichia coli and other cells or organisms. Biosynthetic production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine, for example, for the in silico designs can be confirmed by construction of strains having the designed metabolic genotype. These metabolically engineered cells or organisms also can be subjected to adaptive evolution to further augment 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine biosynthesis, including under conditions approaching theoretical maximum growth.

In certain embodiments, the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine biosynthesis characteristics of the designed strains make them genetically stable and particularly useful in continuous bioprocesses. Separate strain design strategies were identified with incorporation of different non-native or heterologous reaction capabilities into E. coli or other host organisms leading to 4-HB and 1,4-butanediol producing metabolic pathways from either CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase or succinate reductase, succinyl-CoA synthetase and CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase. In silico metabolic designs were identified that resulted in the biosynthesis of 4-HB in both E. coli and yeast species from each of these metabolic pathways. The 1,4-butanediol intermediate γ-butyrolactone can be generated in culture by spontaneous cyclization under conditions at pH<7.5, particularly under acidic conditions, such as below pH 5.5, for example, pH<7, pH<6.5, pH<6, and particularly at pH<5.5 or lower.

Strains identified via the computational component of the platform can be put into actual production by genetically engineering any of the predicted metabolic alterations which lead to the biosynthetic production of 4-HB, 1,4-butanediol or other intermediate and/or downstream products. In yet a further embodiment, strains exhibiting biosynthetic production of these compounds can be further subjected to adaptive evolution to further augment product biosynthesis. The levels of product biosynthesis yield following adaptive evolution also can be predicted by the computational component of the system.

In other specific embodiments, microbial organisms were constructed to express a 4-HB biosynthetic pathway encoding the enzymatic steps from succinate to 4-HB and to 4-HB-CoA. Co-expression of succinate coenzyme A transferase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, NAD-dependent 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyrate coenzyme A transferase in a host microbial organism resulted in significant production of 4-HB compared to host microbial organisms lacking a 4-HB biosynthetic pathway. In a further specific embodiment, 4-HB-producing microbial organisms were generated that utilized α-ketoglutarate as a substrate by introducing nucleic acids encoding α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and NAD-dependent 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase.

In another specific embodiment, microbial organisms containing a 1,4-butanediol (BDO) biosynthetic pathway were constructed that biosynthesized BDO when cultured in the presence of 4-HB. The BDO biosynthetic pathway consisted of a nucleic acid encoding either a multifunctional aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase or nucleic acids encoding an aldehyde dehydrogenawse and an alcohol dehydrogenase. To support growth on 4-HB substrates, these BDO-producing microbial organisms also expressed 4-hydroxybutyrate CoA transferase or 4-butyrate kinase in conjunction with phosphotranshydroxybutyrlase. In yet a further specific embodiment, microbial organisms were generated that synthesized BDO through exogenous expression of nucleic acids encoding a functional 4-HB biosynthetic pathway and a functional BDO biosynthetic pathway. The 4-HB biosynthetic pathway consisted of succinate coenzyme A transferase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, NAD-dependent 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyrate coenzyme A transferase. The BDO pathway consisted of a multifunctional aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase. Further described herein are additional pathways for production of BDO (see FIGS. 8-13).

In a further embodiment, described herein is the cloning and expression of a carboxylic acid reductase enzyme that functions in a 4-hydroxybutanal, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA or 1,4-butanediol metabolic pathway. Advantages of employing a carboxylic acid reductase as opposed to an acyl-CoA reductase to form 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde (4-hydroxybutanal) include lower ethanol and GBL byproduct formation accompanying the production of BDO. Also disclosed herein is the application of carboxylic acid reductase as part of additional numerous pathways to produce 1,4-butanediol and putrescine from the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle metabolites, for example, succinate, succinyl-CoA, and/or alpha-ketoglutarate.

As used herein, the term “non-naturally occurring” when used in reference to a microbial organism or microorganism of the invention is intended to mean that the microbial organism has at least one genetic alteration not normally found in a naturally occurring strain of the referenced species, including wild-type strains of the referenced species. Genetic alterations include, for example, modifications introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides, other nucleic acid additions, nucleic acid deletions and/or other functional disruption of the microbial organism's genetic material. Such modifications include, for example, coding regions and functional fragments thereof, for heterologous, homologous or both heterologous and homologous polypeptides for the referenced species. Additional modifications include, for example, non-coding regulatory regions in which the modifications alter expression of a gene or operon. Exemplary metabolic polypeptides include enzymes or proteins within a biosynthetic pathway for a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine family of compounds.

A metabolic modification refers to a biochemical reaction that is altered from its naturally occurring state. Therefore, non-naturally occurring microorganisms can have genetic modifications to nucleic acids encoding metabolic polypeptides or, functional fragments thereof. Exemplary metabolic modifications are disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “isolated” when used in reference to a microbial organism is intended to mean an organism that is substantially free of at least one component as the referenced microbial organism is found in nature. The term includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as it is found in its natural environment. The term also includes a microbial organism that is removed from some or all components as the microbial organism is found in non-naturally occurring environments. Therefore, an isolated microbial organism is partly or completely separated from other substances as it is found in nature or as it is grown, stored or subsisted in non-naturally occurring environments. Specific examples of isolated microbial organisms include partially pure microbes, substantially pure microbes and microbes cultured in a medium that is non-naturally occurring.

As used herein, the terms “microbial,” “microbial organism” or “microorganism” are intended to mean any organism that exists as a microscopic cell that is included within the domains of archaea, bacteria or eukarya. Therefore, the term is intended to encompass prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells or organisms having a microscopic size and includes bacteria, archaea and eubacteria of all species as well as eukaryotic microorganisms such as yeast and fungi. The term also includes cell cultures of any species that can be cultured for the production of a biochemical.

As used herein, the term “4-hydroxybutanoic acid” is intended to mean a 4-hydroxy derivative of butyric acid having the chemical formula C₄H₈O₃ and a molecular mass of 104.11 g/mol (126.09 g/mol for its sodium salt). The chemical compound 4-hydroxybutanoic acid also is known in the art as 4-HB, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid or GHB. The term as it is used herein is intended to include any of the compound's various salt forms and include, for example, 4-hydroxybutanoate and 4-hydroxybutyrate. Specific examples of salt forms for 4-HB include sodium 4-HB and potassium 4-HB. Therefore, the terms 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, 4-HB, 4-hydroxybutyrate, 4-hydroxybutanoate, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid and GHB as well as other art recognized names are used synonymously herein.

As used herein, the term “monomeric” when used in reference to 4-HB is intended to mean 4-HB in a non-polymeric or underivatized form. Specific examples of polymeric 4-HB include poly-4-hydroxybutanoic acid and copolymers of, for example, 4-HB and 3-HB. A specific example of a derivatized form of 4-HB is 4-HB-CoA. Other polymeric 4-HB forms and other derivatized forms of 4-HB also are known in the art.

As used herein, the term “γ-butyrolactone” is intended to mean a lactone having the chemical formula C₄H₆O₂ and a molecular mass of 86.089 g/mol. The chemical compound γ-butyrolactone also is know in the art as GBL, butyrolactone, 1,4-lactone, 4-butyrolactone, 4-hydroxybutyric acid lactone, and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid lactone. The term as it is used herein is intended to include any of the compound's various salt forms.

As used herein, the term “1,4-butanediol” is intended to mean an alcohol derivative of the alkane butane, carrying two hydroxyl groups which has the chemical formula C₄H₁₀O₂ and a molecular mass of 90.12 g/mol. The chemical compound 1,4-butanediol also is known in the art as BDO and is a chemical intermediate or precursor for a family of compounds referred to herein as BDO family of compounds.

As used herein, the term “4-hydroxybutanal” is intended to mean an aldehyde having the chemical formula C₄H₈O₂ and a molecular mass of 88.10512 g/mol. The chemical compound 4-hydroxybutanal (4-HBal) is also known in the art as 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde.

As used herein, the term “putrescine” is intended to mean a diamine having the chemical formula C₄H₁₂N₂ and a molecular mass of 88.15148 g/mol. The chemical compound putrescine is also known in the art as 1,4-butanediamine, 1,4-diaminobutane, butylenediamine, tetramethylenediamine, tetramethyldiamine, and 1,4-butylenediamine.

As used herein, the term “tetrahydrofuran” is intended to mean a heterocyclic organic compound corresponding to the fully hydrogenated analog of the aromatic compound furan which has the chemical formula C₄H₈O and a molecular mass of 72.11 g/mol. The chemical compound tetrahydrofuran also is known in the art as THF, tetrahydrofuran, 1,4-epoxybutane, butylene oxide, cyclotetramethylene oxide, oxacyclopentane, diethylene oxide, oxolane, furanidine, hydrofuran, tetra-methylene oxide. The term as it is used herein is intended to include any of the compound's various salt forms.

As used herein, the term “CoA” or “coenzyme A” is intended to mean an organic cofactor or prosthetic group (nonprotein portion of an enzyme) whose presence is required for the activity of many enzymes (the apoenzyme) to form an active enzyme system. Coenzyme A functions in certain condensing enzymes, acts in acetyl or other acyl group transfer and in fatty acid synthesis and oxidation, pyruvate oxidation and in other acetylation.

As used herein, the term “substantially anaerobic” when used in reference to a culture or growth condition is intended to mean that the amount of oxygen is less than about 10% of saturation for dissolved oxygen in liquid media. The term also is intended to include sealed chambers of liquid or solid medium maintained with an atmosphere of less than about 1% oxygen.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can contain stable genetic alterations, which refers to microorganisms that can be cultured for greater than five generations without loss of the alteration. Generally, stable genetic alterations include modifications that persist greater than 10 generations, particularly stable modifications will persist more than about 25 generations, and more particularly, stable genetic modifications will be greater than 50 generations, including indefinitely.

Those skilled in the art will understand that the genetic alterations, including metabolic modifications exemplified herein are described with reference to a suitable source or host organism such as E. coli, yeast, or other organisms disclosed herein and their corresponding metabolic reactions or a suitable source organism for desired genetic material such as genes encoding enzymes for their corresponding metabolic reactions for a desired metabolic pathway. However, given the complete genome sequencing of a wide variety of organisms and the high level of skill in the area of genomics, those skilled in the art will readily be able to apply the teachings and guidance provided herein to essentially all other organisms. For example, the E. coli metabolic alterations exemplified herein can readily be applied to other species by incorporating the same or analogous encoding nucleic acid from species other than the referenced species. Such genetic alterations include, for example, genetic alterations of species homologs, in general, and in particular, orthologs, paralogs or nonorthologous gene displacements.

An ortholog is a gene or genes that are related by vertical descent and are responsible for substantially the same or identical functions in different organisms. For example, mouse epoxide hydrolase and human epoxide hydrolase can be considered orthologs for the biological function of hydrolysis of epoxides. Genes are related by vertical descent when, for example, they share sequence similarity of sufficient amount to indicate they are homologous, or related by evolution from a common ancestor. Genes can also be considered orthologs if they share three-dimensional structure but not necessarily sequence similarity, of a sufficient amount to indicate that they have evolved from a common ancestor to the extent that the primary sequence similarity is not identifiable. Genes that are orthologous can encode proteins with sequence similarity of about 25% to 100% amino acid sequence identity. Genes encoding proteins sharing an amino acid similarity less that 25% can also be considered to have arisen by vertical descent if their three-dimensional structure also shows similarities. Members of the serine protease family of enzymes, including tissue plasminogen activator and elastase, are considered to have arisen by vertical descent from a common ancestor.

Orthologs include genes or their encoded gene products that through, for example, evolution, have diverged in structure or overall activity. For example, where one species encodes a gene product exhibiting two functions and where such functions have been separated into distinct genes in a second species, the three genes and their corresponding products are considered to be orthologs. For the production, including growth-coupled production, of a biochemical product, those skilled in the art will understand that the orthologous gene harboring the metabolic activity to be introduced or disrupted is to be chosen for construction of the non-naturally occurring microorganism. An example of orthologs exhibiting separable activities is where distinct activities have been separated into distinct gene products between two or more species or within a single species. A specific example is the separation of elastase proteolysis and plasminogen proteolysis, two types of serine protease activity, into distinct molecules as plasminogen activator and elastase. A second example is the separation of mycoplasma 5′-3′ exonuclease and Drosophila DNA polymerase III activity. The DNA polymerase from the first species can be considered an ortholog to either or both of the exonuclease or the polymerase from the second species and vice versa.

In contrast, paralogs are homologs related by, for example, duplication followed by evolutionary divergence and have similar or common, but not identical functions. Paralogs can originate or derive from, for example, the same species or from a different species. For example, microsomal epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase I) and soluble epoxide hydrolase (epoxide hydrolase II) can be considered paralogs because they represent two distinct enzymes, co-evolved from a common ancestor, that catalyze distinct reactions and have distinct functions in the same species. Paralogs are proteins from the same species with significant sequence similarity to each other suggesting that they are homologous, or related through co-evolution from a common ancestor. Groups of paralogous protein families include HipA homologs, luciferase genes, peptidases, and others.

A nonorthologous gene displacement is a nonorthologous gene from one species that can substitute for a referenced gene function in a different species. Substitution includes, for example, being able to perform substantially the same or a similar function in the species of origin compared to the referenced function in the different species. Although generally, a nonorthologous gene displacement will be identifiable as structurally related to a known gene encoding the referenced function, less structurally related but functionally similar genes and their corresponding gene products nevertheless will still fall within the meaning of the term as it is used herein. Functional similarity requires, for example, at least some structural similarity in the active site or binding region of a nonorthologous gene product compared to a gene encoding the function sought to be substituted. Therefore, a nonorthologous gene includes, for example, a paralog or an unrelated gene.

Therefore, in identifying and constructing the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention having 4-HB, GBL, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine biosynthetic capability, those skilled in the art will understand with applying the teaching and guidance provided herein to a particular species that the identification of metabolic modifications can include identification and inclusion or inactivation of orthologs. To the extent that paralogs and/or nonorthologous gene displacements are present in the referenced microorganism that encode an enzyme catalyzing a similar or substantially similar metabolic reaction, those skilled in the art also can utilize these evolutionally related genes.

Orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements can be determined by methods well known to those skilled in the art. For example, inspection of nucleic acid or amino acid sequences for two polypeptides will reveal sequence identity and similarities between the compared sequences. Based on such similarities, one skilled in the art can determine if the similarity is sufficiently high to indicate the proteins are related through evolution from a common ancestor. Algorithms well known to those skilled in the art, such as Align, BLAST, Clustal W and others compare and determine a raw sequence similarity or identity, and also determine the presence or significance of gaps in the sequence which can be assigned a weight or score. Such algorithms also are known in the art and are similarly applicable for determining nucleotide sequence similarity or identity. Parameters for sufficient similarity to determine relatedness are computed based on well known methods for calculating statistical similarity, or the chance of finding a similar match in a random polypeptide, and the significance of the match determined. A computer comparison of two or more sequences can, if desired, also be optimized visually by those skilled in the art. Related gene products or proteins can be expected to have a high similarity, for example, 25% to 100% sequence identity. Proteins that are unrelated can have an identity which is essentially the same as would be expected to occur by chance, if a database of sufficient size is scanned (about 5%). Sequences between 5% and 24% may or may not represent sufficient homology to conclude that the compared sequences are related. Additional statistical analysis to determine the significance of such matches given the size of the data set can be carried out to determine the relevance of these sequences.

Exemplary parameters for determining relatedness of two or more sequences using the BLAST algorithm, for example, can be as set forth below. Briefly, amino acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTP version 2.0.8 (Jan. 5, 1999) and the following parameters: Matrix: 0 BLOSUM62; gap open: 11; gap extension: 1; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 3; filter: on. Nucleic acid sequence alignments can be performed using BLASTN version 2.0.6 (Sep. 16, 1998) and the following parameters: Match: 1; mismatch: −2; gap open: 5; gap extension: 2; x_dropoff: 50; expect: 10.0; wordsize: 11; filter: off. Those skilled in the art will know what modifications can be made to the above parameters to either increase or decrease the stringency of the comparison, for example, and determine the relatedness of two or more sequences.

Disclosed herein are non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalyst or microbial organisms including a microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) biosynthetic pathway that includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate decarboxylase, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in sufficient amounts to produce monomeric 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB). 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase is also referred to as 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-HB dehydrogenase. Succinyl-CoA synthetase is also referred to as succinyl-CoA synthase or succinyl-CoA ligase.

Also disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalyst or microbial organism including a microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) biosynthetic pathway having at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in sufficient amounts to produce monomeric 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB).

The non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalysts or microbial organisms can include microbial organisms that employ combinations of metabolic reactions for biosynthetically producing the compounds of the invention. The biosynthesized compounds can be produced intracellularly and/or secreted into the culture medium. Exemplary compounds produced by the non-naturally occurring microorganisms include, for example, 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, 1,4-butanediol and γ-butyrolactone.

In one embodiment, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism is engineered to produce 4-HB. This compound is one useful entry point into the 1,4-butanediol family of compounds. The biochemical reactions for formation of 4-HB from succinate, from succinate through succinyl-CoA or from α-ketoglutarate are shown in steps 1-8 of FIG. 1.

It is understood that any combination of appropriate enzymes of a BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine pathway can be used so long as conversion from a starting component to the BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine product is achieved. Thus, it is understood that any of the metabolic pathways disclosed herein can be utilized and that it is well understood to those skilled in the art how to select appropriate enzymes to achieve a desired pathway, as disclosed herein.

In another embodiment, disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol (BDO) pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (see Example VII Table 17). The BDO pathway further can comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

It is understood by those skilled in the art that various combinations of the pathways can be utilized, as disclosed herein. For example, in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, the nucleic acids can encode 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase; 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase. Other exemplary combinations are specifically describe below and further can be found in FIGS. 8-13. For example, the BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

Additionally disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase (see Example VII and Table 18), and can further comprise 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase; 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase. In addition, the nucleic acids can encode. 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase; 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase; 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase.

Also disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, or 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Example VII and Table 19). For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode 4-aminobutyrate kinase; 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase. Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode 4-aminobutyrate kinase; [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating).

Additionally disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (see Example VIII and Table 20). The BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase. Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation). Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase. In another embodiment, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation). Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase. In yet another embodiment, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation).

Further disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (see Example IX and Table 21). For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation). Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation). In still another embodiment, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation). In yet another embodiment, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation).

Also disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (see Example X and Table 22). For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase.

Further disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (see Example XI and Table 23). For example, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase. Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase. In a further embodiment, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase. Alternatively, the exogenous nucleic acids can encode homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase.

Further disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Table 15). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise succinyl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

Additionally disclosed herein is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a BDO pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamate transaminase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating)(see Table 16). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

The pathways described above are merely exemplary. One skilled in the art can readily select appropriate pathways from those disclosed herein to obtain a suitable BDO pathway or other metabolic pathway, as desired.

The invention provides genetically modified organisms that allow improved production of a desired product such as BDO by increasing the product or decreasing undesirable byproducts. As disclosed herein, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol (BDO) pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO. In one embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous succinyl-CoA synthetase (see Example XII). For example, the succinyl-CoA synthetase can be encoded by an Escherichia coli sucCD genes.

In another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (see Example XIII). For example, the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase can be encoded by the Mycobacterium bovis sucA gene. In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and optionally 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase (see Example XIII). For example, the succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase can be encoded by Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 genes. In an additional embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase (see Example XIII). For example, the butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase can be encoded by Clostridium acetobutilicum buk1 and ptb genes.

In yet another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (see Example XIII). For example, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase can be encoded by Clostridium beijerinckii ald gene. Additionally, in an embodiment of the invention, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutanal reductase (see Example XIII). For example, the 4-hydroxybutanal reductase can be encoded by Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius adh1 gene. In another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous pyruvate dehydrogenase subunits (see Example XIV). For example, the exogenous pyruvate dehydrogenase can be NADH insensitive. The pyruvate dehydrogenase subunit can be encoded by the Klebsiella pneumonia lpdA gene. In a particular embodiment, the pyruvate dehydrogenase subunit genes of the microbial organism can be under the control of a pyruvate formate lyase promoter.

In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to disrupt a gene encoding an aerobic respiratory control regulatory system (see Example XV). For example, the disruption can be of the arcA gene. Such an organism can further comprise disruption of a gene encoding malate dehydrogenase. In a further embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express an exogenous NADH insensitive citrate synthase (see Example XV). For example, the NADH insensitive citrate synthase can be encoded by gltA, such as an R163L mutant of gltA. In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (see Example XVI). For example, the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase can be encoded by an Haemophilus influenza phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene.

It is understood that any of a number of genetic modifications, as disclosed herein, can be used alone or in various combinations of one or more of the genetic modifications disclosed herein to increase the production of BDO in a BDO producing microbial organism. In a particular embodiment, the microbial organism can be genetically modified to incorporate any and up to all of the genetic modifications that lead to increased production of BDO. In a particular embodiment, the microbial organism containing a BDO pathway can be genetically modified to express exogenous succinyl-CoA synthetase; to express exogenous alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; to express exogenous succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and optionally 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase; to express exogenous butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase; to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutanal reductase; to express exogenous pyruvate dehydrogenase; to disrupt a gene encoding an aerobic respiratory control regulatory system; to express an exogenous NADH insensitive citrate synthase; and to express exogenous phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. Such strains for improved production are described in Examples XII-XIX. It is thus understood that, in addition to the modifications described above, such strains can additionally include other modifications disclosed herein. Such modifications include, but are not limited to, deletion of endogenous lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA), alcohol dehydrogenase (adhE), and/or pyruvate formate lyase (pflB)(see Examples XII-XIX and Table 28).

Additionally provided is a microbial organism in which one or more genes encoding the exogenously expressed enzymes are integrated into the fimD locus of the host organism (see Example XVII). For example, one or more genes encoding a BDO pathway enzyme can be integrated into the fimD locus for increased production of BDO. Further provided is a microbial organism expressing a non-phosphotransferase sucrose uptake system that increases production of BDO.

Although the genetically modified microbial organisms disclosed herein are exemplified with microbial organisms containing particular BDO pathway enzymes, it is understood that such modifications can be incorporated into any microbial organism having a BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine pathway suitable for enhanced production in the presence of the genetic modifications. The microbial organisms of the invention can thus have any of the BDO, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA and/or putrescine pathways disclosed herein. For example, the BDO pathway can comprise 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase or an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase (see FIG. 1). Alternatively, the BDO pathway can comprise 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (see Table 17). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

Additionally, the BDO pathway can comprise 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase (see Table 18). Also, the BDO pathway can comprise 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, or 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Table 19). Such a pathway can further comprise 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

The BDO pathway can also comprise alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation)(see Table 20). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. Additionally, the BDO pathway can comprise glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation)(see Table 21). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

Additionally, the BDO pathway can comprise 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (see Table 22). Also, the BDO pathway can comprise homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (see Table 23). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

The BDO pathway can additionally comprise succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Table 15). Such a pathway can further comprise succinyl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. Also, the BDO pathway can comprise glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Table 16). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 58, steps A-C-D). The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (FIG. 58, steps B-C-D).

The invention further provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising succinate reductase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 62, steps F-C-D). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 62, steps B or ((J or K)-L-(M or N))-C-D).

The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase (see FIG. 62, steps X-Y-Z). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (see FIG. 62, steps X-Y-AA).

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising succinate reductase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps F-M/N-C-D/E). In still another embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps B-M/N-C-D/E). The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase; glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps J/K-L-C-D/E).

The invention provides in another embodiment a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase or 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate transaminase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps O-P/Q-R-D/E). Also provided is a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase or 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate transaminase; ornithine dehydrogenase or ornithine transaminase; and ornithine decarboxylase (see FIG. 63, steps O-P/Q-S/T-U).

In an additional embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, wherein the non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprises at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein that converts a substrate of any of the pathways disclosed herein (see, for example, the Examples and FIGS. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 and 72-74). In an exemplary embodiment for producing BDO, the microbial organism can convert a substrate to a product selected from the group consisting of succinate to succinyl-CoA; succinyl-CoA to succinic semialdehyde; succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxybutrate; 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate to 4-hydroxtbutyryl-CoA; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutanal; and 4-hydroxybutanal to 1,4-butanediol. In a pathway for producing 4-HBal, a microbial organism can convert, for example, succinate to succinic semialdehyde; succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxybutyrate; and 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal. Such an organism can additionally include activity to convert 4-hydroxybutanal to 1,4-butanediol in order to produce BDO. Yet another pathway for producing 4-HBal can be, for example, alpha-ketoglutarate to succinic semialdehyde; succinic semialdehyde to 4-hydroxybutyrate; and 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal. An alternative pathway for producing 4-HBal can be, for example, alpha-ketoglutarate to 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid; 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanooic acid; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid to 4-hydroxybutanal. An exemplary 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway can be, for example, alpha-ketoglutarate to 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid; 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. An exemplary putrescine pathway can be, for example, succinate to succinyl-CoA; succinyl-CoA to succinic semialdehyde; succinic semialdehyde to 4-aminobutyrate; 4-aminobutyrate to 4-aminobutanal; and 4-aminobutanal to putrescine. An alternative putrescine pathway can be, for example, succinate to succinic semialdehyde; succinic semialdehyde to 4-aminobutyrate; 4-aminobutyrate to 4-aminobutanal; and 4-aminobutanal to putrescine. One skilled in the art will understand that these are merely exemplary and that any of the substrate-product pairs disclosed herein suitable to produce a desired product and for which an appropriate activity is available for the conversion can be readily determined by one skilled in the art based on the teachings herein. Thus, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism containing at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme or protein, where the enzyme or protein converts the substrates and products of a pathway (see FIGS. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 and 72-74).

While generally described herein as a microbial organism that contains a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, it is understood that the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme or protein expressed in a sufficient amount to produce an intermediate of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway. For example, as disclosed herein, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and putrescine pathways are exemplified in FIGS. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 and 72-74). Therefore, in addition to a microbial organism containing, for example, a BDO pathway that produces BDO, the invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme, where the microbial organism produces a BDO pathway intermediate as a product rather than an intermediate of the pathway. In one exemplary embodiment as shown in FIG. 62, for example, the invention provides a microbial organism that produces succinyl-CoA, succinic semialdehyde, 4-hydroxybutyrate, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, or 4-hydroxybutanal as a product rather than an intermediate. Another exemplary embodiment includes, for example, a microbial organism that produces alpha-ketoglutarate, 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid, or 4-hydroxybutanal as a product rather than an intermediate. An exemplary embodiment in a putrescine pathway includes, for example, a microbial organism that produces glutamate, 4-aminobutyrate, or 4-aminobutanal as a product rather than an intermediate. An alternative embodiment in a putrescine pathway can be, for example, a microbial organism that produces 2,5-dioxopentanoate, 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate, or ornithine as a product rather than an intermediate.

It is understood that any of the pathways disclosed herein, as described in the Examples and exemplified in the Figures, including the pathways of FIGS. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 and 72-74), can be utilized to generate a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces any pathway intermediate or product, as desired. As disclosed herein, such a microbial organism that produces an intermediate can be used in combination with another microbial organism expressing downstream pathway enzymes to produce a desired product. However, it is understood that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate can be utilized to produce the intermediate as a desired product.

This invention is also directed, in part to engineered biosynthetic pathways to improve carbon flux through a central metabolism intermediate en route to 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone or other products or intermediates disclosed herein. The present invention provides non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having one or more exogenous genes encoding enzymes that can catalyze various enzymatic transformations en route to 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone or other products or intermediates disclosed herein. In some embodiments, these enzymatic transformations are part of the reductive tricarboxylic acid (RTCA) cycle and are used to improve product yields, including but not limited to, from carbohydrate-based carbon feedstock.

In numerous engineered pathways, realization of maximum product yields based on carbohydrate feedstock is hampered by insufficient reducing equivalents or by loss of reducing equivalents and/or carbon to byproducts. In accordance with some embodiments, the present invention increases the yields of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone by (i) enhancing carbon fixation via the reductive TCA cycle, and/or (ii) accessing additional reducing equivalents from gaseous carbon sources and/or syngas components such as CO, CO2, and/or H2. In addition to syngas, other sources of such gases include, but are not limited to, the atmosphere, either as found in nature or generated.

The CO2-fixing reductive tricarboxylic acid (RTCA) cycle is an endergenic anabolic pathway of CO2 assimilation which uses reducing equivalents and ATP (FIG. 68). One turn of the RTCA cycle assimilates two moles of CO2 into one mole of acetyl-CoA, or four moles of CO2 into one mole of oxaloacetate. This additional availability of acetyl-CoA improves the maximum theoretical yield of product molecules derived from carbohydrate-based carbon feedstock. Exemplary carbohydrates include but are not limited to glucose, sucrose, xylose, arabinose and glycerol.

In some embodiments, the reductive TCA cycle, coupled with carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and/or hydrogenase enzymes, can be employed to allow syngas, CO2, CO, H2, and/or other gaseous carbon source utilization by microorganisms. Synthesis gas (syngas), in particular is a mixture of primarily H2 and CO, sometimes including some amounts of CO2, that can be obtained via gasification of any organic feedstock, such as coal, coal oil, natural gas, biomass, or waste organic matter. Numerous gasification processes have been developed, and most designs are based on partial oxidation, where limiting oxygen avoids full combustion, of organic materials at high temperatures (500-1500° C.) to provide syngas as a 0.5:1-3:1 H2/CO mixture. In addition to coal, biomass of many types has been used for syngas production and represents an inexpensive and flexible feedstock for the biological production of renewable chemicals and fuels. Carbon dioxide can be provided from the atmosphere or in condensed from, for example, from a tank cylinder, or via sublimation of solid CO2. Similarly, CO and hydrogen gas can be provided in reagent form and/or mixed in any desired ratio. Other gaseous carbon forms can include, for example, methanol or similar volatile organic solvents.

The components of synthesis gas and/or other carbon sources can provide sufficient CO2, reducing equivalents, and ATP for the reductive TCA cycle to operate. One turn of the RTCA cycle assimilates two moles of CO2 into one mole of acetyl-CoA and requires 2 ATP and 4 reducing equivalents. CO and/or H2 can provide reducing equivalents by means of carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and hydrogenase enzymes, respectively. Reducing equivalents can come in the form of NADH, NADPH, FADH, reduced quinones, reduced ferredoxins, reduced flavodoxins and reduced thioredoxins. The reducing equivalents, particularly NADH, NADPH, and reduced ferredoxin, can serve as cofactors for the RTCA cycle enzymes, for example, malate dehydrogenase, fumarate reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (alternatively known as 2-oxoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, alpha-ketoglutarate synthase, or 2-oxoglutarate synthase), pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. The electrons from these reducing equivalents can alternatively pass through an ion-gradient producing electron transport chain where they are passed to an acceptor such as oxygen, nitrate, oxidized metal ions, protons, or an electrode. The ion-gradient can then be used for ATP generation via an ATP synthase or similar enzyme.

The reductive TCA cycle was first reported in the green sulfur photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium limicola (Evans et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 55:928-934 (1966)). Similar pathways have been characterized in some prokaryotes (proteobacteria, green sulfur bacteria and thermophillic Knallgas bacteria) and sulfur-dependent archaea (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 187:3020-3027 (2005; Hugler et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:81-92 (2007). In some cases, reductive and oxidative (Krebs) TCA cycles are present in the same organism (Hugler et al., supra (2007); Siebers et al., J. Bacteriol. 186:2179-2194 (2004)). Some methanogens and obligate anaerobes possess incomplete oxidative or reductive TCA cycles that may function to synthesize biosynthetic intermediates (Ekiel et al., J. Bacteriol. 162:905-908 (1985); Wood et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 28:335-352 (2004)).

The key carbon-fixing enzymes of the reductive TCA cycle are alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and isocitrate dehydrogenase. Additional carbon may be fixed during the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase or phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase or by conversion of pyruvate to malate by malic enzyme.

Many of the enzymes in the TCA cycle are reversible and can catalyze reactions in the reductive and oxidative directions. However, some TCA cycle reactions are irreversible in vivo and thus different enzymes are used to catalyze these reactions in the directions required for the reverse TCA cycle. These reactions are: (1) conversion of citrate to oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA, (2) conversion of fumarate to succinate, and (3) conversion of succinyl-CoA to alpha-ketoglutarate. In the TCA cycle, citrate is formed from the condensation of oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA. The reverse reaction, cleavage of citrate to oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA, is ATP-dependent and catalyzed by ATP-citrate lyase, or citryl-CoA synthetase and citryl-CoA lyase. Alternatively, citrate lyase can be coupled to acetyl-CoA synthetase, an acetyl-CoA transferase, or phosphotransacetylase and acetate kinase to form acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate from citrate. The conversion of succinate to fumarate is catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase while the reverse reaction is catalyzed by fumarate reductase. In the TCA cycle succinyl-CoA is formed from the NAD(P)+ dependent decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate by the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. The reverse reaction is catalyzed by alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase.

An organism capable of utilizing the reverse tricarboxylic acid cycle to enable production of acetyl-CoA-derived products on 1) CO, 2) CO₂ and H₂, 3) CO and CO₂, 4) synthesis gas comprising CO and H₂, and 5) synthesis gas or other gaseous carbon sources comprising CO, CO₂, and H₂ can include any of the following enzyme activities: ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, succinyl-CoA transferase, fumarate reductase, fumarase, malate dehydrogenase, acetate kinase, phosphotransacetylase, acetyl-CoA synthetase, acetyl-CoA transferase, pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, hydrogenase, and ferredoxin (see FIG. 69). Enzymes and the corresponding genes required for these activities are described herein.

Carbon from syngas or other gaseous carbon sources can be fixed via the reverse TCA cycle and components thereof. Specifically, the combination of certain carbon gas-utilization pathway components with the pathways for formation of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone from acetyl-CoA results in high yields of these products by providing an efficient mechanism for fixing the carbon present in carbon dioxide, fed exogenously or produced endogenously from CO, into acetyl-CoA.

In some embodiments, a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can utilize any combination of (1) CO, (2) CO₂, (3) H₂, or mixtures thereof to enhance the yields of biosynthetic steps involving reduction, including addition to driving the reductive TCA cycle.

In some embodiments a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme. The at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, aconitase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; and at least one exogenous enzyme selected from a carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, a hydrogenase, a NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and a ferredoxin, expressed in a sufficient amount to allow the utilization of (1) CO, (2) CO₂, (3) H₂, (4) CO₂ and H₂, (5) CO and CO₂, (6) CO and H₂, or (7) CO, CO₂, and H₂.

In some embodiments a method includes culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway also comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme. The at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, aconitase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Additionally, such an organism can also include at least one exogenous enzyme selected from a carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, a hydrogenase, a NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and a ferredoxin, expressed in a sufficient amount to allow the utilization of (1) CO, (2) CO₂, (3) H₂, (4) CO₂ and H₂, (5) CO and CO₂, (6) CO and H₂, or (7) CO, CO₂, and H₂ to produce a product.

In some embodiments a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone a reductive TCA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to enhance carbon flux through acetyl-CoA. The at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, aconitase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase.

In some embodiments a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to enhance the availability of reducing equivalents in the presence of carbon monoxide and/or hydrogen, thereby increasing the yield of redox-limited products via carbohydrate-based carbon feedstock. The at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, a hydrogenase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and a ferredoxin. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a method for enhancing the availability of reducing equivalents in the presence of carbon monoxide or hydrogen thereby increasing the yield of redox-limited products via carbohydrate-based carbon feedstock, such as sugars or gaseous carbon sources, the method includes culturing this non-naturally occurring microbial organism under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having an 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway includes two exogenous nucleic acids, each encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway includes three exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes three exogenous nucleic acids encoding an ATP-citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes three exogenous nucleic acids encoding a citrate lyase, or a citryl-CoA synthetase or a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes four exogenous nucleic acids encoding a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase or a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase; and an H₂ hydrogenase. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism includes two exogenous nucleic acids encoding a CO dehydrogenase and an H₂ hydrogenase.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway further include an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway further includes an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, acetyl-CoA synthase, ferredoxin, NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway utilizes a carbon feedstock selected from (1) CO, (2) CO₂, (3) CO₂ and H₂, (4) CO and H₂, or (5) CO, CO₂, and H₂. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway utilizes hydrogen for reducing equivalents. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway utilizes CO for reducing equivalents. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway utilizes combinations of CO and hydrogen for reducing equivalents.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway further includes one or more nucleic acids encoding an enzyme selected from a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a pyruvate carboxylase, and a malic enzyme.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway further includes one or more nucleic acids encoding an enzyme selected from a malate dehydrogenase, a fumarase, a fumarate reductase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, and a succinyl-CoA transferase.

In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway further includes at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a citrate lyase, an ATP-citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, and a ferredoxin.

It is understood by those skilled in the art that the above-described pathways for increasing product yield can be combined with any of the pathways disclosed herein, including those pathways depicted in the figures. One skilled in the art will understand that, depending on the pathway to a desired product and the precursors and intermediates of that pathway, a particular pathway for improving product yield, as discussed herein above and in the examples, or combination of such pathways, can be used in combination with a pathway to a desired product to increase the yield of that product or a pathway intermediate.

It is understood by those skilled in the art that the above-described pathways for increasing product yield can be combined with any of the pathways disclosed herein, including those pathways depicted in the figures. One skilled in the art will understand that, depending on the pathway to a desired product and the precursors and intermediates of that pathway, a particular pathway for improving product yield, as discussed herein above and in the examples, or combination of such pathways, can be used in combination with a pathway to a desired product to increase the yield of that product or a pathway intermediate.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 1,4-butanediol pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 1,4-butanediol. Such a microbial organism can further comprise (i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; (ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein the at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or (iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H₂ hydrogenase, and combinations thereof.

In such microbial organisms, a 1,4-butanediol pathway can comprise a pathway of any of those disclosed herein, including the figures. For example, a 1,4-BDO pathway can be selected from (a) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; (b) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase and an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase; (c) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (iii) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, or a butyrate kinase and a phosphotransbutyrylase; (iv) an aldehyde dehydrogenase; and (v) an alcohol dehydrogenase; (d) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; (e) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) and 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase; (f) 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (g) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (h) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (i) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (j) homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (k) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (l) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (m) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase; (n) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (o) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (p) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (q) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (r) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (s) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (t) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (u) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (v) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (w) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (x) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (y) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (z) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (aa) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; (bb) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; or glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; (iv) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and (v) 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase; (cc) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or succinyl-CoA synthetase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and (iv) aldehyde dehydrogenase; and alcohol dehydrogenase; or aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase; (dd) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or glutamate dehydrogenase; glutamate decarboxylase; and deaminating 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and (iii) 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphorylating 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; (ee) (i) glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; or glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming glutamyl-CoA reductase; or glutamate 5-kinase; phosphorylating glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; (ii) deaminating 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and (iii) 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; (ff) succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase; (gg) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase; (hh) succinate reductase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase; (ii) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase; (jj) alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase; (kk) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (see FIG. 72 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5); (ll) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (see FIG. 72 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7); (mm) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 72 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9 and 7); (nn) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylasel; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, D, E, F and G); (oo) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, D, L and G); (pp) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, K +and G); (qq) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, J and M); (rr) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, J, F and G); (ss) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, D, E and M); (tt) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, D, E, F and G); (uu) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, D, L and G); (vv) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, K and G); (ww) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, J and M); (xx) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, J, F and G); (yy) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, D, E and M); (zz) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, D, E, F and G); (aaa) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, D, L and G); (bbb) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, K and G); (ccc) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, J and M);

(ddd) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, J, F and G); (eee) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, D, E and M); (fff) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, D, E, F and G); (ggg) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, D, L and G); (hhh) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, K and G); (iii) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, J and M); (jjj) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, J, F and G); (kkk) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, D, E and M); and (lll) any of the pathways that produce 1,4-butanediol as shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74.

In a further embodiment, such a microbial organism of the invention comprising (i) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof. In addition, a microbial organism comprising (ii) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, and combinations thereof.

In yet another embodiment, such a microbial organism can comprise two, three, four, five, six or seven exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a 1,4-butanediol pathway enzyme. For example, such a microbial organism can comprise exogenous nucleic acids encoding each of the enzymes of a pathway, for example, a particular pathway as disclosed herein, including those shown in FIGS. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 and 72-74. A microbial organism can comprise more than one pathway, if desired, which can be useful to increase the yield of a desired product.

In a further embodiment, a microbial organism comprising pathways (a), (b) or (c) further comprises an enzyme selected from succinyl-CoA synthetase, exogenous CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase or exogenous succinyl-CoA synthetase and exogenous CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase. In still a further embodiment, a microbial organism comprising pathway (d), (g), (h), (i), (j) further comprises an enzyme selected from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. Additionally, a microbial organism comprising pathway (e) or (f) can further comprise 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. In yet a further embodiment, a microbial organism comprising pathway (k) can further comprise succinyl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. Still further, a microbial organism comprising pathway (l) further comprises alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase. Such additional pathway steps are disclosed herein.

In yet another embodiment of the invention, a microbial organism can comprise two, three, four or five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding enzymes of (i), (ii) or (iii). For example, a microbial organism comprising (i) can comprise three exogenous nucleic acids encoding ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; a microbial organism comprising (ii) can comprise five exogenous nucleic acids encoding pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H₂ hydrogenase; or a microbial organism comprising (iii) can comprise two exogenous nucleic acids encoding CO dehydrogenase and H₂ hydrogenase. The invention additionally provides methods for producing 1,4-butanediol by culturing such non-naturally occurring microbial organisms under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol.

The invention additionally provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway enzyme 4-hydroxybutyrate expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutyrate. Such a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can further comprise (i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; (ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H₂ hydrogenase; or (iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H₂ hydrogenase, and combinations thereof. In such a microbial organism the 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway can comprise a pathway from any of those disclosed herein, including in the figures, for example, any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74.

In a particular embodiment, a microbial organism comprising a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway can be selected from (a) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase (FIG. 72 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8); (b) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, hydrolase or synthetase (FIG. 73 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5); (c) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase (FIG. 73 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7); (d) Succinate reductase; and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions H and C); (e) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions A, B and C); (f) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (FIG. 74 reactions N and C); (g) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); and Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (FIG. 74 reactions A and I); (h) acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, a crotonase, a crotonyl-CoA hydratase, a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, a phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, and a 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; (i) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; (j) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (k) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (l) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (m) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (n) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (o) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; (p) succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (q) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (r) succinate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (s) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and (t) a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway selected from any of the pathways that produce 4-hydroxybutyrate as shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74.

Such a microbial organism comprising (i) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof. In addition, a microbial organism comprising (ii) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, and combinations thereof.

In a particular embodiment, the microbial organism can comprise exogenous nucleic acids encoding each of the enzymes selected from the pathway enzymes producing 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway enzymes as shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74. Such microbial organisms can also comprise two, three, four or five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding enzymes of (i), (ii) or (iii). For example, a microbial organism comprising (i) can comprise three exogenous nucleic acids encoding ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; a microbial organism comprising (ii) can comprise five exogenous nucleic acids encoding pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H₂ hydrogenase; or a microbial organism comprising (iii) can comprise two exogenous nucleic acids encoding CO dehydrogenase and H₂ hydrogenase. The invention additionally provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutyrate, by culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 4-hydroxybutyrate.

The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a gamma-butyrolactone pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a gamma-butyrolactone pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce gamma-butyrolactone. Such a microbial organism can further comprise (i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; (ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H₂ hydrogenase; or (iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H₂ hydrogenase, and combinations thereof. Such microbial organisms can comprise, for example, a pathway selected from any of the pathways that produce gamma-butryolactone as shown in FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74. As disclosed herein, both 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA and 4-hydroxybutyryl phosphate can be enzymatically or can spontaneously chemically convert to gamma-butyrolactone. Therefore, it is understood that any of the pathways disclosed herein that produce 4-hydroxybytyryl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl phosphate can be used to produce gamma-butyrolactone using enzymatic and/or chemical conversion.

In such microbial organisms, a gamma-butyroloactone pathway can comprise a pathway selected from, for example, (a) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed (FIG. 73 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8); (b) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; amd spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed (FIG. 73 reactions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 9); (c) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, D, E and O); (d) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions H, C, J and O); (e) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, D, E and O); (f) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions A, B, C, J and O); (g) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, D, E and O); (h) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions N, C, J and O); (i) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, D, E and O); (j) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous (FIG. 74 reactions A, I, J and O); (k) alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (1) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; (m) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; (n) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (iii) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, or a butyrate kinase and a phosphotransbutyrylase; (o) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; (p) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) and 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase; (q) 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (r) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (s) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (t) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase; (u) homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (v) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (w) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (x) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase; (y) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); (z) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (aa) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (bb) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (cc) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (dd) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; (ee) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (ff) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (gg) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (hh) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (ii) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation); (jj) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (kk) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase; (ll) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; (mm) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; or glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and (iv) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; (nn) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or succinyl-CoA synthetase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; (oo) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or glutamate dehydrogenase; glutamate decarboxylase; and deaminating 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and (iii) 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphorylating 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; (pp) (i) glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; or glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming glutamyl-CoA reductase; or glutamate 5-kinase; phosphorylating glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; (ii) deaminating 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and (iii) 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; (qq) a gamma-butyrolactone pathway comprising a pathway selected from any of the pathways that produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl phosphate as shown in FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62-63 or 72-74, wherein gamma-butyrolactone is produced enzymatically or by spontaneous chemical conversion.

In a particular embodiment, a microbial organism comprising (i) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof. Additionally, a microbial organism comprising (ii) can further comprise an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, and combinations thereof.

In a particular embodiment, a microbial organism can comprise two, three, four, five, six or seven exogenous nucleic acids each encoding a gamma-butyrolactone pathway enzyme. For example, a microbial organism can comprise exogenous nucleic acids encoding each of the enzymes selected from a gamma-butyrolactone pathway shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63, or 72-74, in particular pathways that produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA and/or 4-hydroxybutyryl phosphate. Additionally, such a microbial organism can comprise two, three, four or five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding enzymes of (i), (ii) or (iii). For example, such a microbial organism can comprising (i) can comprise three exogenous nucleic acids encoding ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase; a microbial organism comprising (ii) can comprise five exogenous nucleic acids encoding pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H₂ hydrogenase; or a microbial organism comprising (iii) can comprise two exogenous nucleic acids encoding CO dehydrogenase and H₂ hydrogenase. The invention additionally provides methods for producing gamma-butyrolactone by culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce gamma-butyrolactone.

In some embodiments, the carbon feedstock and other cellular uptake sources such as phosphate, ammonia, sulfate, chloride and other halogens can be chosen to alter the isotopic distribution of the atoms present in 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone or any 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway intermediate. The various carbon feedstock and other uptake sources enumerated above will be referred to herein, collectively, as “uptake sources.” Uptake sources can provide isotopic enrichment for any atom present in the product 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone or 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway intermediate, or for side products generated in reactions diverging away from a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone pathway. Isotopic enrichment can be achieved for any target atom including, for example, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, chloride or other halogens.

In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the oxygen-16, oxygen-17, and oxygen-18 ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can selected to alter the nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15 ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the sulfur-32, sulfur-33, sulfur-34, and sulfur-35 ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the phosphorus-31, phosphorus-32, and phosphorus-33 ratios. In some embodiments, the uptake sources can be selected to alter the chlorine-35, chlorine-36, and chlorine-37 ratios.

In some embodiments, the isotopic ratio of a target atom can be varied to a desired ratio by selecting one or more uptake sources. An uptake source can be derived from a natural source, as found in nature, or from a man-made source, and one skilled in the art can select a natural source, a man-made source, or a combination thereof, to achieve a desired isotopic ratio of a target atom. An example of a man-made uptake source includes, for example, an uptake source that is at least partially derived from a chemical synthetic reaction. Such isotopically enriched uptake sources can be purchased commercially or prepared in the laboratory and/or optionally mixed with a natural source of the uptake source to achieve a desired isotopic ratio. In some embodiments, a target isotopic ratio of an uptake source can be obtained by selecting a desired origin of the uptake source as found in nature For example, as discussed herein, a natural source can be a biobased derived from or synthesized by a biological organism or a source such as petroleum-based products or the atmosphere. In some such embodiments, a source of carbon, for example, can be selected from a fossil fuel-derived carbon source, which can be relatively depleted of carbon-14, or an environmental or atmospheric carbon source, such as CO₂, which can possess a larger amount of carbon-14 than its petroleum-derived counterpart.

Isotopic enrichment is readily assessed by mass spectrometry using techniques known in the art such as Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (SIRMS) and Site-Specific Natural Isotopic Fractionation by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (SNIF-NMR). Such mass spectral techniques can be integrated with separation techniques such as liquid chromatography (LC) and/or high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

The unstable carbon isotope carbon-14 or radiocarbon makes up for roughly 1 in 10¹² carbon atoms in the earth's atmosphere and has a half-life of about 5700 years. The stock of carbon is replenished in the upper atmosphere by a nuclear reaction involving cosmic rays and ordinary nitrogen (¹⁴N). Fossil fuels contain no carbon-14, as it decayed long ago. Burning of fossil fuels lowers the atmospheric carbon-14 fraction, the so-called “Suess effect”.

Methods of determining the isotopic ratios of atoms in a compound are well known to those skilled in the art. Isotopic enrichment is readily assessed by mass spectrometry using techniques known in the art such as accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS), Stable Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (SIRMS) and Site-Specific Natural Isotopic Fractionation by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (SNIF-NMR). Such mass spectral techniques can be integrated with separation techniques such as liquid chromatography (LC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and/or gas chromatography, and the like.

In the case of carbon, ASTM D6866 was developed in the United States as a standardized analytical method for determining the biobased content of solid, liquid, and gaseous samples using radiocarbon dating by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) International. The standard is based on the use of radiocarbon dating for the determination of a product's biobased content. ASTM D6866 was first published in 2004, and the current active version of the standard is ASTM D6866-11 (effective Apr. 1, 2011). Radiocarbon dating techniques are well known to those skilled in the art, including those described herein.

The biobased content of a compound is estimated by the ratio of carbon-14 (¹⁴C) to carbon-12 (¹²C). Specifically, the Fraction Modern (Fm) is computed from the expression: Fm=(S−B)/(M−B), where B, S and M represent the ¹⁴C/¹²C ratios of the blank, the sample and the modern reference, respectively. Fraction Modern is a measurement of the deviation of the ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio of a sample from “Modern.” Modern is defined as 95% of the radiocarbon concentration (in AD 1950) of National Bureau of Standards (NBS) Oxalic Acid I (i.e., standard reference materials (SRM) 4990b) normalized to δ¹³C_VPDB=−19 per mil (Olsson, The use of Oxalic acid as a Standard. in, Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology, Nobel Symposium, 12th Proc., John Wiley & Sons, New York (1970)). Mass spectrometry results, for example, measured by ASM, are calculated using the internationally agreed upon definition of 0.95 times the specific activity of NBS Oxalic Acid I (SRM 4990b) normalized to δ¹³C_VPDB=−19 per mil. This is equivalent to an absolute (AD 1950) ¹⁴C/¹²C ratio of 1.176±0.010×10⁻¹² (Karlen et al., Arkiv Geofysik, 4:465-471 (1968)). The standard calculations take into account the differential uptake of one isotope with respect to another, for example, the preferential uptake in biological systems of C¹² over C¹³ over C¹⁴, and these corrections are reflected as a Fm corrected for δ¹³.

An oxalic acid standard (SRM 4990b or HOx 1) was made from a crop of 1955 sugar beet. Although there were 1000 lbs made, this oxalic acid standard is no longer commercially available. The Oxalic Acid II standard (HOx 2; N.I.S.T designation SRM 4990 C) was made from a crop of 1977 French beet molasses. In the early 1980's, a group of 12 laboratories measured the ratios of the two standards. The ratio of the activity of Oxalic acid II to 1 is 1.2933±0.001 (the weighted mean). The isotopic ratio of HOx II is −17.8 per mille. ASTM D6866-11 suggests use of the available Oxalic Acid II standard SRM 4990 C (Hox2) for the modern standard (see discussion of original vs. currently available oxalic acid standards in Mann, Radiocarbon, 25(2):519-527 (1983)). A Fm=0% represents the entire lack of carbon-14 atoms in a material, thus indicating a fossil (for example, petroleum based) carbon source. A Fm=100%, after correction for the post-1950 injection of carbon-14 into the atmosphere from nuclear bomb testing, indicates an entirely modern carbon source. As described herein, such a “modern” source includes biobased sources.

As described in ASTM D6866, the percent modern carbon (pMC) can be greater than 100% because of the continuing but diminishing effects of the 1950s nuclear testing programs, which resulted in a considerable enrichment of carbon-14 in the atmosphere as described in ASTM D6866-11. Because all sample carbon-14 activities are referenced to a “pre-bomb” standard, and because nearly all new biobased products are produced in a post-bomb environment, all pMC values (after correction for isotopic fraction) must be multiplied by 0.95 (as of 2010) to better reflect the true biobased content of the sample. A biobased content that is greater than 103% suggests that either an analytical error has occurred, or that the source of biobased carbon is more than several years old.

ASTM D6866 quantifies the biobased content relative to the material's total organic content and does not consider the inorganic carbon and other non-carbon containing substances present. For example, a product that is 50% starch-based material and 50% water would be considered to have a Biobased Content=100% (50% organic content that is 100% biobased) based on ASTM D6866. In another example, a product that is 50% starch-based material, 25% petroleum-based, and 25% water would have a Biobased Content=66.7% (75% organic content but only 50% of the product is biobased). In another example, a product that is 50% organic carbon and is a petroleum-based product would be considered to have a Biobased Content=0% (50% organic carbon but from fossil sources). Thus, based on the well known methods and known standards for determining the biobased content of a compound or material, one skilled in the art can readily determine the biobased content and/or prepared downstream products that utilize of the invention having a desired biobased content.

Applications of carbon-14 dating techniques to quantify bio-based content of materials are known in the art (Currie et al., Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B, 172:281-287 (2000)). For example, carbon-14 dating has been used to quantify bio-based content in terephthalate-containing materials (Colonna et al., Green Chemistry, 13:2543-2548 (2011)). Notably, polypropylene terephthalate (PPT) polymers derived from renewable 1,3-propanediol and petroleum-derived terephthalic acid resulted in Fm values near 30% (i.e., since 3/11 of the polymeric carbon derives from renewable 1,3-propanediol and 8/11 from the fossil end member terephthalic acid) (Currie et al., supra, 2000). In contrast, polybutylene terephthalate polymer derived from both renewable 1,4-butanediol and renewable terephthalic acid resulted in bio-based content exceeding 90% (Colonna et al., supra, 2011).

Accordingly, in some embodiments, the present invention provides 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine pathway intermediate that has a carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 ratio that reflects an atmospheric carbon, also referred to as environmental carbon, uptake source. For example, in some aspects the 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate can have an Fm value of at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 45%, at least 50%, at least 55%, at least 60%, at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98% or as much as 100%. In some such embodiments, the uptake source is CO₂. In some embodiments, the present invention provides 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate that has a carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 ratio that reflects petroleum-based carbon uptake source. In this aspect, the 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate can have an Fm value of less than 95%, less than 90%, less than 85%, less than 80%, less than 75%, less than 70%, less than 65%, less than 60%, less than 55%, less than 50%, less than 45%, less than 40%, less than 35%, less than 30%, less than 25%, less than 20%, less than 15%, less than 10%, less than 5%, less than 2% or less than 1%. In some embodiments, the present invention provides 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate that has a carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 ratio that is obtained by a combination of an atmospheric carbon uptake source with a petroleum-based uptake source. Using such a combination of uptake sources is one way by which the carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 ratio can be varied, and the respective ratios would reflect the proportions of the uptake sources.

Further, the present invention relates to biologically produced 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate as disclosed herein, and to the products derived therefrom, wherein the 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate has a carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 isotope ratio of about the same value as the CO₂ that occurs in the environment. For example, in some aspects the invention provides bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate having a carbon-12 versus carbon-13 versus carbon-14 isotope ratio of about the same value as the CO₂ that occurs in the environment, or any of the other ratios disclosed herein. It is understood, as disclosed herein, that a product can have a carbon-12 versus carbon-13 versus carbon-14 isotope ratio of about the same value as the CO₂ that occurs in the environment, or any of the ratios disclosed herein, wherein the product is generated from bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate as disclosed herein, wherein the bioderived product is chemically modified to generate a final product. Methods of chemically modifying a bioderived product of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine, or an intermediate thereof, to generate a desired product are well known to those skilled in the art, as described herein. The invention further provides plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, having a carbon-12 versus carbon-13 versus carbon-14 isotope ratio of about the same value as the CO₂ that occurs in the environment, wherein the plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, are generated directly from or in combination with bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or a bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate as disclosed herein.

1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine are chemicals used in commercial and industrial applications. Non-limiting examples of such applications include production of plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like. Moreover, 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine are also used as a raw material in the production of a wide range of products including plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the invention provides biobased plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, comprising one or more bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate produced by a non-naturally occurring microorganism of the invention or produced using a method disclosed herein.

As used herein, the term “bioderived” means derived from or synthesized by a biological organism and can be considered a renewable resource since it can be generated by a biological organism. Such a biological organism, in particular the microbial organisms of the invention disclosed herein, can utilize feedstock or biomass, such as, sugars or carbohydrates obtained from an agricultural, plant, bacterial, or animal source. Alternatively, the biological organism can utilize atmospheric carbon. As used herein, the term “biobased” means a product as described above that is composed, in whole or in part, of a bioderived compound of the invention. A biobased or bioderived product is in contrast to a petroleum derived product, wherein such a product is derived from or synthesized from petroleum or a petrochemical feedstock.

In some embodiments, the invention provides plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, comprising bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate, wherein the bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate includes all or part of the 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate used in the production of plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like. Thus, in some aspects, the invention provides a biobased plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, comprising at least 2%, at least 3%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, at least 30%, at least 35%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98% or 100% bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate as disclosed herein. Additionally, in some aspects, the invention provides a biobased plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, wherein the 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate used in its production is a combination of bioderived and petroleum derived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate. For example, a biobased plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, can be produced using 50% bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine and 50% petroleum derived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or other desired ratios such as 60%/40%, 70%/30%, 80%/20%, 90%/10%, 95%/5%, 100%/0%, 40%/60%, 30%/70%, 20%/80%, 10%/90% of bioderived/petroleum derived precursors, so long as at least a portion of the product comprises a bioderived product produced by the microbial organisms disclosed herein. It is understood that methods for producing plastics, elastic fibers, polyurethanes, polyesters, including polyhydroxyalkanoates such as poly-4-hydroxybutyrate (P4HB) or co-polymers thereof, poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG) (also referred to as PTMO, polytetramethylene oxide) and polyurethane-polyurea copolymers, referred to as spandex, elastane or Lycra™, nylons, and the like, using the bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine or bioderived 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate, gamma-butyrolactone and/or putrescine intermediate of the invention are well known in the art.

The invention is described herein with general reference to the metabolic reaction, reactant or product thereof, or with specific reference to one or more nucleic acids or genes encoding an enzyme associated with or catalyzing the referenced metabolic reaction, reactant or product. Unless otherwise expressly stated herein, those skilled in the art will understand that reference to a reaction also constitutes reference to the reactants and products of the reaction. Similarly, unless otherwise expressly stated herein, reference to a reactant or product also references the reaction and that reference to any of these metabolic constitutes also references the gene or genes encoding the enzymes that catalyze the referenced reaction, reactant or product. Likewise, given the well known fields of metabolic biochemistry, enzymology and genomics, reference herein to a gene or encoding nucleic acid also constitutes a reference to the corresponding encoded enzyme and the reaction it catalyzes as well as the reactants and products of the reaction.

The production of 4-HB via biosynthetic modes using the microbial organisms of the invention is particularly useful because it can produce monomeric 4-HB. The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention and their biosynthesis of 4-HB and BDO family compounds also is particularly useful because the 4-HB product can be (1) secreted; (2) can be devoid of any derivatizations such as Coenzyme A; (3) avoids thermodynamic changes during biosynthesis; (4) allows direct biosynthesis of BDO, and (5) allows for the spontaneous chemical conversion of 4-HB to γ-butyrolactone (GBL) in acidic pH medium. This latter characteristic also is particularly useful for efficient chemical synthesis or biosynthesis of BDO family compounds such as 1,4-butanediol and/or tetrahydrofuran (THF), for example.

Microbial organisms generally lack the capacity to synthesize 4-HB and therefore any of the compounds disclosed herein to be within the 1,4-butanediol family of compounds or known by those in the art to be within the 1,4-butanediol family of compounds. Moreover, organisms having all of the requisite metabolic enzymatic capabilities are not known to produce 4-HB from the enzymes described and biochemical pathways exemplified herein. Rather, with the possible exception of a few anaerobic microorganisms described further below, the microorganisms having the enzymatic capability to use 4-HB as a substrate to produce, for example, succinate. In contrast, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can generate 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine as a product. As described above, the biosynthesis of 4-HB in its monomeric form is not only particularly useful in chemical synthesis of BDO family of compounds, it also allows for the further biosynthesis of BDO family compounds and avoids altogether chemical synthesis procedures.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention that can produce 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine are produced by ensuring that a host microbial organism includes functional capabilities for the complete biochemical synthesis of at least one 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrscine biosynthetic pathway of the invention. Ensuring at least one requisite 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA or BDO biosynthetic pathway confers 4-HB biosynthesis capability onto the host microbial organism.

Several 4-HB biosynthetic pathways are exemplified herein and shown for purposes of illustration in FIG. 1. Additional 4-HB and BDO pathways are described in FIGS. 8-13. One 4-HB biosynthetic pathway includes the biosynthesis of 4-HB from succinate (the succinate pathway). The enzymes participating in this 4-HB pathway include CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase. In this pathway, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (succinate reductase) catalyzes the reverse reaction to the arrow shown in FIG. 1. Another 4-HB biosynthetic pathway includes the biosynthesis from succinate through succinyl-CoA (the succinyl-CoA pathway). The enzymes participating in this 4-HB pathway include succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase. Three other 4-HB biosynthetic pathways include the biosynthesis of 4-HB from α-ketoglutarate (the α-ketoglutarate pathways). Hence, a third 4-HB biosynthetic pathway is the biosynthesis of succinic semialdehyde through glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase. A fourth 4-HB biosynthetic pathway also includes the biosynthesis of 4-HB from α-ketoglutarate, but utilizes α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase to catalyze succinic semialdehyde synthesis. 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase catalyzes the conversion of succinic semialdehyde to 4-HB. A fifth 4-HB biosynthetic pathway includes the biosynthesis from α-ketoglutarate through succinyl-CoA and utilizes α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase to produce succinyl-CoA, which funnels into the succinyl-CoA pathway described above. Each of these 4-HB biosynthetic pathways, their substrates, reactants and products are described further below in the Examples. As described herein, 4-HB can further be biosynthetically converted to BDO by inclusion of appropriate enzymes to produce BDO (see Example). Thus, it is understood that a 4-HB pathway can be used with enzymes for converting 4-HB to BDO to generate a BDO pathway.

As disclosed herein, the product 4-hydroxybutyrate, as well as other intermediates and/or products, such as succinate, are carboxylic acids, which can occur in various ionized forms, including fully protonated, partially protonated, and fully deprotonated forms. Accordingly, the suffix “-ate,” or the acid form, can be used interchangeably to describe both the free acid form as well as any deprotonated form, in particular since the ionized form is known to depend on the pH in which the compound is found. It is understood that carboxylate products or intermediates includes ester forms of carboxylate products or pathway intermediates, such as O-carboxylate and S-carboxylate esters. O- and S-carboxylates can include lower alkyl, that is C1 to C6, branched or straight chain carboxylates. Some such O- or S-carboxylates include, without limitation, methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, n-butyl, i-propyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl, pentyl, hexyl O- or S-carboxylates, any of which can further possess an unsaturation, providing for example, propenyl, butenyl, pentyl, and hexenyl O- or S-carboxylates. O-carboxylates can be the product of a biosynthetic pathway. Exemplary O-carboxylates accessed via biosynthetic pathways can include, without limitation, methyl 4-hydroxybutyrate, ethyl 4-hydroxybutyrate, and n-propyl 4-hydroxybutyrate. Other biosynthetically accessible O-carboxylates can include medium to long chain groups, that is C7-C22, O-carboxylate esters derived from fatty alcohols, such heptyl, octyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl, lauryl, tridecyl, myristyl, pentadecyl, cetyl, palmitolyl, heptadecyl, stearyl, nonadecyl, arachidyl, heneicosyl, and behenyl alcohols, any one of which can be optionally branched and/or contain unsaturations. O-carboxylate esters can also be accessed via a biochemical or chemical process, such as esterification of a free carboxylic acid product or transesterification of an O- or S-carboxylate. S-carboxylates are exemplified by CoA S-esters, cysteinyl S-esters, alkylthioesters, and various aryl and heteroaryl thioesters.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be produced by introducing expressible nucleic acids encoding one or more of the enzymes participating in one or more 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathways. Depending on the host microbial organism chosen for biosynthesis, nucleic acids for some or all of a particular 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway can be expressed. For example, if a chosen host is deficient in one or more enzymes in a desired biosynthetic pathway, for example, the succinate to 4-HB pathway, then expressible nucleic acids for the deficient enzyme(s), for example, both CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase in this example, are introduced into the host for subsequent exogenous expression. Alternatively, if the chosen host exhibits endogenous expression of some pathway enzymes, but is deficient in others, then an encoding nucleic acid is needed for the deficient enzyme(s) to achieve 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthesis. For example, if the chosen host exhibits endogenous CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, but is deficient in 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, then an encoding nucleic acid is needed for this enzyme to achieve 4-HB biosynthesis. Thus, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can be produced by introducing exogenous enzyme or protein activities to obtain a desired biosynthetic pathway or a desired biosynthetic pathway can be obtained by introducing one or more exogenous enzyme or protein activities that, together with one or more endogenous enzymes or proteins, produces a desired product such as 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO and/or putrescine.

In like fashion, where 4-HB biosynthesis is selected to occur through the succinate to succinyl-CoA pathway (the succinyl-CoA pathway), encoding nucleic acids for host deficiencies in the enzymes succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and/or 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase are to be exogenously expressed in the recipient host. Selection of 4-HB biosynthesis through the α-ketoglutarate to succinic semialdehyde pathway (the α-ketoglutarate pathway) can utilize exogenous expression for host deficiencies in one or more of the enzymes for glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase and/or 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, or α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase. One skilled in the art can readily determine pathway enzymes for production of 4-HB or BDO, as disclosed herein.

Depending on the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway constituents of a selected host microbial organism, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention will include at least one exogenously expressed 4-HB, 4-HB, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway-encoding nucleic acid and up to all encoding nucleic acids for one or more 4-HB or BDO biosynthetic pathways. For example, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthesis can be established in a host deficient in a pathway enzyme or protein through exogenous expression of the corresponding encoding nucleic acid. In a host deficient in all enzymes or proteins of a 4-HB, 4-HB, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, exogenous expression of all enzyme or proteins in the pathway can be included, although it is understood that all enzymes or proteins of a pathway can be expressed even if the host contains at least one of the pathway enzymes or proteins. If desired, exogenous expression of all enzymes or proteins in a pathway for production of 4-HB, 4-HB, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine can be included. For example, 4-HB biosynthesis can be established from all five pathways in a host deficient in 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase through exogenous expression of a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase encoding nucleic acid. In contrast, 4-HB biosynthesis can be established from all five pathways in a host deficient in all eight enzymes through exogenous expression of all eight of CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that the number of encoding nucleic acids to introduce in an expressible form will, at least, parallel the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway deficiencies of the selected host microbial organism. Therefore, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention can have one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight or up to all nucleic acids encoding the enzymes disclosed herein constituting one or more 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathways. In some embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms also can include other genetic modifications that facilitate or optimize 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthesis or that confer other useful functions onto the host microbial organism. One such other functionality can include, for example, augmentation of the synthesis of one or more of the 4-HB pathway precursors such as succinate, succinyl-CoA, α-ketoglutarate, 4-aminobutyrate, glutamate, acetoacetyl-CoA, and/or homoserine.

Generally, a host microbial organism is selected such that it produces the precursor of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, either as a naturally produced molecule or as an engineered product that either provides de novo production of a desired precursor or increased production of a precursor naturally produced by the host microbial organism. For example, succinyl-CoA, α-ketoglutarate, 4-aminobutyrate, glutamate, acetoacetyl-CoA, and homoserine are produced naturally in a host organism such as E. coli. A host organism can be engineered to increase production of a precursor, as disclosed herein. In addition, a microbial organism that has been engineered to produce a desired precursor can be used as a host organism and further engineered to express enzymes or proteins of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway.

In some embodiments, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention is generated from a host that contains the enzymatic capability to synthesize 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine. In this specific embodiment it can be useful to increase the synthesis or accumulation of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway product to, for example, drive 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway reactions toward 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine production. Increased synthesis or accumulation can be accomplished by, for example, overexpression of nucleic acids encoding one or more of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzymes disclosed herein. Over expression of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme or enzymes can occur, for example, through exogenous expression of the endogenous gene or genes, or through exogenous expression of the heterologous gene or genes. Therefore, naturally occurring organisms can be readily generated to be non-naturally 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing microbial organisms of the invention through overexpression of one, two, three, four, five, six and so forth up to all nucleic acids encoding 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway enzymes. In addition, a non-naturally occurring organism can be generated by mutagenesis of an endogenous gene that results in an increase in activity of an enzyme in the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway.

In particularly useful embodiments, exogenous expression of the encoding nucleic acids is employed. Exogenous expression confers the ability to custom tailor the expression and/or regulatory elements to the host and application to achieve a desired expression level that is controlled by the user. However, endogenous expression also can be utilized in other embodiments such as by removing a negative regulatory effector or induction of the gene's promoter when linked to an inducible promoter or other regulatory element. Thus, an endogenous gene having a naturally occurring inducible promoter can be up-regulated by providing the appropriate inducing agent, or the regulatory region of an endogenous gene can be engineered to incorporate an inducible regulatory element, thereby allowing the regulation of increased expression of an endogenous gene at a desired time. Similarly, an inducible promoter can be included as a regulatory element for an exogenous gene introduced into a non-naturally occurring microbial organism (see Examples).

“Exogenous” as it is used herein is intended to mean that the referenced molecule or the referenced activity is introduced into the host microbial organism. The molecule can be introduced, for example, by introduction of an encoding nucleic acid into the host genetic material such as by integration into a host chromosome or as non-chromosomal genetic material such as a plasmid. Therefore, the term as it is used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to introduction of the encoding nucleic acid in an expressible form into the microbial organism. When used in reference to a biosynthetic activity, the term refers to an activity that is introduced into the host reference organism. The source can be, for example, a homologous or heterologous encoding nucleic acid that expresses the referenced activity following introduction into the host microbial organism. Therefore, the term “endogenous” refers to a referenced molecule or activity that is present in the host. Similarly, the term when used in reference to expression of an encoding nucleic acid refers to expression of an encoding nucleic acid contained within the microbial organism. The term “heterologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from a source other than the referenced species whereas “homologous” refers to a molecule or activity derived from the host microbial organism. Accordingly, exogenous expression of an encoding nucleic acid of the invention can utilize either or both a heterologous or homologous encoding nucleic acid.

It is understood that when more than one exogenous nucleic acid is included in a microbial organism that the more than one exogenous nucleic acids refers to the referenced encoding nucleic acid or biosynthetic activity, as discussed above. It is further understood, as disclosed herein, that such more than one exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into the host microbial organism on separate nucleic acid molecules, on polycistronic nucleic acid molecules, or a combination thereof, and still be considered as more than one exogenous nucleic acid. For example, as disclosed herein a microbial organism can be engineered to express two or more exogenous nucleic acids encoding a desired pathway enzyme or protein. In the case where two exogenous nucleic acids encoding a desired activity are introduced into a host microbial organism, it is understood that the two exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced as a single nucleic acid, for example, on a single plasmid, on separate plasmids, can be integrated into the host chromosome at a single site or multiple sites, and still be considered as two exogenous nucleic acids. Similarly, it is understood that more than two exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a host organism in any desired combination, for example, on a single plasmid, on separate plasmids, can be integrated into the host chromosome at a single site or multiple sites, and still be considered as two or more exogenous nucleic acids, for example three exogenous nucleic acids. Thus, the number of referenced exogenous nucleic acids or biosynthetic activities refers to the number of encoding nucleic acids or the number of biosynthetic activities, not the number of separate nucleic acids introduced into the host organism.

Sources of encoding nucleic acids for a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme can include, for example, any species where the encoded gene product is capable of catalyzing the referenced reaction. Such species include both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms including, but not limited to, bacteria, including archaea and eubacteria, and eukaryotes, including yeast, plant, insect, animal, and mammal, including human. Exemplary species for such sources include, for example, Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces kluyveri, Clostridium kluyveri, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Clostridium beijerinckii, Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tyrobutyricum, Clostridium tetanomorphum, Clostridium tetani, Clostridium propionicum, Clostridium aminobutyricum, Clostridium subterminale, Clostridium sticklandii, Ralstonia eutropha, Mycobacterium bovis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Arabidopsis thaliana, Thermus thermophilus, Pseudomonas species, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Homo sapiens, Oryctolagus cuniculus, Rhodobacter spaeroides, Thermoanaerobacter brockii, Metallosphaera sedula, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Chloroflexus aurantiacus, Roseiflexus castenholzii, Erythrobacter, Simmondsia chinensis, Acinetobacter species, including Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and Acinetobacter baylyi, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Sulfolobus tokodaii, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Sulfolobus acidocaldarius, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus brevis, Bacillus pumilus, Rattus norvegicus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Klebsiella oxytoca, Euglena gracilis, Treponema denticola, Moorella thermoacetica, Thermotoga maritima, Halobacterium salinarum, Geobacillus stearothermophilus, Aeropyrum pernix, Sus scrofa, Caenorhabditis elegans, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Acidaminococcus fermentans, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Enterobacter aerogenes, Candida, Aspergillus terreus, Pedicoccus pentosaceus, Zymomonas mobilus, Acetobacter pasteurians, Kluyveromyces lactis, Eubacterium barkeri, Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, Natranaerobius thermophilusm, Campylobacter jejuni, Haemophilus influenzae, Serratia marcescens, Citrobacter amalonaticus, Myxococcus xanthus, Fusobacterium nuleatum, Penicillium chrysogenum, marine gamma proteobacterium, butyrate producing bacterium, Nocardia iowensis, Nocardia farcinica, Streptomyces griseus, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius, Salmonella typhimurium, Vibrio cholera, Heliobacter pylori, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Haloferax mediterranei, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Achromobacter denitrificans, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Streptomyces clavuligenus, Acinetobacter baumanii, Mus musculus, Lachancea kluyveri, Trichomonas vaginalis, Trypanosoma brucei, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, Mesorhizobium loti, Bos taurus, Nicotiana glutinosa, Vibrio vulnificus, Selenomonas ruminantium, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Haloarcula marismortui, Pyrobaculum aerophilum, Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2 155, Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis K-10, Mycobacterium marinum M, Tsukamurella paurometabola DSM 20162, Cyanobium PCC7001, Dictyostelium discoideum AX4, and others disclosed herein or available as source organisms for corresponding genes (see Examples). For example, microbial organisms having 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic production are exemplified herein with reference to E. coli and yeast hosts. However, with the complete genome sequence available for now more than 550 species (with more than half of these available on public databases such as the NCBI), including 395 microorganism genomes and a variety of yeast, fungi, plant, and mammalian genomes, the identification of genes encoding the requisite 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic activity for one or more genes in related or distant species, including for example, homologues, orthologs, paralogs and nonorthologous gene displacements of known genes, and the interchange of genetic alterations between organisms is routine and well known in the art. Accordingly, the metabolic alterations allowing biosynthesis of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and other compounds of the invention described herein with reference to a particular organism such as E. coli or yeast can be readily applied to other microorganisms, including prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms alike. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will know that a metabolic alteration exemplified in one organism can be applied equally to other organisms.

In some instances, such as when an alternative 4-HB, 4-HBal, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway exists in an unrelated species, 4-HB, 4-HBal, BDO or putrescine biosynthesis can be conferred onto the host species by, for example, exogenous expression of a paralog or paralogs from the unrelated species that catalyzes a similar, yet non-identical metabolic reaction to replace the referenced reaction. Because certain differences among metabolic networks exist between different organisms, those skilled in the art will understand that the actual gene usage between different organisms may differ. However, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art also will understand that the teachings and methods of the invention can be applied to all microbial organisms using the cognate metabolic alterations to those exemplified herein to construct a microbial organism in a species of interest that will synthesize 4-HB, such as monomeric 4-HB, 4-HBal, BDO or putrescine.

Host microbial organisms can be selected from, and the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms generated in, for example, bacteria, yeast, fungus or any of a variety of other microorganisms applicable to fermentation processes. Exemplary bacteria include species selected from Escherichia coli, Klebsiella oxytoca, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Rhizobium etli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis, Lactococcus lactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor, Clostridium acetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Pseudomonas putida. Exemplary yeasts or fungi include species selected from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus niger, Pichia pastoris, Rhizopus arrhizus, Rhizobus oryzae, and the like. E. coli is a particularly useful host organisms since it is a well characterized microbial organism suitable for genetic engineering. Other particularly useful host organisms include yeast such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae. It is understood that any suitable microbial host organism can be used to introduce metabolic and/or genetic modifications to produce a desired product.

Methods for constructing and testing the expression levels of a non-naturally occurring 4-HB-, 4-HBal-, 4-HBCoA-, BDO-, or putrescine-producing host can be performed, for example, by recombinant and detection methods well known in the art. Such methods can be found described in, for example, Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (2001); Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, John Wiley and Sons, Baltimore, Md. (1999). 4-HB and GBL can be separated by, for example, HPLC using a Spherisorb 5 ODS1 column and a mobile phase of 70% 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH=7) and 30% methanol, and detected using a UV detector at 215 nm (Hennessy et al. 2004, J. Forensic Sci. 46(6):1-9). BDO is detected by gas chromatography or by HPLC and refractive index detector using an Aminex HPX-87H column and a mobile phase of 0.5 mM sulfuric acid (Gonzalez-Pajuelo et al., Met. Eng. 7:329-336 (2005)).

Exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a pathway for production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine can be introduced stably or transiently into a host cell using techniques well known in the art including, but not limited to, conjugation, electroporation, chemical transformation, transduction, transfection, and ultrasound transformation. For exogenous expression in E. coli or other prokaryotic cells, some nucleic acid sequences in the genes or cDNAs of eukaryotic nucleic acids can encode targeting signals such as an N-terminal mitochondrial or other targeting signal, which can be removed before transformation into prokaryotic host cells, if desired. For example, removal of a mitochondrial leader sequence led to increased expression in E. coli (Hoffmeister et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4329-4338 (2005)). For exogenous expression in yeast or other eukaryotic cells, genes can be expressed in the cytosol without the addition of leader sequence, or can be targeted to mitochondrion or other organelles, or targeted for secretion, by the addition of a suitable targeting sequence such as a mitochondrial targeting or secretion signal suitable for the host cells. Thus, it is understood that appropriate modifications to a nucleic acid sequence to remove or include a targeting sequence can be incorporated into an exogenous nucleic acid sequence to impart desirable properties. Furthermore, genes can be subjected to codon optimization with techniques well known in the art to achieve optimized expression of the proteins.

An expression vector or vectors can be constructed to harbor one or more 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway and/or one or more biosynthetic encoding nucleic acids as exemplified herein operably linked to expression control sequences functional in the host organism. Expression vectors applicable for use in the microbial host organisms of the invention include, for example, plasmids, phage vectors, viral vectors, episomes and artificial chromosomes, including vectors and selection sequences or markers operable for stable integration into a host chromosome. Additionally, the expression vectors can include one or more selectable marker genes and appropriate expression control sequences. Selectable marker genes also can be included that, for example, provide resistance to antibiotics or toxins, complement auxotrophic deficiencies, or supply critical nutrients not in the culture media. Expression control sequences can include constitutive and inducible promoters, transcription enhancers, transcription terminators, and the like which are well known in the art. When two or more exogenous encoding nucleic acids are to be co-expressed, both nucleic acids can be inserted, for example, into a single expression vector or in separate expression vectors. For single vector expression, the encoding nucleic acids can be operationally linked to one common expression control sequence or linked to different expression control sequences, such as one inducible promoter and one constitutive promoter. The transformation of exogenous nucleic acid sequences involved in a metabolic or synthetic pathway can be confirmed using methods well known in the art. Such methods include, for example, nucleic acid analysis such as Northern blots or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of mRNA, or immunoblotting for expression of gene products, or other suitable analytical methods to test the expression of an introduced nucleic acid sequence or its corresponding gene product. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in a sufficient amount to produce the desired product, and it is further understood that expression levels can be optimized to obtain sufficient expression using methods well known in the art and as disclosed herein.

The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention are constructed using methods well known in the art as exemplified herein to exogenously express at least one nucleic acid encoding a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme in sufficient amounts to produce 4-HB, such as monomeric 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine. It is understood that the microbial organisms of the invention are cultured under conditions sufficient to produce 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine. Exemplary levels of expression for 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine enzymes in each pathway are described further below in the Examples. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can achieve biosynthesis of 4-HB, such as monomeric 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine resulting in intracellular concentrations between about 0.1-200 mM or more, for example, 0.1-25 mM or more. Generally, the intracellular concentration of 4-HB, such as monomeric 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine is between about 3-150 mM or more, particularly about 5-125 mM or more, and more particularly between about 8-100 mM, for example, about 3-20 mM, particularly between about 5-15 mM and more particularly between about 8-12 mM, including about 10 mM, 20 mM, 50 mM, 80 mM or more. Intracellular concentrations between and above each of these exemplary ranges also can be achieved from the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention. In particular embodiments, the microbial organisms of the invention, particularly strains such as those disclosed herein (see Examples XII-XIX and Table 28), can provide improved production of a desired product such as 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine by increasing the production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and/or decreasing undesirable byproducts. Such production levels include, but are not limited to, those disclosed herein and including from about 1 gram to about 25 grams per liter, for example about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, or even higher amounts of product per liter.

In addition to the culturing and fermentation conditions disclosed herein, growth condition for achieving biosynthesis of BDO, 4-HB, 4-HBCoA, 4-HBal and/or putrescine can include the addition of an osmoprotectant to the culturing conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained, cultured or fermented as described herein in the presence of an osmoprotectant. Briefly, an osmoprotectant refers to a compound that acts as an osmolyte and helps a microbial organism as described herein survive osmotic stress. Osmoprotectants include, but are not limited to, betaines, amino acids, and the sugar trehalose. Non-limiting examples of such are glycine betaine, praline betaine, dimethylthetin, dimethylslfonioproprionate, 3-dimethylsulfonio-2-methylproprionate, pipecolic acid, dimethylsulfonioacetate, choline, L-carnitine and ectoine. In one aspect, the osmoprotectant is glycine betaine. It is understood to one of ordinary skill in the art that the amount and type of osmoprotectant suitable for protecting a microbial organism described herein from osmotic stress will depend on the microbial organism used. The amount of osmoprotectant in the culturing conditions can be, for example, no more than about 0.1 mM, no more than about 0.5 mM, no more than about 1.0 mM, no more than about 1.5 mM, no more than about 2.0 mM, no more than about 2.5 mM, no more than about 3.0 mM, no more than about 5.0 mM, no more than about 7.0 mM, no more than about 10 mM, no more than about 50 mM, no more than about 100 mM or no more than about 500 mM.

In some embodiments, culture conditions include anaerobic or substantially anaerobic growth or maintenance conditions. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well known in the art. Exemplary anaerobic conditions for fermentation processes are described herein and are described, for example, in U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Any of these conditions can be employed with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms as well as other anaerobic conditions well known in the art. Under such anaerobic conditions or substantially anaerobic, the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producers can synthesize 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine at intracellular concentrations of 5-10 mM or more as well as all other concentrations exemplified herein. It is understood that, even though the above description refers to intracellular concentrations, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing microbial organisms can produce 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine intracellularly and/or secrete the product into the culture medium.

The culture conditions can include, for example, liquid culture procedures as well as fermentation and other large scale culture procedures. As described herein, particularly useful yields of the biosynthetic products of the invention can be obtained under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic culture conditions.

As described herein, one exemplary growth condition for achieving biosynthesis of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine includes anaerobic culture or fermentation conditions. In certain embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can be sustained, cultured or fermented under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic conditions. Briefly, anaerobic conditions refers to an environment devoid of oxygen. Substantially anaerobic conditions include, for example, a culture, batch fermentation or continuous fermentation such that the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium remains between 0 and 10% of saturation. Substantially anaerobic conditions also includes growing or resting cells in liquid medium or on solid agar inside a sealed chamber maintained with an atmosphere of less than 1% oxygen. The percent of oxygen can be maintained by, for example, sparging the culture with an N2/CO2 mixture or other suitable non-oxygen gas or gases.

The invention also provides a non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalyst including a microbial organism having 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO) biosynthetic pathways that include at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, CoA-independent aldehyde dehydrogenase, CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase or alcohol dehydrogenase, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in sufficient amounts to produce 1,4-butanediol (BDO). 4-Hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase also is known as 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase. Additional 4-HB or BDO pathway enzymes are also disclosed herein (see Examples and FIGS. 8-13).

The invention further provides non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalyst including a microbial organism having 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO) biosynthetic pathways, the pathways include at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase or an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase, wherein the exogenous nucleic acid is expressed in sufficient amounts to produce 1,4-butanediol (BDO).

Non-naturally occurring microbial organisms also can be generated which biosynthesize BDO. As with the 4-HB producing microbial organisms of the invention, the BDO producing microbial organisms also can produce intracellularly or secret the BDO into the culture medium. Following the teachings and guidance provided previously for the construction of microbial organisms that synthesize 4-HB, additional BDO pathways can be incorporated into the 4-HB producing microbial organisms to generate organisms that also synthesize BDO and other BDO family compounds. The chemical synthesis of BDO and its downstream products are known. The non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention capable of BDO biosynthesis circumvent these chemical synthesis using 4-HB as an entry point as illustrated in FIG. 1. As described further below, the 4-HB producers also can be used to chemically convert 4-HB to GBL and then to BDO or THF, for example. Alternatively, the 4-HB producers can be further modified to include biosynthetic capabilities for conversion of 4-HB and/or GBL to BDO.

The additional BDO pathways to introduce into 4-HB producers include, for example, the exogenous expression in a host deficient background or the overexpression of one or more of the enzymes exemplified in FIG. 1 as steps 9-13. One such pathway includes, for example, the enzyme activies necessary to carryout the reactions shown as steps 9, 12 and 13 in FIG. 1, where the aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenases can be separate enzymes or a multifunctional enzyme having both aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Another such pathway includes, for example, the enzyme activities necessary to carry out the reactions shown as steps 10, 11, 12 and 13 in FIG. 1, also where the aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenases can be separate enzymes or a multifunctional enzyme having both aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenase activity. Accordingly, the additional BDO pathways to introduce into 4-HB producers include, for example, the exogenous expression in a host deficient background or the overexpression of one or more of a 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, CoA-independent aldehyde dehydrogenase, CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase or an alcohol dehydrogenase. In the absence of endogenous acyl-CoA synthetase capable of modifying 4-HB, the non-naturally occurring BDO producing microbial organisms can further include an exogenous acyl-CoA synthetase selective for 4-HB, or the combination of multiple enzymes that have as a net reaction conversion of 4-HB into 4-HB-CoA. As exemplified further below in the Examples, butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase exhibit BDO pathway activity and catalyze the conversions illustrated in FIG. 1 with a 4-HB substrate. Therefore, these enzymes also can be referred to herein as 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotranshydroxybutyrylase respectively.

Exemplary alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases that can be used for these in vivo conversions from 4-HB to BDO are listed below in Table 1.

TABLE1
Alcohol and Aldehyde Dehydrogenases
for Conversion of 4-HB to BDO.
ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASES
ec:1.1.1.1   alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.2   alcohol dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.4   (R,R)-butanediol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.5   acetoin dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.6   glycerol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.7   propanediol-phosphate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.8   glycerol-3-phosphate
             dehydrogenase (NAD+)
ec:1.1.1.11  D-arabinitol 4-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.12  L-arabinitol 4-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.13  L-arabinitol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.14  L-iditol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.15  D-iditol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.16  galactitol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.17  mannitol-l-phosphate 5-
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.18  inositol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.21  aldehyde reductase
ec:1.1.1.23  histidinol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.26  glyoxylate reductase
ec:1.1.1.27  L-lactate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.28  D-lactate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.29  glycerate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.30  3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.31  3-hydroxyisobutyrate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.35  3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.36  acetoacetyl-CoA reductase
ec:1.1.1.37  malate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.38  malate dehydrogenase
             (oxaloacetate-decarboxylating)
ec:1.1.1.39  malate dehydrogenase
             (decarboxylating)
ec:1.1.1.40  malate dehydrogenase
             (oxaloacetate-decarboxylating) (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.41  isocitrate dehydrogenase (NAD+)
ec:1.1.1.42  isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.54  allyl-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.55  lactaldehyde reductase (NADPH)
ec:1.1.1.56  ribitol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.59  3-hydroxypropionate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.60  2-hydroxy-3-oxopropionate
             reductase
ec:1.1.1.61  4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.66  omega-hydroxydecanoate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.67  mannitol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.71  alcohol dehydrogenase [NAD(P)+]
ec:1.1.1.72  glycerol dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.73  octanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.75  (R)-aminopropanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.76  (S,S)-butanediol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.77  lactaldehyde reductase
ec:1.1.1.78  methylglyoxal reductase (NADH-
             dependent)
ec:1.1.1.79  glyoxylate reductase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.80  isopropanol dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.81  hydroxypyruvate reductase
ec:1.1.1.82  malate dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.83  D-malate dehydrogenase
             (decarboxylating)
ec:1.1.1.84  dimethylmalate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.85  3-isopropylmalate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.86  ketol-acid reductoisomerase
ec:1.1.1.87  homoisocitrate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.88  hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA
             reductase
ec:1.1.1.90  aryl-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.91  aryl-alcohol dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.92  oxaloglycolate reductase
             (decarboxylating)
ec:1.1.1.94  glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
             [NAD(P)+]
ec:1.1.1.95  phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.97  3-hydroxybenzyl-alcohol
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.101 acylglycerone-phosphate reductase
ec:1.1.1.103 L-threonine 3-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.104 4-oxoproline reductase
ec:1.1.1.105 retinol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.110 indolelactate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.112 indanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.113 L-xylose 1-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.129 L-threonate 3-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.137 ribitol-5-phosphate 2-
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.138 mannitol 2-dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.140 sorbitol-6-phosphate 2-
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.142 D-pinitol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.143 sequoyitol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.144 perillyl-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.156 glycerol 2-dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.157 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.163 cyclopentanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.164 hexadecanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.165 2-alkyn-l-ol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.166 hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.167 hydroxymalonate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.174 cyclohexane-1,2-diol
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.177 glycerol-3-phosphate 1-
             dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.1.1.178 3-hydroxy-2-methylbutyryl-CoA
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.185 L-glycol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.190 indole-3-acetaldehyde reductase
             (NADH)
ec:1.1.1.191 indole-3-acetaldehyde reductase
             (NADPH)
ec:1.1.1.192 long-chain-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.194 coniferyl-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.195 cinnamyl-alcohol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.198 (+)-borneol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.202 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.207 (-)-menthol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.208 (+)-neomenthol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.216 farnesol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.217 benzyl-2-methyl-hydroxybutyrate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.222 (R)-4-hydroxyphenyllactate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.223 isopiperitenol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.226 4-hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.229 diethyl 2-methyl-3-oxosuccinate
             reductase
ec:1.1.1.237 hydroxyphenylpyruvate reductase
ec:1.1.1.244 methanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.245 cyclohexanol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.250 D-arabinitol 2-dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.251 galactitol 1-phosphate 5-
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.255 mannitol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.256 fluoren-9-ol dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.257 4-
             (hydroxymethyl)benzenesulfonate dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.258 6-hydroxyhexanoate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.259 3-hydroxypimeloyl-CoA
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.261 glycerol-1 -phosphate
             dehydrogenase [NAD(P)+]
ec:1.1.1.265 3-methylbutanal reductase
ec:1.1.1.283 methylglyoxal reductase (NADPH-
             dependent)
ec:1.1.1.286 isocitrate-homoisocitrate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.1.1.287 D-arabinitol dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
             butanol dehydrogenase
ALDEHYDE DEHYDROGENASES
ec:1.2.1.2   formate dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.3   aldehyde dehydrogenase (NAD+)
ec:1.2.1.4   aldehyde dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.5   aldehyde dehydrogenase
             [NAD(P)+]
ec:1.2.1.7   benzaldehyde dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.8   betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.9   glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
             dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.10  acetaldehyde dehydrogenase
             (acetylating)
ec:1.2.1.11  aspartate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.12  glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
             dehydrogenase (phosphorylating)
ec:1.2.1.13  glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
             dehydrogenase (NADP+) (phosphorylating)
ec:1.2.1.15  malonate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.16  succinate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase [NAD(P)+]
ec:1.2.1.17  glyoxylate dehydrogenase
             (acylating)
ec:1.2.1.18  malonate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase (acetylating)
ec:1.2.1.19  aminobutyraldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.20  glutarate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.21  glycolaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.22  lactaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.23  2-oxoaldehyde dehydrogenase
             (NAD+)
ec:1.2.1.24  succinate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.25  2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase
             (acylating)
ec: 1.2.1.26 2,5-dioxovalerate dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.27  methylmalonate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase (acylating)
ec:1.2.1.28  benzaldehyde dehydrogenase
             (NAD+)
ec:1.2.1.29  aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.30  aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.31  L-aminoadipate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.32  aminomuconate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.36  retinal dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.39  phenylacetaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.41  glutamate-5-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.42  hexadecanal dehydrogenase
             (acylating)
ec:1.2.1.43  formate dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.45  4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate-6-
             semialdehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.46  formaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.47  4-trimethylammoniobutyraldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.48  long-chain-aldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.49  2-oxoaldehyde dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.51  pyruvate dehydrogenase (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.52  oxoglutarate dehydrogenase
             (NADP+)
ec:1.2.1.53  4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.57  butanal dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.58  phenylglyoxylate dehydrogenase
             (acylating)
ec:1.2.1.59  glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
             dehydrogenase (NAD(P)+) (phosphorylating)
ec:1.2.1.62  4-formylbenzenesulfonate
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.63  6-oxohexanoate dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.64  4-hydroxybenzaldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.65  salicylaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.66  mycothiol-dependent formaldehyde
             dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.67  vanillin dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.68  coniferyl-aldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.69  fluoroacetaldehyde dehydrogenase
ec:1.2.1.71  succinylglutamate-semialdehyde
             dehydrogenase

Other exemplary enzymes and pathways are disclosed herein (see Examples). Furthermore, it is understood that enzymes can be utilized for carry out reactions for which the substrate is not the natural substrate. While the activity for the non-natural substrate may be lower than the natural substrate, it is understood that such enzymes can be utilized, either as naturally occurring or modified using the directed evolution or adaptive evolution, as disclosed herein (see also Examples).

BDO production through any of the pathways disclosed herein are based, in part, on the identification of the appropriate enzymes for conversion of precursors to BDO. A number of specific enzymes for several of the reaction steps have been identified. For those transformations where enzymes specific to the reaction precursors have not been identified, enzyme candidates have been identified that are best suited for catalyzing the reaction steps. Enzymes have been shown to operate on a broad range of substrates, as discussed below. In addition, advances in the field of protein engineering also make it feasible to alter enzymes to act efficiently on substrates, even if not a natural substrate. Described below are several examples of broad-specificity enzymes from diverse classes suitable for a BDO pathway as well as methods that have been used for evolving enzymes to act on non-natural substrates.

A key class of enzymes in BDO pathways is the oxidoreductases that interconvert ketones or aldehydes to alcohols (1.1.1). Numerous exemplary enzymes in this class can operate on a wide range of substrates. An alcohol dehydrogenase (1.1.1.1) purified from the soil bacterium Brevibacterium sp KU 1309 (Hirano et al., J. Biosc. Bioeng. 100:318-322 (2005)) was shown to operate on a plethora of aliphatic as well as aromatic alcohols with high activities. Table 2 shows the activity of the enzyme and its K_m on different alcohols. The enzyme is reversible and has very high activity on several aldehydes also (Table 3).

TABLE 2
Relative activities of an alcohol dehydrogenase from
Brevibacterium sp KU to oxidize various alcohols.
		Relative Activity	Km
	Substrate	(0%)	(mM)
	2-Phenylethanol	100*	0.025
	(S)-2-Phenylpropanol	156	0.157
	(R)-2-Phenylpropanol	63	0.020
	Bynzyl alcohol	199	0.012
	3-Phenylpropanol	135	0.033
	Ethanol	76
	1-Butanol	111
	1-Octanol	101
	1-Dodecanol	68
	1-Phenylethanol	46
	2-Propanol	54
	*The activity of 2-phenylethanol, corresponding to 19.2 U/mg, was taken as 100%.

TABLE 3
Relative activities of an alcohol dehydrogenase from Brevibacterium
sp KU 1309 to reduce various carbonyl compounds.
	Relative Activity	Km
Substrate	(%)	(mM)
Phenylacetaldehyde	100	0.261
2-Phenylpropionaldehyde	188	0.864
1-Octylaldehyde	87
Acetophenone	0

Lactate dehydrogenase (1.1.1.27) from Ralstonia eutropha is another enzyme that has been demonstrated to have high activities on several 2-oxoacids such as 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoate and 2-oxoglutarate (a C5 compound analogous to 2-oxoadipate) (Steinbuchel and Schlegel, Eur. J. Biochem. 130:329-334 (1983)). Column 2 in Table 4 demonstrates the activities of ldhA from R. eutropha (formerly A. eutrophus) on different substrates (Steinbuchel and Schlegel, supra, 1983).

TABLE 4
The in vitro activity of R.eutropha IdhA (Steinbuchel and Schlegel, supra,
1983) on different substrates and compared with that on pyruvate.
		Activity (%) of
	L(+)-lactate	L(+)-lactate	D(−)-lactate
	dehydrogenase	dehydrogenase	dehydrogenase
	from A.	from rabbit	from L.
Substrate	eutrophus	muscle	leichmanii
Glyoxylate	8.7	23.9	5.0
Pyruvate	100.0	100.0	100.0
2-Oxobutyrate	107.0	18.6	1.1
2-Oxovalerate	125.0	0.7	0.0
3-Methyl-2-	28.5	0.0	0.0
oxobutyrate
3-Methyl-2-	5.3	0.0	0.0
oxovalerate
4-Methyl-2-	39.0	1.4	1.1
oxopentanoate
Oxaloacetate	0.0	33.1	23.1
2-Oxoglutarate	79.6	0.0	0.0
3-Fluoropyruvate	33.6	74.3	40.0

Oxidoreductases that can convert 2-oxoacids to their acyl-CoA counterparts (1.2.1) have been shown to accept multiple substrates as well. For example, branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKAD), also known as 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase (1.2.1.25), participates in branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways, converting 2-keto acids derivatives of valine, leucine and isoleucine to their acyl-CoA derivatives and CO2. In some organisms including Rattus norvegicus (Paxton et al., Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sinclair et al., Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 32:911-922 (1993), this complex has been shown to have a broad substrate range that includes linear oxo-acids such as 2-oxobutanoate and alpha-ketoglutarate, in addition to the branched-chain amino acid precursors.

Members of yet another class of enzymes, namely aminotransferases (2.6.1), have been reported to act on multiple substrates. Aspartate aminotransferase (aspAT) from Pyrococcus fursious has been identified, expressed in E. coli and the recombinant protein characterized to demonstrate that the enzyme has the highest activities towards aspartate and alpha-ketoglutarate but lower, yet significant activities towards alanine, glutamate and the aromatic amino acids (Ward et al., Archaea 133-141 (2002)). In another instance, an aminotransferase indentified from Leishmania mexicana and expressed in E. coli (Vernal et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 229:217-222 (2003)) was reported to have a broad substrate specificity towards tyrosine (activity considered 100% on tyrosine), phenylalanine (90%), tryptophan (85%), aspartate (30%), leucine (25%) and methionine (25%), respectively (Vernal et al., Mol. Biochem. Parasitol 96:83-92 (1998)). Similar broad specificity has been reported for a tyrosine aminotransferase from Trypanosoma cruzi, even though both of these enzymes have a sequence homology of only 6%. The latter enzyme can accept leucine, methionine as well as tyrosine, phenylalanine, tryptophan and alanine as efficient amino donors (Nowicki et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1546: 268-281 (2001)).

CoA transferases (2.8.3) have been demonstrated to have the ability to act on more than one substrate. Specifically, a CoA transferase was purified from Clostridium acetobutylicum and was reported to have the highest activities on acetate, propionate, and butyrate. It also had significant activities with valerate, isobutyrate, and crotonate (Wiesenborn et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:323-329 (1989)). In another study, the E. coli enzyme acyl-CoA:acetate-CoA transferase, also known as acetate-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.8), has been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies and Schink, App. Environm. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res Commun. 33:902-908 (1968b)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res Commun. 33:902-908 (1968a).

Other enzyme classes additionally support broad substrate specificity for enzymes. Some isomerases (5.3.3) have also been proven to operate on multiple substrates. For example, L-rhamnose isomerase from Pseudomonas stutzeri catalyzes the isomerization between various aldoalses and ketoses (Yoshida et al., J. Mol. Biol. 365:1505-1516 (2007)). These include isomerization between L-rhamnose and L-rhamnulose, L-mannose and L-fructose, L-xylose and L-xylulose, D-ribose and D-ribulose, and D-allose and D-psicose.

In yet another class of enzymes, the phosphotransferases (2.7.1), the homoserine kinase (2.7.1.39) from E. coli that converts L-homoserine to L-homoserine phosphate, was found to phosphorylate numerous homoserine analogs. In these substrates, the carboxyl functional group at the R-position had been replaced by an ester or by a hydroxymethyl group (Huo and Viola, Biochemistry 35:16180-16185 (1996)). Table 5 demonstrates the broad substrate specificity of this kinase.

TABLE 5
The substrate specificity of homoserine kinase.
Substrate	kcat	% kcat	Km (mM)	kcat/Km
L-homoserine	18.3 ± 0.1	100	0.14 ± 0.04	184 ± 17
D-homoserine	8.3 ± 1.1	32	31.8 ± 7.2	0.26 ± 0.03
L-aspartate β-	2.1 ± 0.1	8.2	0.28 ± 0.02	7.5 ± 0.3
semialdehyde
L-2-amino-1,4-	2.0 ± 0.5	7.9	11.6 ± 6.5	0.17 ± 0.06
butanediol
L-2-amino-5-	2.5 ± 0.4	9.9	1.1 ± 0.5	2.3 ± 0.3
hydroxyvalerate
L-homoserine methyl	14.7 ± 2.6	80	4.9 ± 2.0	3.0 ± 0.6
ester
L-homoserine ethyl	13.6 ± 0.8	74	1.9 ± 0.5	7.2 ± 1.7
ester
L-homoserine	13.6 ± 1.4	74	1.2 ± 0.5	11.3 ± 1.1
isopropyl ester
L-homoserine n-	14.0 ± 0.4	76	3.5 ± 0.4	4.0 ± 1.2
propyl ester
L-homoserine isobutyl	16.4 ± 0.8	84	6.9 ± 1.1	2.4 ± 0.3
ester
L-homserine n-butyl	29.1 ± 1.2	160	5.8 ± 0.8	5.0 ± 0.5
ester

Another class of enzymes useful in BDO pathways is the acid-thiol ligases (6.2.1). Like enzymes in other classes, certain enzymes in this class have been determined to have broad substrate specificity. For example, acyl CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida has been demonstrated to work on several aliphatic substrates including acetic, propionic, butyric, valeric, hexanoic, heptanoic, and octanoic acids and on aromatic compounds such as phenylacetic and phenoxyacetic acids (Fernandez-Valverde et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:1149-1154 (1993)). A related enzyme, malonyl CoA synthetase (6.3.4.9) from Rhizobium trifolii could convert several diacids, namely, ethyl-, propyl-, allyl-, isopropyl-, dimethyl-, cyclopropyl-, cyclopropylmethylene-, cyclobutyl-, and benzyl-malonate into their corresponding monothioesters (Pohl et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123:5822-5823 (2001)). Similarly, decarboxylases (4.1.1) have also been found with broad substrate ranges. Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), also termed keto-acid decarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing the decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. The enzyme isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a broad substrate range for aliphatic 2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, and 2-phenylpyruvate (Li and Jordan, Biochemistry 38:10004-10012 (1999)). Similarly, benzoylformate decarboxylase has a broad substrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies. The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied and crystal structures of this enzyme are available (Polovnikova et al., Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003); Hasson et al., Biochemistry 37:9918-9930 (1998)). Branched chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (BCKA) has been shown to act on a variety of compounds varying in chain length from 3 to 6 carbons (Oku and Kaneda, J. Biol. Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1998); Smit et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005b)). The enzyme in Lactococcus lactis has been characterized on a variety of branched and linear substrates including 2-oxobutanoate, 2-oxohexanoate, 2-oxopentanoate, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate, 4-methyl-2-oxobutanoate and isocaproate (Smit et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005a).

Interestingly, enzymes known to have one dominant activity have also been reported to catalyze a very different function. For example, the cofactor-dependent phosphoglycerate mutase (5.4.2.1) from Bacillus stearothermophilus and Bacillus subtilis is known to function as a phosphatase as well (Rigden et al., Protein Sci. 10:1835-1846 (2001)). The enzyme from B. stearothermophilus is known to have activity on several substrates, including 3-phosphoglycerate, alpha-napthylphosphate, p-nitrophenylphosphate, AMP, fructose-6-phosphate, ribose-5-phosphate and CMP.

In contrast to these examples where the enzymes naturally have broad substrate specificities, numerous enzymes have been modified using directed evolution to broaden their specificity towards their non-natural substrates. Alternatively, the substrate preference of an enzyme has also been changed using directed evolution. Therefore, it is feasible to engineer a given enzyme for efficient function on a natural, for example, improved efficiency, or a non-natural substrate, for example, increased efficiency. For example, it has been reported that the enantioselectivity of a lipase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa was improved significantly (Reetz et al., Agnew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 36:2830-2832 (1997)). This enzyme hydrolyzed p-nitrophenyl 2-methyldecanoate with only 2% enantiomeric excess (ee) in favor of the (S)-acid. However, after four successive rounds of error-prone mutagenesis and screening, a variant was produced that catalyzed the requisite reaction with 81% ee (Reetz et al., Agnew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 36:2830-2832 (1997)).

Directed evolution methods have been used to modify an enzyme to function on an array of non-natural substrates. The substrate specificity of the lipase in P. aeruginosa was broadened by randomization of amino acid residues near the active site. This allowed for the acceptance of alpha-substituted carboxylic acid esters by this enzyme (Reetz et al., Agnew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 44:4192-4196 (2005)). In another successful modification of an enzyme, DNA shuffling was employed to create an Escherichia coli aminotransferase that accepted β-branched substrates, which were poorly accepted by the wild-type enzyme (Yano et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95:5511-5515 (1998)). Specifically, at the end of four rounds of shuffling, the activity of aspartate aminotransferase for valine and 2-oxovaline increased by up to five orders of magnitude, while decreasing the activity towards the natural substrate, aspartate, by up to 30-fold. Recently, an algorithm was used to design a retro-aldolase that could be used to catalyze the carbon-carbon bond cleavage in a non-natural and non-biological substrate, 4-hydroxy-4-(6-methoxy-2-naphthyl)-2-butanone (Jiang et al., Science 319:1387-1391 (2008)). These algorithms used different combinations of four different catalytic motifs to design new enzyme, and 20 of the selected designs for experimental characterization had four-fold improved rates over the uncatalyzed reaction (Jiang et al., Science 319:1387-1391 (2008)). Thus, not only are these engineering approaches capable of expanding the array of substrates on which an enzyme can act, but they allow the design and construction of very efficient enzymes. For example, a method of DNA shuffling (random chimeragenesis on transient templates or RACHITT) was reported to lead to an engineered monooxygenase that had an improved rate of desulfurization on complex substrates as well as 20-fold faster conversion of a non-natural substrate (Coco et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 19:354-359 (2001)). Similarly, the specific activity of a sluggish mutant triosephosphate isomerase enzyme was improved up to 19-fold from 1.3 fold (Hermes et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:696-700 1990)). This enhancement in specific activity was accomplished by using random mutagenesis over the whole length of the protein and the improvement could be traced back to mutations in six amino acid residues.

The effectiveness of protein engineering approaches to alter the substrate specificity of an enzyme for a desired substrate has also been demonstrated in several studies. Isopropylmalate dehydrogenase from Thermus thermophilus was modified by changing residues close to the active site so that it could now act on malate and D-lactate as substrates (Fujita et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 65:2695-2700 (2001)). In this study as well as in others, it was pointed out that one or a few residues could be modified to alter the substrate specificity. For example, the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase for which a single amino acid was changed in the presumed substrate-binding region could preferentially reduce dihydrokaempferol (Johnson et al., Plant. J. 25:325-333 (2001)). The substrate specificity of a very specific isocitrate dehydrogenase from Escherichia coli was changed form isocitrate to isopropylmalate by changing one residue in the active site (Doyle et al., Biochemistry 40:4234-4241 (2001)). Similarly, the cofactor specificity of a NAD+-dependent 1,5-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase was altered to NADP+ by changing a few residues near the N-terminal end (Cho et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 419:139-146 (2003)). Sequence analysis and molecular modeling analysis were used to identify the key residues for modification, which were further studied by site-directed mutagenesis.

Numerous examples exist spanning diverse classes of enzymes where the function of enzyme was changed to favor one non-natural substrate over the natural substrate of the enzyme. A fucosidase was evolved from a galactosidase in E. coli by DNA shuffling and screening (Zhang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94:4504-4509 (1997)). Similarly, aspartate aminotransferase from E. coli was converted into a tyrosine aminotransferase using homology modeling and site-directed mutagenesis (Onuffer and Kirsch, Protein Sci., 4:1750-1757 (1995)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site of benzoylformate decarboxylase from P. putida reportedly altered the affinity (Km) towards natural and non-natural substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). Cytochrome c peroxidase (CCP) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae was subjected to directed molecular evolution to generate mutants with increased activity against the classical peroxidase substrate guaiacol, thus changing the substrate specificity of CCP from the protein cytochrome c to a small organic molecule. After three rounds of DNA shuffling and screening, mutants were isolated which possessed a 300-fold increased activity against guaiacol and up to 1000-fold increased specificity for this substrate relative to that for the natural substrate (Iffland et al., Biochemistry 39:10790-10798 (2000)).

In some cases, enzymes with different substrate preferences than either of the parent enzymes have been obtained. For example, biphenyl-dioxygenase-mediated degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls was improved by shuffling genes from two bacteria, Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligens and Burkholderia cepacia (Kumamaru et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 16:663-666 (1998)). The resulting chimeric biphenyl oxygenases showed different substrate preferences than both the parental enzymes and enhanced the degradation activity towards related biphenyl compounds and single aromatic ring hydrocarbons such as toluene and benzene which were originally poor substrates for the enzyme.

In addition to changing enzyme specificity, it is also possible to enhance the activities on substrates for which the enzymes naturally have low activities. One study demonstrated that amino acid racemase from P. putida that had broad substrate specificity (on lysine, arginine, alanine, serine, methionine, cysteine, leucine and histidine among others) but low activity towards tryptophan could be improved significantly by random mutagenesis (Kino et al., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 73:1299-1305 (2007)). Similarly, the active site of the bovine BCKAD was engineered to favor alternate substrate acetyl-CoA (Meng and Chuang, Biochemistry 33:12879-12885 (1994)). An interesting aspect of these approaches is that even if random methods have been applied to generate these mutated enzymes with efficacious activities, the exact mutations or structural changes that confer the improvement in activity can be identified. For example, in the aforementioned study, the mutations that facilitated improved activity on tryptophan was traced back to two different positions.

Directed evolution has also been used to express proteins that are difficult to express. For example, by subjecting horseradish peroxidase to random mutagenesis and gene recombination, mutants were identified that had more than 14-fold higher activity than the wild type (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 15:467-471 (1999)).

Another example of directed evolution shows the extensive modifications to which an enzyme can be subjected to achieve a range of desired functions. The enzyme lactate dehydrogenase from Bacillus stearothermophilus was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis, and three amino acid substitutions were made at sites that were believed to determine the specificity towards different hydroxyacids (Clarke et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 148:15-23 (1987)). After these mutations, the specificity for oxaloacetate over pyruvate was increased to 500 in contrast to the wild type enzyme that had a catalytic specificity for pyruvate over oxaloacetate of 1000. This enzyme was further engineered using site-directed mutagenesis to have activity towards branched-chain substituted pyruvates (Wilks et al., Biochemistry 29:8587-8591 (1990)). Specifically, the enzyme had a 55-fold improvement in Kcat for alpha-ketoisocaproate. Three structural modifications were made in the same enzyme to change its substrate specificity from lactate to malate. The enzyme was highly active and specific towards malate (Wilks et al., Science 242:1541-1544 (1988)). The same enzyme from B. stearothermophilus was subsequently engineered to have high catalytic activity towards alpha-keto acids with positively charged side chains, such as those containing ammonium groups (Hogan et al., Biochemistry 34:4225-4230 (1995)). Mutants with acidic amino acids introduced at position 102 of the enzyme favored binding of such side chain ammonium groups. The results obtained proved that the mutants showed up to 25-fold improvements in kcat/Km values for omega-amino-alpha-keto acid substrates. Interestingly, this enzyme was also structurally modified to function as a phenyllactate dehydrogenase instead of a lactate dehydrogenase (Wilks et al., Biochemistry 31:7802-7806 1992). Restriction sites were introduced into the gene for the enzyme which allowed a region of the gene to be excised. This region coded for a mobile surface loop of the polypeptide (residues 98-110) which normally seals the active site from bulk solvent and is a major determinant of substrate specificity. The variable length and sequence loops were inserted so that hydroxyacid dehydrogenases with altered substrate specificities were generated. With one longer loop construction, activity with pyruvate was reduced one-million-fold but activity with phenylpyruvate was largely unaltered. A switch in specificity (kcat/Km) of 390,000-fold was achieved. The 1700:1 selectivity of this enzyme for phenylpyruvate over pyruvate is that required in a phenyllactate dehydrogenase. The studies described above indicate that various approaches of enzyme engineering can be used to obtain enzymes for the BDO pathways as disclosed herein.

As disclosed herein, biosynthetic pathways to 1,4-butanediol from a number of central metabolic intermediates are can be utilized, including acetyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, alpha-ketoglutarate, glutamate, 4-aminobutyrate, and homoserine. Acetyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA and alpha-ketoglutarate are common intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, a series of reactions that is present in its entirety in nearly all living cells that utilize oxygen for cellular respiration and is present in truncated forms in a number of anaerobic organisms. Glutamate is an amino acid that is derived from alpha-ketoglutarate via glutamate dehydrogenase or any of a number of transamination reactions (see FIG. 8B). 4-aminobutyrate can be formed by the decarboxylation of glutamate (see FIG. 8B) or from acetoacetyl-CoA via the pathway disclosed in FIG. 9C. Acetoacetyl-CoA is derived from the condensation of two acetyl-CoA molecules by way of the enzyme, acetyl-coenzyme A acetyltransferase, or equivalently, acetoacetyl-coenzyme A thiolase. Homoserine is an intermediate in threonine and methionine metabolism, formed from oxaloacetate via aspartate. The conversion of oxaloacetate to homoserine requires one NADH, two NADPH, and one ATP.

Pathways other than those exemplified above also can be employed to generate the biosynthesis of BDO in non-naturally occurring microbial organisms. In one embodiment, biosynthesis can be achieved using a L-homoserine to BDO pathway (see FIG. 13). This pathway has a molar yield of 0.90 mol/mol glucose, which appears restricted by the availability of reducing equivalents. A second pathway synthesizes BDO from acetoacetyl-CoA and is capable of achieving the maximum theoretical yield of 1.091 mol/mol glucose (see FIG. 9). Implementation of either pathway can be achieved by introduction of two exogenous enzymes into a host organism such as E. coli, and both pathways can additionally complement BDO production via succinyl-CoA. Pathway enzymes, thermodynamics, theoretical yields and overall feasibility are described further below.

A homoserine pathway also can be engineered to generate BDO-producing microbial organisms. Homoserine is an intermediate in threonine and methionine metabolism, formed from oxaloacetate via aspartate. The conversion of oxaloacetate to homoserine requires one NADH, two NADPH, and one ATP (FIG. 2). Once formed, homoserine feeds into biosynthetic pathways for both threonine and methionine. In most organisms, high levels of threonine or methionine feedback to repress the homoserine biosynthesis pathway (Caspi et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 34:D511-D516 (1990)).

The transformation of homoserine to 4-hydroxybutyrate (4-HB) can be accomplished in two enzymatic steps as described herein. The first step of this pathway is deamination of homoserine by a putative ammonia lyase. In step 2, the product alkene, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate is reduced to 4-HB by a putative reductase at the cost of one NADH. 4-HB can then be converted to BDO.

Enzymes available for catalyzing the above transformations are disclosed herein. For example, the ammonia lyase in step 1 of the pathway closely resembles the chemistry of aspartate ammonia-lyase (aspartase). Aspartase is a widespread enzyme in microorganisms, and has been characterized extensively (Viola, R. E., Mol. Biol. 74:295-341 (2008)). The crystal structure of the E. coli aspartase has been solved (Shi et al., Biochemistry 36:9136-9144 (1997)), so it is therefore possible to directly engineer mutations in the enzyme's active site that would alter its substrate specificity to include homoserine. The oxidoreductase in step 2 has chemistry similar to several well-characterized enzymes including fumarate reductase in the E. coli TCA cycle. Since the thermodynamics of this reaction are highly favorable, an endogenous reductase with broad substrate specificity will likely be able to reduce 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate. The yield of this pathway under anaerobic conditions is 0.9 mol BDO per mol glucose.

The succinyl-CoA pathway was found to have a higher yield due to the fact that it is more energetically efficient. The conversion of one oxaloacetate molecule to BDO via the homoserine pathway will require the expenditure of 2 ATP equivalents. Because the conversion of glucose to two oxaloacetate molecules can generate a maximum of 3 ATP molecules assuming PEP carboxykinase to be reversible, the overall conversion of glucose to BDO via homoserine has a negative energetic yield. As expected, if it is assumed that energy can be generated via respiration, the maximum yield of the homoserine pathway increases to 1.05 mol/mol glucose which is 96% of the succinyl-CoA pathway yield. The succinyl-CoA pathway can channel some of the carbon flux through pyruvate dehydrogenase and the oxidative branch of the TCA cycle to generate both reducing equivalents and succinyl-CoA without an energetic expenditure. Thus, it does not encounter the same energetic difficulties as the homoserine pathway because not all of the flux is channeled through oxaloacetate to succinyl-CoA to BDO. Overall, the homoserine pathway demonstrates a high-yielding route to BDO.

An acetoacetate pathway also can be engineered to generate BDO-producing microbial organisms. Acetoacetate can be formed from acetyl-CoA by enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism, including acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase and acetoacetyl-CoA transferase. Biosynthetic routes through acetoacetate are also particularly useful in microbial organisms that can metabolize single carbon compounds such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide or methanol to form acetyl-CoA.

A three step route from acetoacetyl-CoA to 4-aminobutyrate (see FIG. 9C) can be used to synthesize BDO through acetoacetyl-CoA. 4-Aminobutyrate can be converted to succinic semialdehyde as shown in FIG. 8B. Succinic semialdehyde, which is one reduction step removed from succinyl-CoA or one decarboxylation step removed from α-ketoglutarate, can be converted to BDO following three reductions steps (FIG. 1). Briefly, step 1 of this pathway involves the conversion of acetoacetyl-CoA to acetoacetate by, for example, the E. coli acetoacetyl-CoA transferase encoded by the atoA and atoD genes (Hanai et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73: 7814-7818 (2007)). Step 2 of the acetoacetyl-CoA biopathway entails conversion of acetoacetate to 3-aminobutanoate by an w-aminotransferase. The ω-amino acid:pyruvate aminotransferase (ω-APT) from Alcaligens denitrificans was overexpressed in E. coli and shown to have a high activity toward 3-aminobutanoate in vitro (Yun et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:2529-2534 (2004)).

In step 2, a putative aminomutase shifts the amine group from the 3- to the 4-position of the carbon backbone. An aminomutase performing this function on 3-aminobutanoate has not been characterized, but an enzyme from Clostridium sticklandii has a very similar mechanism. The enzyme, D-lysine-5,6-aminomutase, is involved in lysine biosynthesis.

The synthetic route to BDO from acetoacetyl-CoA passes through 4-aminobutanoate, a metabolite in E. coli that is normally formed from decarboxylation of glutamate. Once formed, 4-aminobutanoate can be converted to succinic semialdehyde by 4-aminobutanoate transaminase (2.6.1.19), an enzyme which has been biochemically characterized.

One consideration for selecting candidate enzymes in this pathway is the stereoselectivity of the enzymes involved in steps 2 and 3. The ω-ABT in Alcaligens denitrificans is specific to the L-stereoisomer of 3-aminobutanoate, while D-lysine-5,6-aminomutase likely requires the D-stereoisomer. If enzymes with complementary stereoselectivity are not initially found or engineered, a third enzyme can be added to the pathway with racemase activity that can convert L-3-aminobutanoate to D-3-aminobutanoate. While amino acid racemases are widespread, whether these enzymes can function on w-amino acids is not known.

The maximum theoretical molar yield of this pathway under anaerobic conditions is 1.091 mol/mol glucose. In order to generate flux from acetoacetyl-CoA to BDO it was necessary to assume that acetyl-CoA:acetoacetyl-CoA transferase is reversible. The function of this enzyme in E. coli is to metabolize short-chain fatty acids by first converting them into thioesters.

While the operation of acetyl-CoA:acetoacetyl-CoA transferase in the acetate-consuming direction has not been demonstrated experimentally in E. coli, studies on similar enzymes in other organisms support the assumption that this reaction is reversible. The enzyme butyryl-CoA:acetate:CoA transferase in gut microbes Roseburia sp. and F. prasnitzii operates in the acetate utilizing direction to produce butyrate (Duncan et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5186-5190 (2002)). Another very similar enzyme, acetyl:succinate CoA-transferase in Trypanosoma brucei, also operates in the acetate utilizing direction. This reaction has a ΔrxnG close to equilibrium, so high concentrations of acetate can likely drive the reaction in the direction of interest. At the maximum theoretical BDO production rate of 1.09 mol/mol glucose simulations predict that E. coli can generate 1.098 mol ATP per mol glucose with no fermentation byproducts. This ATP yield should be sufficient for cell growth, maintenance, and production. The acetoacetatyl-CoA biopathway is a high-yielding route to BDO from acetyl-CoA.

Therefore, in addition to any of the various modifications exemplified previously for establishing 4-HB biosynthesis in a selected host, the BDO producing microbial organisms can include any of the previous combinations and permutations of 4-HB pathway metabolic modifications as well as any combination of expression for CoA-independent aldehyde dehydrogenase, CoA-dependent aldehyde dehydrogenase or an alcohol dehydrogenase or other enzymes disclosed herein to generate biosynthetic pathways for GBL and/or BDO. Therefore, the BDO producers of the invention can have exogenous expression of, for example, one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or up to all enzymes corresponding to any of the 4-HB pathway and/or any of the BDO pathway enzymes disclosed herein.

Design and construction of the genetically modified microbial organisms is carried out using methods well known in the art to achieve sufficient amounts of expression to produce BDO. In particular, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention can achieve biosynthesis of BDO resulting in intracellular concentrations between about 0.1-200 mM or more, such as about 0.1-25 mM or more, as discussed above. For example, the intracellular concentration of BDO is between about 3-20 mM, particularly between about 5-15 mM and more particularly between about 8-12 mM, including about 10 mM or more. Intracellular concentrations between and above each of these exemplary ranges also can be achieved from the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention. As with the 4-HB producers, the BDO producers also can be sustained, cultured or fermented under anaerobic conditions.

The invention further provides a method for the production of 4-HB. The method includes culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) biosynthetic pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, -ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate decarboxylase under substantially anaerobic conditions for a sufficient period of time to produce monomeric 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB). The method can additionally include chemical conversion of 4-HB to GBL and to BDO or THF, for example.

Additionally provided is a method for the production of 4-HB. The method includes culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) biosynthetic pathway including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase or α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase under substantially anaerobic conditions for a sufficient period of time to produce monomeric 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB). The 4-HB product can be secreted into the culture medium.

Further provided is a method for the production of BDO. The method includes culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial biocatalyst or microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO) biosynthetic pathways, the pathways including at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotranshydroxybutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase or an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol (BDO). The BDO product can be secreted into the culture medium.

Additionally provided are methods for producing BDO by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway of the invention. The BDO pathway can comprise at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (see Example VII and Table 17).

Alternatively, the BDO pathway can compare at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase (see Example VII and Table 18).

In addition, the invention provides a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, or 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (see Example VII and Table 19).

The invention further provides a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation)(see Example VIII and Table 20).

The invention additionally provides a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation)(see Example IX and Table 21).

The invention additionally includes a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (see Example X and Table 22).

Also provided is a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (see Example XI and Table 23).

The invention additionally provides a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating). Such a BDO pathway can further comprise succinyl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

Also provided is a method for producing BDO, comprising culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO pathway, the pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO, under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO, the BDO pathway comprising glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating).

The invention additionally provides methods of producing a desired product using the genetically modified organisms disclosed herein that allow improved production of a desired product such as BDO by increasing the product or decreasing undesirable byproducts. Thus, the invention provides a method for producing 1,4-butanediol (BDO), comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms disclosed herein under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce BDO. In one embodiment, the invention provides a method of producing BDO using a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol (BDO) pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a BDO pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce BDO. In one embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous succinyl-CoA synthetase (see Example XII). For example, the succinyl-CoA synthetase can be encoded by an Escherichia coli sucCD genes.

In another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (see Example XIII). For example, the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase can be encoded by the Mycobacterium bovis sucA gene. In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and optionally 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase (see Example XIII). For example, the succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase can be encoded by Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 genes. In an additional embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase (see Example XIII). For example, the butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase can be encoded by Clostridium acetobutilicum buk1 and ptb genes.

In yet another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (see Example XIII). For example, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase can be encoded by Clostridium beijerinckii ald gene. Additionally, in an embodiment of the invention, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous 4-hydroxybutanal reductase (see Example XIII). For example, the 4-hydroxybutanal reductase can be encoded by Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius adh1 gene. In another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous pyruvate dehydrogenase subunits (see Example XIV). For example, the exogenous pyruvate dehydrogenase can be NADH insensitive. The pyruvate dehydrogenase subunit can be encoded by the Klebsiella pneumonia lpdA gene. In a particular embodiment, the pyruvate dehydrogenase subunit genes of the microbial organism can be under the control of a pyruvate formate lyase promoter.

In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to disrupt a gene encoding an aerobic respiratory control regulatory system (see Example XV). For example, the disruption can be of the arcA gene. Such an organism can further comprise disruption of a gene encoding malate dehydrogenase. In a further embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express an exogenous NADH insensitive citrate synthase (see Example XV). For example, the NADH insensitive citrate synthase can be encoded by gltA, such as an R163L mutant of gltA. In still another embodiment, the microbial organism is genetically modified to express exogenous phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (see Example XVI). For example, the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase can be encoded by an Haemophilus influenza phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene. It is understood that strains exemplified herein for improved production of BDO can similarly be used, with appropriate modifications, to produce other desired products, for example, 4-hydroxybutyrate or other desired products disclosed herein.

The invention additionally provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutanal by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 58, steps A-C-D). The invention also provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutanal by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (FIG. 58, steps B-C-D).

The invention further provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutanal by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising succinate reductase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 62, steps F-C-D). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutanal by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase (see FIG. 62, steps B or ((J or K)-L-(M or N))-C-D).

The invention also provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutanal by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutanal pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutanal, the 4-hydroxybutanal pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase (see FIG. 62, steps X-Y-Z). The invention further provides a method for producing 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (see FIG. 62, steps X-Y-AA).

The invention additionally provides a method for producing putrescine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising succinate reductase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps F-M/N-C-D/E). In still another embodiment, the invention provides a method for producing putrescine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps B-M/N-C-D/E). The invention additionally provides a method for producing putrescine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase; glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate reductase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps J/K-L-C-D/E).

The invention provides in another embodiment a method for producing putrescine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase or 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate transaminase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase; and putrescine dehydrogenase or putrescine transaminase (see FIG. 63, steps O-P/Q-R-D/E). Also provided is a method for producing putrescine by culturing a non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a putrescine pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a putrescine pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce putrescine, the putrescine pathway comprising alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase or 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate transaminase; ornithine dehydrogenase or ornithine transaminase; and ornithine decarboxylase (see FIG. 63, steps O-P/Q-S/T-U). It is understood that a microbial organism comprising any of the pathways disclosed herein can be used to produce a a desired product or intermediate, including 4-HB, 4-HBal, BDO or putrescine.

It is understood that, in methods of the invention, any of the one or more exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a microbial organism to produce a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. The nucleic acids can be introduced so as to confer, for example, a 4-HB, BDO, THF or GBL biosynthetic pathway onto the microbial organism. Alternatively, encoding nucleic acids can be introduced to produce an intermediate microbial organism having the biosynthetic capability to catalyze some of the required reactions to confer 4-HB, BDO, THF or GBL biosynthetic capability. For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-HB biosynthetic pathway can comprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymes, such as the combination of 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and succinyl-CoA synthetase; succinyl-CoA synthetase and glutamate decarboxylase, and the like. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. Similarly, it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, for example, 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase; CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and succinyl-CoA synthetase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, and so forth, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product.

Similarly, for example, with respect to any one or more exogenous nucleic acids introduced to confer BDO production, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a BDO biosynthetic pathway can comprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymes, such as the combination of 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and butyrate kinase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase and phosphotransbutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase and aldehyde dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase and alcohol dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase and an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA transferase and 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase; 4-aminobutyrate kinase and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), and the like. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. Similarly, it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, for example, 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, butyrate kinase and phosphotransbutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase and aldehyde dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, aldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase; butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase and an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase; 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase and 4-amino butan-1-ol transaminase; 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, and the like. Similarly, any combination of four, five or more enzymes of a biosynthetic pathway as disclosed herein can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product.

Any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms described herein can be cultured to produce and/or secrete the biosynthetic products of the invention. For example, the 4-HB producers can be cultured for the biosynthetic production of 4-HB. The 4-HB can be isolated or be treated as described below to generate GBL, THF and/or BDO. Similarly, the BDO producers can be cultured for the biosynthetic production of BDO. The BDO can be isolated or subjected to further treatments for the chemical synthesis of BDO family compounds, as disclosed herein.

The growth medium can include, for example, any carbohydrate source which can supply a source of carbon to the non-naturally occurring microorganism. Such sources include, for example, sugars such as glucose, sucrose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Other sources of carbohydrate include, for example, renewable feedstocks and biomass. Exemplary types of biomasses that can be used as feedstocks in the methods of the invention include cellulosic biomass, hemicellulosic biomass and lignin feedstocks or portions of feedstocks. Such biomass feedstocks contain, for example, carbohydrate substrates useful as carbon sources such as glucose, sucrose, xylose, arabinose, galactose, mannose, fructose and starch. Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that renewable feedstocks and biomass other than those exemplified above also can be used for culturing the microbial organisms of the invention for the production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and other compounds of the invention.

Accordingly, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can be produced that secretes the biosynthesized compounds of the invention when grown on a carbon source such as a carbohydrate. Such compounds include, for example, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and any of the intermediates metabolites in the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathways and/or the combined 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathways. All that is required is to engineer in one or more of the enzyme activities shown in FIG. 1 to achieve biosynthesis of the desired compound or intermediate including, for example, inclusion of some or all of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathways. Accordingly, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that secretes 4-HB when grown on a carbohydrate, secretes BDO when grown on a carbohydrate and/or secretes any of the intermediate metabolites shown in FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74 when grown on a carbohydrate. A BDO producing microbial organisms of the invention can initiate synthesis from, for example, succinate, succinyl-CoA, α-ketogluterate, succinic semialdehyde, 4-HB, 4-hydroxybutyrylphosphate, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (4-HB-CoA) and/or 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde.

In some embodiments, culture conditions include anaerobic or substantially anaerobic growth or maintenance conditions. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well known in the art. Exemplary anaerobic conditions for fermentation processes are described below in the Examples. Any of these conditions can be employed with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms as well as other anaerobic conditions well known in the art. Under such anaerobic conditions, the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producers can synthesize monomeric 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine, respectively, at intracellular concentrations of 5-10 mM or more as well as all other concentrations exemplified previously.

A number of downstream compounds also can be generated for the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention. With respect to the 4-HB producing microbial organisms of the invention, monomeric 4-HB and GBL exist in equilibrium in the culture medium. The conversion of 4-HB to GBL can be efficiently accomplished by, for example, culturing the microbial organisms in acid pH medium. A pH less than or equal to 7.5, in particular at or below pH 5.5, spontaneously converts 4-HB to GBL.

The resultant GBL can be separated from 4-HB and other components in the culture using a variety of methods well known in the art. Such separation methods include, for example, the extraction procedures exemplified in the Examples as well as methods which include continuous liquid-liquid extraction, pervaporation, membrane filtration, membrane separation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, distillation, crystallization, centrifugation, extractive filtration, ion exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, adsorption chromatography, and ultrafiltration. All of the above methods are well known in the art. Separated GBL can be further purified by, for example, distillation.

Another down stream compound that can be produced from the 4-HB producing non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the invention includes, for example, BDO. This compound can be synthesized by, for example, chemical hydrogenation of GBL. Chemical hydrogenation reactions are well known in the art. One exemplary procedure includes the chemical reduction of 4-HB and/or GBL or a mixture of these two components deriving from the culture using a heterogeneous or homogeneous hydrogenation catalyst together with hydrogen, or a hydride-based reducing agent used stoichiometrically or catalytically, to produce 1,4-butanediol.

Other procedures well known in the art are equally applicable for the above chemical reaction and include, for example, WO No. 82/03854 (Bradley, et al.), which describes the hydrogenolysis of gamma-butyrolactone in the vapor phase over a copper oxide and zinc oxide catalyst. British Pat. No. 1,230,276, which describes the hydrogenation of gamma-butyrolactone using a copper oxide-chromium oxide catalyst. The hydrogenation is carried out in the liquid phase. Batch reactions also are exemplified having high total reactor pressures. Reactant and product partial pressures in the reactors are well above the respective dew points. British Pat. No. 1,314,126, which describes the hydrogenation of gamma-butyrolactone in the liquid phase over a nickel-cobalt-thorium oxide catalyst. Batch reactions are exemplified as having high total pressures and component partial pressures well above respective component dew points. British Pat. No. 1,344,557, which describes the hydrogenation of gamma-butyrolactone in the liquid phase over a copper oxide-chromium oxide catalyst. A vapor phase or vapor-containing mixed phase is indicated as suitable in some instances. A continuous flow tubular reactor is exemplified using high total reactor pressures. British Pat. No. 1,512,751, which describes the hydrogenation of gamma-butyrolactone to 1,4-butanediol in the liquid phase over a copper oxide-chromium oxide catalyst. Batch reactions are exemplified with high total reactor pressures and, where determinable, reactant and product partial pressures well above the respective dew points. U.S. Pat. No. 4,301,077, which describes the hydrogenation to 1,4-butanediol of gamma-butyrolactone over a Ru—Ni—Co—Zn catalyst. The reaction can be conducted in the liquid or gas phase or in a mixed liquid-gas phase. Exemplified are continuous flow liquid phase reactions at high total reactor pressures and relatively low reactor productivities. U.S. Pat. No. 4,048,196, which describes the production of 1,4-butanediol by the liquid phase hydrogenation of gamma-butyrolactone over a copper oxide-zinc oxide catalyst. Further exemplified is a continuous flow tubular reactor operating at high total reactor pressures and high reactant and product partial pressures. And U.S. Pat. No. 4,652,685, which describes the hydrogenation of lactones to glycols.

A further downstream compound that can be produced form the 4-HB producing microbial organisms of the invention includes, for example, THF. This compound can be synthesized by, for example, chemical hydrogenation of GBL. One exemplary procedure well known in the art applicable for the conversion of GBL to THF includes, for example, chemical reduction of 4-HB and/or GBL or a mixture of these two components deriving from the culture using a heterogeneous or homogeneous hydrogenation catalyst together with hydrogen, or a hydride-based reducing agent used stoichiometrically or catalytically, to produce tetrahydrofuran. Other procedures well know in the art are equally applicable for the above chemical reaction and include, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,686,310, which describes high surface area sol-gel route prepared hydrogenation catalysts. Processes for the reduction of maleic acid to tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 1,4-butanediol (BDO) and for the reduction of gamma butyrolactone to tetrahydrofuran and 1,4-butanediol also are described.

The culture conditions can include, for example, liquid culture procedures as well as fermentation and other large scale culture procedures. As described further below in the Examples, particularly useful yields of the biosynthetic products of the invention can be obtained under anaerobic or substantially anaerobic culture conditions.

Suitable purification and/or assays to test for the production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine can be performed using well known methods. Suitable replicates such as triplicate cultures can be grown for each engineered strain to be tested. For example, product and byproduct formation in the engineered production host can be monitored. The final product and intermediates, and other organic compounds, can be analyzed by methods such as HPLC (High Performance Liquid Chromatography), GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) and LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy) or other suitable analytical methods using routine procedures well known in the art. The release of product in the fermentation broth can also be tested with the culture supernatant. Byproducts and residual glucose can be quantified by HPLC using, for example, a refractive index detector for glucose and alcohols, and a UV detector for organic acids (Lin et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 90:775-779 (2005)), or other suitable assay and detection methods well known in the art. The individual enzyme or protein activities from the exogenous DNA sequences can also be assayed using methods well known in the art.

The 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine product can be separated from other components in the culture using a variety of methods well known in the art. Such separation methods include, for example, extraction procedures as well as methods that include continuous liquid-liquid extraction, pervaporation, membrane filtration, membrane separation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, distillation, crystallization, centrifugation, extractive filtration, ion exchange chromatography, size exclusion chromatography, adsorption chromatography, and ultrafiltration. All of the above methods are well known in the art.

The invention further provides a method of manufacturing 4-HB. The method includes fermenting a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) biosynthetic pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate decarboxylase under substantially anaerobic conditions for a sufficient period of time to produce monomeric 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB), the process comprising fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation.

The culture and chemical hydrogenations described above also can be scaled up and grown continuously for manufacturing of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, GBL, BDO and/or THF or putrescine. Exemplary growth procedures include, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. All of these processes are well known in the art. Employing the 4-HB producers allows for simultaneous 4-HB biosynthesis and chemical conversion to GBL, BDO and/or THF by employing the above hydrogenation procedures simultaneous with continuous cultures methods such as fermentation. Other hydrogenation procedures also are well known in the art and can be equally applied to the methods of the invention.

Fermentation procedures are particularly useful for the biosynthetic production of commercial quantities of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine. Generally, and as with non-continuous culture procedures, the continuous and/or near-continuous production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine will include culturing a non-naturally occurring 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing organism of the invention in sufficient nutrients and medium to sustain and/or nearly sustain growth in an exponential phase. Continuous culture under such conditions can be include, for example, 1 day, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7 days or more. Additionally, continuous culture can include 1 week, 2, 3, 4 or 5 or more weeks and up to several months. Alternatively, organisms of the invention can be cultured for hours, if suitable for a particular application. It is to be understood that the continuous and/or near-continuous culture conditions also can include all time intervals in between these exemplary periods. It is further understood that the time of culturing the microbial organism of the invention is for a sufficient period of time to produce a sufficient amount of product for a desired purpose.

Fermentation procedures are well known in the art. Briefly, fermentation for the biosynthetic production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine or other 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine derived products, including intermediates, of the invention can be utilized in, for example, fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation. Examples of batch and continuous fermentation procedures well known in the art are exemplified further below in the Examples.

In addition to the above fermentation procedures using the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producers of the invention for continuous production of substantial quantities of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine, including monomeric 4-HB, respectively, the 4-HB producers also can be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesis procedures to convert the product to other compounds or the product as described previously for the chemical conversion of monomeric 4-HB to, for example, GBL, BDO and/or THF. The BDO producers can similarly be, for example, simultaneously subjected to chemical synthesis procedures as described previously for the chemical conversion of BDO to, for example, THF, GBL, pyrrolidones and/or other BDO family compounds. In addition, the products of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producers can be separated from the fermentation culture and sequentially subjected to chemical or enzymatic conversion to convert the product to other compounds, if desired, as disclosed herein.

Briefly, hydrogenation of GBL in the fermentation broth can be performed as described by Frost et al., Biotechnology Progress 18: 201-211 (2002). Another procedure for hydrogenation during fermentation include, for example, the methods described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,478,952. This method is further exemplified in the Examples below.

Therefore, the invention additionally provides a method of manufacturing γ-butyrolactone (GBL), tetrahydrofuran (THF) or 1,4-butanediol (BDO). The method includes fermenting a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having 4-hydroxybutanoic acid (4-HB) and/or 1,4-butanediol (BDO) biosynthetic pathways, the pathways comprise at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, CoA-independent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase, alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutanoate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, CoA-independent 1,4-butanediol semialdehyde dehydrogenase, CoA-dependent 1,4-butanediol semialdehyde dehydrogenase, CoA-independent 1,4-butanediol alcohol dehydrogenase or CoA-dependent 1,4-butanediol alcohol dehydrogenase, under substantially anaerobic conditions for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol (BDO), GBL or THF, the fermenting comprising fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation, or continuous fermentation and continuous separation.

In addition to the biosynthesis of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and other products of the invention as described herein, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention also can be utilized in various combinations with each other and with other microbial organisms and methods well known in the art to achieve product biosynthesis by other routes. For example, one alternative to produce BDO other than use of the 4-HB producers and chemical steps or other than use of the BDO producer directly is through addition of another microbial organism capable of converting 4-HB or a 4-HB product exemplified herein to BDO.

One such procedure includes, for example, the fermentation of a 4-HB producing microbial organism of the invention to produce 4-HB, as described above and below. The 4-HB can then be used as a substrate for a second microbial organism that converts 4-HB to, for example, BDO, GBL and/or THF. The 4-HB can be added directly to another culture of the second organism or the original culture of 4-HB producers can be depleted of these microbial organisms by, for example, cell separation, and then subsequent addition of the second organism to the fermentation broth can utilized to produce the final product without intermediate purification steps. One exemplary second organism having the capacity to biochemically utilize 4-HB as a substrate for conversion to BDO, for example, is Clostridium acetobutylicum (see, for example, Jewell et al., Current Microbiology, 13:215-19 (1986)).

Thus, such a procedure includes, for example, the fermentation of a microbial organism that produces a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate. The 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate can then be used as a substrate for a second microbial organism that converts the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate to 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine. The 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate can be added directly to another culture of the second organism or the original culture of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA BDO or putrescine pathway intermediate producers can be depleted of these microbial organisms by, for example, cell separation, and then subsequent addition of the second organism to the fermentation broth can be utilized to produce the final product without intermediate purification steps.

In other embodiments, the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention can be assembled in a wide variety of subpathways to achieve biosynthesis of, for example, 4-HB and/or BDO as described. In these embodiments, biosynthetic pathways for a desired product of the invention can be segregated into different microbial organisms and the different microbial organisms can be co-cultured to produce the final product. In such a biosynthetic scheme, the product of one microbial organism is the substrate for a second microbial organism until the final product is synthesized. For example, the biosynthesis of BDO can be accomplished as described previously by constructing a microbial organism that contains biosynthetic pathways for conversion of one pathway intermediate to another pathway intermediate or the product, for example, a substrate such as endogenous succinate through 4-HB to the final product BDO. Alternatively, BDO also can be biosynthetically produced from microbial organisms through co-culture or co-fermentation using two organisms in the same vessel. A first microbial organism being a 4-HB producer with genes to produce 4-HB from succinic acid, and a second microbial organism being a BDO producer with genes to convert 4-HB to BDO. For example, the biosynthesis of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine can be accomplished by constructing a microbial organism that contains biosynthetic pathways for conversion of one pathway intermediate to another pathway intermediate or the product. Alternatively, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine also can be biosynthetically produced from microbial organisms through co-culture or co-fermentation using two organisms in the same vessel, where the first microbial organism produces a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine intermediate and the second microbial organism converts the intermediate to 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a wide variety of combinations and permutations exist for the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms and methods of the invention together with other microbial organisms, with the co-culture of other non-naturally occurring microbial organisms having subpathways and with combinations of other chemical and/or biochemical procedures well known in the art to produce 4-HB, BDO, GBL and THF products of the invention.

It is understood that, in methods of the invention, any of the one or more exogenous nucleic acids can be introduced into a microbial organism to produce a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. The nucleic acids can be introduced so as to confer, for example, a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway onto the microbial organism. Alternatively, encoding nucleic acids can be introduced to produce an intermediate microbial organism having the biosynthetic capability to catalyze some of the required reactions to confer 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic capability. For example, a non-naturally occurring microbial organism having a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathway can comprise at least two exogenous nucleic acids encoding desired enzymes or proteins, such as the combination of enzymes as disclosed herein (see Examples and FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74), and the like. Thus, it is understood that any combination of two or more enzymes or proteins of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention. Similarly, it is understood that any combination of three or more enzymes or proteins of a biosynthetic pathway can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, for example, and so forth, as desired and disclosed herein, so long as the combination of enzymes and/or proteins of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product. Similarly, any combination of four or more enzymes or proteins of a biosynthetic pathway as disclosed herein can be included in a non-naturally occurring microbial organism of the invention, as desired, so long as the combination of enzymes and/or proteins of the desired biosynthetic pathway results in production of the corresponding desired product.

The invention additionally provides carboxylic acid reductase variants. CAR variants were generated and tested for activity. In a particular embodiment, a carboxylic acid reductase can comprise an amino acid sequence having an amino acid substitution selected from E16K; Q95L; L100M; A1011T; K823E; T941S; H15Q; D198E; G446C; S392N; F699L; V883I; F467S; T987S; R12H; V295G; V295A; V295S; V295T; V295C; V295V; V295L; V295I; V295M; V295P; V295F; V295Y; V295W; V295D; V295E; V295N; V295Q; V295H; V295K; V295R; M296G; M296A; M296S; M296T; M296C; M296V; M296L; M296I; M296M; M296P; M296F; M296Y; M296W; M296D; M296E; M296N; M296Q; M296H; M296K; M296R; G297G; G297A; G297S; G297T; G297C; G297V; G297L; G297I; G297M; G297P; G297F; G297Y; G297W; G297D; G297E; G297N; G297Q; G297H; G297K; G297R; G391G; G391A; G391S; G391T; G391C; G391V; G391L; G391I; G391M; G391P; G391F; G391Y; G391W; G391D; G391E; G391N; G391Q; G391H; G391K; G391R; G421G; G421A; G421S; G421T; G421C; G421V; G421L; G421I; G421M; G421P; G421F; G421Y; G421W; G421D; G421E; G421N; G421Q; G421H; G421K; G421R; D413G; D413A; D413S; D413T; D413C; D413V; D413L; D413I; D413M; D413P; D413F; D413Y; D413W; D413D; D413E; D413N; D413Q; D413H; D413K; D413R; G414G; G414A; G414S; G414T; G414C; G414V; G414L; G414I; G414M; G414P; G414F; G414Y; G414W; G414D; G414E; G414N; G414Q; G414H; G414K; G414R; Y415G; Y415A; Y415S; Y415T; Y415C; Y415V; Y415L; Y415I; Y415M; Y415P; Y415F; Y415Y; Y415W; Y415D; Y415E; Y415N; Y415Q; Y415H; Y415K; Y415R; G416G; G416A; G416S; G416T; G416C; G416V; G416L; G416I; G416M; G416P; G416F; G416Y; G416W; G416D; G416E; G416N; G416Q; G416H; G416K; G416R; S417G; S417A; S417S; S417T; S417C; S417V S417L; S417I; S417M; S417P; S417F; S417Y; S417W; S417D; S417E; S417N; S417Q; S417H; S417K; and S417R, or combinations thereof. The amino acid positions correspond to amino acid positions of sequence of FIG. 67B, or equivalent positions in a homologous CAR sequence. It is further understood that a CAR variant includes a combination of one or more of the amino acid substitutions, so long as the variant with multiple amino acid substitutions exhibits measurable CAR activity, as disclosed herein.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling can be utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling can also be used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine.

One computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthesis of a desired product is the OptKnock computational framework (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)). OptKnock is a metabolic modeling and simulation program that suggests gene deletion or disruption strategies that result in genetically stable microorganisms which overproduce the target product. Specifically, the framework examines the complete metabolic and/or biochemical network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene deletions or other functional gene disruption, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, when gene deletions are constructed there is a negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome. Therefore, this computational methodology can be used to either identify alternative pathways that lead to biosynthesis of a desired product or used in connection with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms for further optimization of biosynthesis of a desired product.

Briefly, OptKnock is a term used herein to refer to a computational method and system for modeling cellular metabolism. The OptKnock program relates to a framework of models and methods that incorporate particular constraints into flux balance analysis (FBA) models. These constraints include, for example, qualitative kinetic information, qualitative regulatory information, and/or DNA microarray experimental data. OptKnock also computes solutions to various metabolic problems by, for example, tightening the flux boundaries derived through flux balance models and subsequently probing the performance limits of metabolic networks in the presence of gene additions or deletions. OptKnock computational framework allows the construction of model formulations that allow an effective query of the performance limits of metabolic networks and provides methods for solving the resulting mixed-integer linear programming problems. The metabolic modeling and simulation methods referred to herein as OptKnock are described in, for example, U.S. publication 2002/0168654, filed Jan. 10, 2002, in International Patent No. PCT/US02/00660, filed Jan. 10, 2002, and U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007.

Another computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthetic production of a product is a metabolic modeling and simulation system termed SimPheny®. This computational method and system is described in, for example, U.S. publication 2003/0233218, filed Jun. 14, 2002, and in International Patent Application No. PCT/US03/18838, filed Jun. 13, 2003. SimPheny® is a computational system that can be used to produce a network model in silico and to simulate the flux of mass, energy or charge through the chemical reactions of a biological system to define a solution space that contains any and all possible functionalities of the chemical reactions in the system, thereby determining a range of allowed activities for the biological system. This approach is referred to as constraints-based modeling because the solution space is defined by constraints such as the known stoichiometry of the included reactions as well as reaction thermodynamic and capacity constraints associated with maximum fluxes through reactions. The space defined by these constraints can be interrogated to determine the phenotypic capabilities and behavior of the biological system or of its biochemical components.

These computational approaches are consistent with biological realities because biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result in many different ways. Biological systems are designed through evolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamental constraints that all living systems must face. Therefore, constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities. Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on a network model via the tightening of constraints results in a reduction in the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision with which physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will be able to apply various computational frameworks for metabolic modeling and simulation to design and implement biosynthesis of a desired compound in host microbial organisms. Such metabolic modeling and simulation methods include, for example, the computational systems exemplified above as SimPheny® and OptKnock. For illustration of the invention, some methods are described herein with reference to the OptKnock computation framework for modeling and simulation. Those skilled in the art will know how to apply the identification, design and implementation of the metabolic alterations using OptKnock to any of such other metabolic modeling and simulation computational frameworks and methods well known in the art.

The methods described above will provide one set of metabolic reactions to disrupt. Elimination of each reaction within the set or metabolic modification can result in a desired product as an obligatory product during the growth phase of the organism. Because the reactions are known, a solution to the bilevel OptKnock problem also will provide the associated gene or genes encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze each reaction within the set of reactions. Identification of a set of reactions and their corresponding genes encoding the enzymes participating in each reaction is generally an automated process, accomplished through correlation of the reactions with a reaction database having a relationship between enzymes and encoding genes.

Once identified, the set of reactions that are to be disrupted in order to achieve production of a desired product are implemented in the target cell or organism by functional disruption of at least one gene encoding each metabolic reaction within the set. One particularly useful means to achieve functional disruption of the reaction set is by deletion of each encoding gene. However, in some instances, it can be beneficial to disrupt the reaction by other genetic aberrations including, for example, mutation, deletion of regulatory regions such as promoters or cis binding sites for regulatory factors, or by truncation of the coding sequence at any of a number of locations. These latter aberrations, resulting in less than total deletion of the gene set can be useful, for example, when rapid assessments of the coupling of a product are desired or when genetic reversion is less likely to occur.

To identify additional productive solutions to the above described bilevel OptKnock problem which lead to further sets of reactions to disrupt or metabolic modifications that can result in the biosynthesis, including growth-coupled biosynthesis of a desired product, an optimization method, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This method proceeds by iteratively solving the OptKnock problem exemplified above with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration. Integer cut constraints effectively prevent the solution procedure from choosing the exact same set of reactions identified in any previous iteration that obligatorily couples product biosynthesis to growth. For example, if a previously identified growth-coupled metabolic modification specifies reactions 1, 2, and 3 for disruption, then the following constraint prevents the same reactions from being simultaneously considered in subsequent solutions. The integer cut method is well known in the art and can be found described in, for example, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 17:791-797 (2001). As with all methods described herein with reference to their use in combination with the OptKnock computational framework for metabolic modeling and simulation, the integer cut method of reducing redundancy in iterative computational analysis also can be applied with other computational frameworks well known in the art including, for example, SimPheny®.

The methods exemplified herein allow the construction of cells and organisms that biosynthetically produce a desired product, including the obligatory coupling of production of a target biochemical product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. Therefore, the computational methods described herein allow the identification and implementation of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method selected from OptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include, for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/or functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion.

As discussed above, the OptKnock methodology was developed on the premise that mutant microbial networks can be evolved towards their computationally predicted maximum-growth phenotypes when subjected to long periods of growth selection. In other words, the approach leverages an organism's ability to self-optimize under selective pressures. The OptKnock framework allows for the exhaustive enumeration of gene deletion combinations that force a coupling between biochemical production and cell growth based on network stoichiometry. The identification of optimal gene/reaction knockouts requires the solution of a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the biochemical of interest (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)).

An in silico stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism can be employed to identify essential genes for metabolic pathways as exemplified previously and described in, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379. As disclosed herein, the OptKnock mathematical framework can be applied to pinpoint gene deletions leading to the growth-coupled production of a desired product. Further, the solution of the bilevel OptKnock problem provides only one set of deletions. To enumerate all meaningful solutions, that is, all sets of knockouts leading to growth-coupled production formation, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration, as discussed above.

The methods exemplified above and further illustrated in the Examples below allow the construction of cells and organisms that biosynthetically produce, including obligatory couple production of a target biochemical product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. In this regard, metabolic alterations have been identified that result in the biosynthesis of 4-HB and 1,4-butanediol. Microorganism strains constructed with the identified metabolic alterations produce elevated levels of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine compared to unmodified microbial organisms. These strains can be beneficially used for the commercial production of 4-HB, BDO, THF, GBL, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA or putrescine, for example, in continuous fermentation process without being subjected to the negative selective pressures.

Therefore, the computational methods described herein allow the identification and implementation of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method selected from OptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include, for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/or functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion.

It is understood that modifications which do not substantially affect the activity of the various embodiments of this invention are also included within the definition of the invention provided herein. Accordingly, the following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit the present invention.

Any of the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms described herein can be cultured to produce and/or secrete the biosynthetic products of the invention. For example, the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producers can be cultured for the biosynthetic production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine.

For the production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine, the recombinant strains are cultured in a medium with carbon source and other essential nutrients. It is highly desirable to maintain anaerobic conditions in the fermenter to reduce the cost of the overall process. Such conditions can be obtained, for example, by first sparging the medium with nitrogen and then sealing the flasks with a septum and crimp-cap. For strains where growth is not observed anaerobically, microaerobic conditions can be applied by perforating the septum with a small hole for limited aeration. Exemplary anaerobic conditions have been described previously and are well-known in the art. Exemplary aerobic and anaerobic conditions are described, for example, in U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007. Fermentations can be performed in a batch, fed-batch or continuous manner, as disclosed herein.

If desired, the pH of the medium can be maintained at a desired pH, in particular neutral pH, such as a pH of around 7 by addition of a base, such as NaOH or other bases, or acid, as needed to maintain the culture medium at a desirable pH. The growth rate can be determined by measuring optical density using a spectrophotometer (600 nm), and the glucose uptake rate by monitoring carbon source depletion over time.

In addition to renewable feedstocks such as those exemplified above, the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing microbial organisms of the invention also can be modified for growth on syngas as its source of carbon. In this specific embodiment, one or more proteins or enzymes are expressed in the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing organisms to provide a metabolic pathway for utilization of syngas or other gaseous carbon source.

Synthesis gas, also known as syngas or producer gas, is the major product of gasification of coal and of carbonaceous materials such as biomass materials, including agricultural crops and residues. Syngas is a mixture primarily of H2 and CO and can be obtained from the gasification of any organic feedstock, including but not limited to coal, coal oil, natural gas, biomass, and waste organic matter. Gasification is generally carried out under a high fuel to oxygen ratio. Although largely H2 and CO, syngas can also include CO2 and other gases in smaller quantities. Thus, synthesis gas provides a cost effective source of gaseous carbon such as CO and, additionally, CO2.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway catalyzes the conversion of CO and H2 to acetyl-CoA and other products such as acetate. Organisms capable of utilizing CO and syngas also generally have the capability of utilizing CO2 and CO2/H2 mixtures through the same basic set of enzymes and transformations encompassed by the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. H2-dependent conversion of CO2 to acetate by microorganisms was recognized long before it was revealed that CO also could be used by the same organisms and that the same pathways were involved. Many acetogens have been shown to grow in the presence of CO2 and produce compounds such as acetate as long as hydrogen is present to supply the necessary reducing equivalents (see for example, Drake, Acetogenesis, pp. 3-60 Chapman and Hall, New York, (1994)). This can be summarized by the following equation:

2CO2+4H2+nADP+nPi→CH3COOH+2H2O+nATP

Hence, non-naturally occurring microorganisms possessing the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway can utilize CO2 and H2 mixtures as well for the production of acetyl-CoA and other desired products.

The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway is well known in the art and consists of 12 reactions which can be separated into two branches: (1) methyl branch and (2) carbonyl branch. The methyl branch converts syngas to methyl-tetrahydrofolate (methyl-THF) whereas the carbonyl branch converts methyl-THF to acetyl-CoA. The reactions in the methyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes or proteins: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, formate dehydrogenase, formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase, methenyltetrahydrofolate cyclodehydratase, methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase. The reactions in the carbonyl branch are catalyzed in order by the following enzymes or proteins: methyltetrahydrofolate:corrinoid protein methyltransferase (for example, AcsE), corrinoid iron-sulfur protein, nickel-protein assembly protein (for example, AcsF), ferredoxin, acetyl-CoA synthase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and nickel-protein assembly protein (for example, CooC). Following the teachings and guidance provided herein for introducing a sufficient number of encoding nucleic acids to generate a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, those skilled in the art will understand that the same engineering design also can be performed with respect to introducing at least the nucleic acids encoding the Wood-Ljungdahl enzymes or proteins absent in the host organism. Therefore, introduction of one or more encoding nucleic acids into the microbial organisms of the invention such that the modified organism contains the complete Wood-Ljungdahl pathway will confer syngas utilization ability.

Additionally, the reductive (reverse) tricarboxylic acid cycle is and/or hydrogenase activities can also be used for the conversion of CO, CO2 and/or H2 to acetyl-CoA and other products such as acetate. Organisms capable of fixing carbon via the reductive TCA pathway can utilize one or more of the following enzymes: ATP citrate-lyase, citrate lyase, aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, succinyl-CoA transferase, fumarate reductase, fumarase, malate dehydrogenase, NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, and hydrogenase. Specifically, the reducing equivalents extracted from CO and/or H2 by carbon monoxide dehydrogenase and hydrogenase are utilized to fix CO2 via the reductive TCA cycle into acetyl-CoA or acetate. Acetate can be converted to acetyl-CoA by enzymes such as acetyl-CoA transferase, acetate kinase/phosphotransacetylase, and acetyl-CoA synthetase. Acetyl-CoA can be converted to the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine precursors, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, phosphoenolpyruvate, and pyruvate, by pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase and the enzymes of gluconeogenesis. Following the teachings and guidance provided herein for introducing a sufficient number of encoding nucleic acids to generate a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, those skilled in the art will understand that the same engineering design also can be performed with respect to introducing at least the nucleic acids encoding the reductive TCA pathway enzymes or proteins absent in the host organism. Therefore, introduction of one or more encoding nucleic acids into the microbial organisms of the invention such that the modified organism contains the complete reductive TCA pathway will confer syngas utilization ability.

Accordingly, given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will understand that a non-naturally occurring microbial organism can be produced that secretes the biosynthesized compounds of the invention when grown on a carbon source such as a carbohydrate. Such compounds include, for example, 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine and any of the intermediate metabolites in the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway. All that is required is to engineer in one or more of the required enzyme or protein activities to achieve biosynthesis of the desired compound or intermediate including, for example, inclusion of some or all of the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine biosynthetic pathways. Accordingly, the invention provides a non-naturally occurring microbial organism that produces and/or secretes 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine when grown on a carbohydrate or other carbon source and produces and/or secretes any of the intermediate metabolites shown in the 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway when grown on a carbohydrate or other carbon source. The 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine producing microbial organisms of the invention can initiate synthesis from an intermediate in a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway, as disclosed herein.

To generate better producers, metabolic modeling can be utilized to optimize growth conditions. Modeling can also be used to design gene knockouts that additionally optimize utilization of the pathway (see, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379). Modeling analysis allows reliable predictions of the effects on cell growth of shifting the metabolism towards more efficient production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine.

One computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthesis of a desired product is the OptKnock computational framework (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)). OptKnock is a metabolic modeling and simulation program that suggests gene deletion strategies that result in genetically stable microorganisms which overproduce the target product. Specifically, the framework examines the complete metabolic and/or biochemical network of a microorganism in order to suggest genetic manipulations that force the desired biochemical to become an obligatory byproduct of cell growth. By coupling biochemical production with cell growth through strategically placed gene deletions or other functional gene disruption, the growth selection pressures imposed on the engineered strains after long periods of time in a bioreactor lead to improvements in performance as a result of the compulsory growth-coupled biochemical production. Lastly, when gene deletions are constructed there is a negligible possibility of the designed strains reverting to their wild-type states because the genes selected by OptKnock are to be completely removed from the genome. Therefore, this computational methodology can be used to either identify alternative pathways that lead to biosynthesis of a desired product or used in connection with the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms for further optimization of biosynthesis of a desired product.

Briefly, OptKnock is a term used herein to refer to a computational method and system for modeling cellular metabolism. The OptKnock program relates to a framework of models and methods that incorporate particular constraints into flux balance analysis (FBA) models. These constraints include, for example, qualitative kinetic information, qualitative regulatory information, and/or DNA microarray experimental data. OptKnock also computes solutions to various metabolic problems by, for example, tightening the flux boundaries derived through flux balance models and subsequently probing the performance limits of metabolic networks in the presence of gene additions or deletions. OptKnock computational framework allows the construction of model formulations that allow an effective query of the performance limits of metabolic networks and provides methods for solving the resulting mixed-integer linear programming problems. The metabolic modeling and simulation methods referred to herein as OptKnock are described in, for example, U.S. publication 2002/0168654, filed Jan. 10, 2002, in International Patent No. PCT/US02/00660, filed Jan. 10, 2002, and U.S. publication 2009/0047719, filed Aug. 10, 2007.

Another computational method for identifying and designing metabolic alterations favoring biosynthetic production of a product is a metabolic modeling and simulation system termed SimPheny®. This computational method and system is described in, for example, U.S. publication 2003/0233218, filed Jun. 14, 2002, and in International Patent Application No. PCT/US03/18838, filed Jun. 13, 2003. SimPheny® is a computational system that can be used to produce a network model in silico and to simulate the flux of mass, energy or charge through the chemical reactions of a biological system to define a solution space that contains any and all possible functionalities of the chemical reactions in the system, thereby determining a range of allowed activities for the biological system. This approach is referred to as constraints-based modeling because the solution space is defined by constraints such as the known stoichiometry of the included reactions as well as reaction thermodynamic and capacity constraints associated with maximum fluxes through reactions. The space defined by these constraints can be interrogated to determine the phenotypic capabilities and behavior of the biological system or of its biochemical components.

These computational approaches are consistent with biological realities because biological systems are flexible and can reach the same result in many different ways. Biological systems are designed through evolutionary mechanisms that have been restricted by fundamental constraints that all living systems must face. Therefore, constraints-based modeling strategy embraces these general realities. Further, the ability to continuously impose further restrictions on a network model via the tightening of constraints results in a reduction in the size of the solution space, thereby enhancing the precision with which physiological performance or phenotype can be predicted.

Given the teachings and guidance provided herein, those skilled in the art will be able to apply various computational frameworks for metabolic modeling and simulation to design and implement biosynthesis of a desired compound in host microbial organisms. Such metabolic modeling and simulation methods include, for example, the computational systems exemplified above as SimPheny® and OptKnock. For illustration of the invention, some methods are described herein with reference to the OptKnock computation framework for modeling and simulation. Those skilled in the art will know how to apply the identification, design and implementation of the metabolic alterations using OptKnock to any of such other metabolic modeling and simulation computational frameworks and methods well known in the art.

The methods described above will provide one set of metabolic reactions to disrupt. Elimination of each reaction within the set or metabolic modification can result in a desired product as an obligatory product during the growth phase of the organism. Because the reactions are known, a solution to the bilevel OptKnock problem also will provide the associated gene or genes encoding one or more enzymes that catalyze each reaction within the set of reactions. Identification of a set of reactions and their corresponding genes encoding the enzymes participating in each reaction is generally an automated process, accomplished through correlation of the reactions with a reaction database having a relationship between enzymes and encoding genes.

Once identified, the set of reactions that are to be disrupted in order to achieve production of a desired product are implemented in the target cell or organism by functional disruption of at least one gene encoding each metabolic reaction within the set. One particularly useful means to achieve functional disruption of the reaction set is by deletion of each encoding gene. However, in some instances, it can be beneficial to disrupt the reaction by other genetic aberrations including, for example, mutation, deletion of regulatory regions such as promoters or cis binding sites for regulatory factors, or by truncation of the coding sequence at any of a number of locations. These latter aberrations, resulting in less than total deletion of the gene set can be useful, for example, when rapid assessments of the coupling of a product are desired or when genetic reversion is less likely to occur.

To identify additional productive solutions to the above described bilevel OptKnock problem which lead to further sets of reactions to disrupt or metabolic modifications that can result in the biosynthesis, including growth-coupled biosynthesis of a desired product, an optimization method, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This method proceeds by iteratively solving the OptKnock problem exemplified above with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration. Integer cut constraints effectively prevent the solution procedure from choosing the exact same set of reactions identified in any previous iteration that obligatorily couples product biosynthesis to growth. For example, if a previously identified growth-coupled metabolic modification specifies reactions 1, 2, and 3 for disruption, then the following constraint prevents the same reactions from being simultaneously considered in subsequent solutions. The integer cut method is well known in the art and can be found described in, for example, Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Prog. 17:791-797 (2001). As with all methods described herein with reference to their use in combination with the OptKnock computational framework for metabolic modeling and simulation, the integer cut method of reducing redundancy in iterative computational analysis also can be applied with other computational frameworks well known in the art including, for example, SimPheny®.

The methods exemplified herein allow the construction of cells and organisms that biosynthetically produce a desired product, including the obligatory coupling of production of a target biochemical product to growth of the cell or organism engineered to harbor the identified genetic alterations. Therefore, the computational methods described herein allow the identification and implementation of metabolic modifications that are identified by an in silico method selected from OptKnock or SimPheny®. The set of metabolic modifications can include, for example, addition of one or more biosynthetic pathway enzymes and/or functional disruption of one or more metabolic reactions including, for example, disruption by gene deletion.

As discussed above, the OptKnock methodology was developed on the premise that mutant microbial networks can be evolved towards their computationally predicted maximum-growth phenotypes when subjected to long periods of growth selection. In other words, the approach leverages an organism's ability to self-optimize under selective pressures. The OptKnock framework allows for the exhaustive enumeration of gene deletion combinations that force a coupling between biochemical production and cell growth based on network stoichiometry. The identification of optimal gene/reaction knockouts requires the solution of a bilevel optimization problem that chooses the set of active reactions such that an optimal growth solution for the resulting network overproduces the biochemical of interest (Burgard et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84:647-657 (2003)).

An in silico stoichiometric model of E. coli metabolism can be employed to identify essential genes for metabolic pathways as exemplified previously and described in, for example, U.S. patent publications US 2002/0012939, US 2003/0224363, US 2004/0029149, US 2004/0072723, US 2003/0059792, US 2002/0168654 and US 2004/0009466, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,127,379. As disclosed herein, the OptKnock mathematical framework can be applied to pinpoint gene deletions leading to the growth-coupled production of a desired product. Further, the solution of the bilevel OptKnock problem provides only one set of deletions. To enumerate all meaningful solutions, that is, all sets of knockouts leading to growth-coupled production formation, an optimization technique, termed integer cuts, can be implemented. This entails iteratively solving the OptKnock problem with the incorporation of an additional constraint referred to as an integer cut at each iteration, as discussed above.

As disclosed herein, a nucleic acid encoding a desired activity of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway can be introduced into a host organism. In some cases, it can be desirable to modify an activity of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme or protein to increase production of 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA BDO or putrescine. For example, known mutations that increase the activity of a protein or enzyme can be introduced into an encoding nucleic acid molecule. Additionally, optimization methods can be applied to increase the activity of an enzyme or protein and/or decrease an inhibitory activity, for example, decrease the activity of a negative regulator.

One such optimization method is directed evolution. Directed evolution is a powerful approach that involves the introduction of mutations targeted to a specific gene in order to improve and/or alter the properties of an enzyme. Improved and/or altered enzymes can be identified through the development and implementation of sensitive high-throughput screening assays that allow the automated screening of many enzyme variants (for example, >104). Iterative rounds of mutagenesis and screening typically are performed to afford an enzyme with optimized properties. Computational algorithms that can help to identify areas of the gene for mutagenesis also have been developed and can significantly reduce the number of enzyme variants that need to be generated and screened. Numerous directed evolution technologies have been developed (for reviews, see Hibbert et al., Biomol. Eng 22:11-19 (2005); Huisman and Lalonde, In Biocatalysis in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries pgs. 717-742 (2007), Patel (ed.), CRC Press; Otten and Quax. Biomol. Eng 22:1-9 (2005); and Sen et al., Appl Biochem. Biotechnol 143:212-223 (2007)) to be effective at creating diverse variant libraries, and these methods have been successfully applied to the improvement of a wide range of properties across many enzyme classes. Enzyme characteristics that have been improved and/or altered by directed evolution technologies include, for example: selectivity/specificity, for conversion of non-natural substrates; temperature stability, for robust high temperature processing; pH stability, for bioprocessing under lower or higher pH conditions; substrate or product tolerance, so that high product titers can be achieved; binding (Km), including broadening substrate binding to include non-natural substrates; inhibition (Ki), to remove inhibition by products, substrates, or key intermediates; activity (kcat), to increases enzymatic reaction rates to achieve desired flux; expression levels, to increase protein yields and overall pathway flux; oxygen stability, for operation of air sensitive enzymes under aerobic conditions; and anaerobic activity, for operation of an aerobic enzyme in the absence of oxygen.

A number of exemplary methods have been developed for the mutagenesis and diversification of genes to target desired properties of specific enzymes. Such methods are well known to those skilled in the art. Any of these can be used to alter and/or optimize the activity of a 4-HB, 4-HBal, 4-HBCoA, BDO or putrescine pathway enzyme or protein. Such methods include, but are not limited to EpPCR, which introduces random point mutations by reducing the fidelity of DNA polymerase in PCR reactions (Pritchard et al., J Theor. Biol. 234:497-509 (2005)); Error-prone Rolling Circle Amplification (epRCA), which is similar to epPCR except a whole circular plasmid is used as the template and random 6-mers with exonuclease resistant thiophosphate linkages on the last 2 nucleotides are used to amplify the plasmid followed by transformation into cells in which the plasmid is re-circularized at tandem repeats (Fujii et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 32:e145 (2004); and Fujii et al., Nat. Protoc. 1:2493-2497 (2006)); DNA or Family Shuffling, which typically involves digestion of two or more variant genes with nucleases such as Dnase I or EndoV to generate a pool of random fragments that are reassembled by cycles of annealing and extension in the presence of DNA polymerase to create a library of chimeric genes (Stemmer, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91:10747-10751 (1994); and Stemmer, Nature 370:389-391 (1994)); Staggered Extension (StEP), which entails template priming followed by repeated cycles of 2 step PCR with denaturation and very short duration of annealing/extension (as short as 5 sec) (Zhao et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 16:258-261 (1998)); Random Priming Recombination (RPR), in which random sequence primers are used to generate many short DNA fragments complementary to different segments of the template (Shao et al., Nucleic Acids Res 26:681-683 (1998)).

Additional methods include Heteroduplex Recombination, in which linearized plasmid DNA is used to form heteroduplexes that are repaired by mismatch repair (Volkov et al, Nucleic Acids Res. 27:e18 (1999); and Volkov et al., Methods Enzymol. 328:456-463 (2000)); Random Chimeragenesis on Transient Templates (RACHITT), which employs Dnase I fragmentation and size fractionation of single stranded DNA (ssDNA) (Coco et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 19:354-359 (2001)); Recombined Extension on Truncated templates (RETT), which entails template switching of unidirectionally growing strands from primers in the presence of unidirectional ssDNA fragments used as a pool of templates (Lee et al., J. Molec. Catalysis 26:119-129 (2003)); Degenerate Oligonucleotide Gene Shuffling (DOGS), in which degenerate primers are used to control recombination between molecules; (Bergquist and Gibbs, Methods Mol. Biol. 352:191-204 (2007); Bergquist et al., Biomol. Eng 22:63-72 (2005); Gibbs et al., Gene 271:13-20 (2001)); Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes (ITCHY), which creates a combinatorial library with 1 base pair deletions of a gene or gene fragment of interest (Ostermeier et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:3562-3567 (1999); and Ostermeier et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 17:1205-1209 (1999)); Thio-Incremental Truncation for the Creation of Hybrid Enzymes (THIO-ITCHY), which is similar to ITCHY except that phosphothioate dNTPs are used to generate truncations (Lutz et al., Nucleic Acids Res 29:E16 (2001)); SCRATCHY, which combines two methods for recombining genes, ITCHY and DNA shuffling (Lutz et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:11248-11253 (2001)); Random Drift Mutagenesis (RNDM), in which mutations made via epPCR are followed by screening/selection for those retaining usable activity (Bergquist et al., Biomol. Eng. 22:63-72 (2005)); Sequence Saturation Mutagenesis (SeSaM), a random mutagenesis method that generates a pool of random length fragments using random incorporation of a phosphothioate nucleotide and cleavage, which is used as a template to extend in the presence of “universal” bases such as inosine, and replication of an inosine-containing complement gives random base incorporation and, consequently, mutagenesis (Wong et al., Biotechnol. J. 3:74-82 (2008); Wong et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 32:e26 (2004); and Wong et al., Anal. Biochem. 341:187-189 (2005)); Synthetic Shuffling, which uses overlapping oligonucleotides designed to encode “all genetic diversity in targets” and allows a very high diversity for the shuffled progeny (Ness et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 20:1251-1255 (2002)); Nucleotide Exchange and Excision Technology NexT, which exploits a combination of dUTP incorporation followed by treatment with uracil DNA glycosylase and then piperidine to perform endpoint DNA fragmentation (Muller et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 33:e117 (2005)).

Further methods include Sequence Homology-Independent Protein Recombination (SHIPREC), in which a linker is used to facilitate fusion between two distantly related or unrelated genes, and a range of chimeras is generated between the two genes, resulting in libraries of single-crossover hybrids (Sieber et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 19:456-460 (2001)); Gene Site Saturation Mutagenesis™ (GSSM™), in which the starting materials include a supercoiled double stranded DNA (dsDNA) plasmid containing an insert and two primers which are degenerate at the desired site of mutations (Kretz et al., Methods Enzymol. 388:3-11 (2004)); Combinatorial Cassette Mutagenesis (CCM), which involves the use of short oligonucleotide cassettes to replace limited regions with a large number of possible amino acid sequence alterations (Reidhaar-Olson et al. Methods Enzymol. 208:564-586 (1991); and Reidhaar-Olson et al. Science 241:53-57 (1988)); Combinatorial Multiple Cassette Mutagenesis (CMCM), which is essentially similar to CCM and uses epPCR at high mutation rate to identify hot spots and hot regions and then extension by CMCM to cover a defined region of protein sequence space (Reetz et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 40:3589-3591 (2001)); the Mutator Strains technique, in which conditional is mutator plasmids, utilizing the mutD5 gene, which encodes a mutant subunit of DNA polymerase III, to allow increases of 20 to 4000-× in random and natural mutation frequency during selection and block accumulation of deleterious mutations when selection is not required (Selifonova et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67:3645-3649 (2001)); Low et al., J. Mol. Biol. 260:359-3680 (1996)).

Additional exemplary methods include Look-Through Mutagenesis (LTM), which is a multidimensional mutagenesis method that assesses and optimizes combinatorial mutations of selected amino acids (Rajpal et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:8466-8471 (2005)); Gene Reassembly, which is a DNA shuffling method that can be applied to multiple genes at one time or to create a large library of chimeras (multiple mutations) of a single gene (Tunable GeneReassembly™ (TGR™) Technology supplied by Verenium Corporation), in Silico Protein Design Automation (PDA), which is an optimization algorithm that anchors the structurally defined protein backbone possessing a particular fold, and searches sequence space for amino acid substitutions that can stabilize the fold and overall protein energetics, and generally works most effectively on proteins with known three-dimensional structures (Hayes et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:15926-15931 (2002)); and Iterative Saturation Mutagenesis (ISM), which involves using knowledge of structure/function to choose a likely site for enzyme improvement, performing saturation mutagenesis at chosen site using a mutagenesis method such as Stratagene QuikChange (Stratagene; San Diego Calif.), screening/selecting for desired properties, and, using improved clone(s), starting over at another site and continue repeating until a desired activity is achieved (Reetz et al., Nat. Protoc. 2:891-903 (2007); and Reetz et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed Engl. 45:7745-7751 (2006)).

Any of the aforementioned methods for mutagenesis can be used alone or in any combination. Additionally, any one or combination of the directed evolution methods can be used in conjunction with adaptive evolution techniques, as described herein.

It is understood that modifications which do not substantially affect the activity of the various embodiments of this invention are also provided within the definition of the invention provided herein. Accordingly, the following examples are intended to illustrate but not limit the present invention.

Example I

Biosynthesis of 4-Hydroxybutanoic Acid

This example describes exemplary biochemical pathways for 4-HB production.

Previous reports of 4-HB synthesis in microbes have focused on this compound as an intermediate in production of the biodegradable plastic poly-hydroxyalkanoate (PHA) (U.S. Pat. No. 6,117,658). The use of 4-HB/3-HB copolymers over poly-3-hydroxybutyrate polymer (PHB) can result in plastic that is less brittle (Saito and Doi, Intl. J. Biol. Macromol. 16:99-104 (1994)). The production of monomeric 4-HB described herein is a fundamentally distinct process for several reasons: (1) the product is secreted, as opposed to PHA which is produced intracellularly and remains in the cell; (2) for organisms that produce hydroxybutanoate polymers, free 4-HB is not produced, but rather the Coenzyme A derivative is used by the polyhydroxyalkanoate synthase; (3) in the case of the polymer, formation of the granular product changes thermodynamics; and (4) extracellular pH is not an issue for production of the polymer, whereas it will affect whether 4-HB is present in the free acid or conjugate base state, and also the equilibrium between 4-HB and GBL.

4-HB can be produced in two enzymatic reduction steps from succinate, a central metabolite of the TCA cycle, with succinic semialdehyde as the intermediate (FIG. 1). The first of these enzymes, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, is native to many organisms including E. coli, in which both NADH- and NADPH-dependent enzymes have been found (Donnelly and Cooper, Eur. J. Biochem. 113:555-561 (1981); Donnelly and Cooper, J. Bacteriol. 145:1425-1427 (1981); Marek and Henson, J. Bacteriol. 170:991-994 (1988)). There is also evidence supporting succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase activity in S. cerevisiae (Ramos et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 149:401-404 (1985)), and a putative gene has been identified by sequence homology. However, most reports indicate that this enzyme proceeds in the direction of succinate synthesis, as shown in FIG. 1 (Donnelly and Cooper, supra; Lutke-Eversloh and Steinbuchel, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 181:63-71 (1999)), participating in the degradation pathway of 4-HB and gamma-aminobutyrate. Succinic semialdehyde also is natively produced by certain microbial organisms such as E. coli through the TCA cycle intermediate α-ketogluterate via the action of two enzymes: glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase. An alternative pathway, used by the obligate anaerobe Clostridium kluyveri to degrade succinate, activates succinate to succinyl-CoA, then converts succinyl-CoA to succinic semialdehyde using an alternative succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase which is known to function in this direction (Sohling and Gottschalk, Eur. J. Biochem. 212:121-127 (1993)). However, this route has the energetic cost of ATP required to convert succinate to succinyl-CoA.

The second enzyme of the pathway, 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, is not native to E. coli or yeast but is found in various bacteria such as C. kluyveri and Ralstonia eutropha (Lutke-Eversloh and Steinbuchel, supra; Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); Valentin et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 227:43-60 (1995); Wolff and Kenealy, Protein Expr. Purif. 6:206-212 (1995)). These enzymes are known to be NADH-dependent, though NADPH-dependent forms also exist. An additional pathway to 4-HB from alpha-ketoglutarate was demonstrated in E. coli resulting in the accumulation of poly(4-hydroxybutyric acid) (Song et al., Wei Sheng Wu Xue. Bao. 45:382-386 (2005)). The recombinant strain required the overexpression of three heterologous genes, PHA synthase (R. eutropha), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (R. eutropha) and 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase (C. kluyveri), along with two native E. coli genes: glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase. Steps 4 and 5 in FIG. 1 can alternatively be carried out by an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase such as the one identified in Euglena gracilis (Shigeoka et al., Biochem. J. 282(Pt2):319-323 (1992); Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991); Shigeoka and Nakano, Biochem J. 292(Pt 2):463-467 (1993)). However, this enzyme has not previously been applied to impact the production of 4-HB or related polymers in any organism.

The microbial production capabilities of 4-hydroxybutyrate were explored in two microbes, Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, using in silico metabolic models of each organism. Potential pathways to 4-HB proceed via a succinate, succinyl-CoA, or alpha-ketoglutarate intermediate as shown in FIG. 1.

A first step in the 4-HB production pathway from succinate involves the conversion of succinate to succinic semialdehyde via an NADH- or NADPH-dependant succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase. In E. coli, gabD is an NADP-dependant succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and is part of a gene cluster involved in 4-aminobutyrate uptake and degradation (Niegemann et al., Arch. Microbiol. 160:454-460 (1993); Schneider et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:6976-6986 (2002)). sad is believed to encode the enzyme for NAD-dependant succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase activity (Marek and Henson, supra). S. cerevisiae contains only the NADPH-dependant succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, putatively assigned to UGA2, which localizes to the cytosol (Huh et al., Nature 425:686-691 (2003)). The maximum yield calculations assuming the succinate pathway to 4-HB in both E. coli and S. cerevisiae require only the assumption that a non-native 4-HB dehydrogenase has been added to their metabolic networks.

The pathway from succinyl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutyrate was described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,117,658 as part of a process for making polyhydroxyalkanoates comprising 4-hydroxybutyrate monomer units. Clostridium kluyveri is one example organism known to possess CoA-dependant succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase activity (Sohling and Gottschalk, supra; Sohling and Gottschalk, supra). In this study, it is assumed that this enzyme, from C. kluyveri or another organism, is expressed in E. coli or S. cerevisiae along with a non-native or heterologous 4-HB dehydrogenase to complete the pathway from succinyl-CoA to 4-HB. The pathway from alpha-ketoglutarate to 4-HB was demonstrated in E. coli resulting in the accumulation of poly(4-hydroxybutyric acid) to 30% of dry cell weight (Song et al., supra). As E. coli and S. cerevisiae natively or endogenously possess both glutamate:succinic semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase (Coleman et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:244-250 (2001)), the pathway from AKG to 4-HB can be completed in both organisms by assuming only that a non-native 4-HB dehydrogenase is present.

Example II

Biosynthesis of 1,4-Butanediol from Succinate and Alpha-Ketoglutarate

This example illustrates the construction and biosynthetic production of 4-HB and BDO from microbial organisms. Pathways for 4-HB and BDO are disclosed herein.

There are several alternative enzymes that can be utilized in the pathway described above. The native or endogenous enzyme for conversion of succinate to succinyl-CoA (Step 1 in FIG. 1) can be replaced by a CoA transferase such as that encoded by the cat1 gene C. kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, Eur. J Biochem. 212:121-127 (1993)), which functions in a similar manner to Step 9. However, the production of acetate by this enzyme may not be optimal, as it might be secreted rather than being converted back to acetyl-CoA. In this respect, it also can be beneficial to eliminate acetate formation in Step 9. As one alternative to this CoA transferase, a mechanism can be employed in which the 4-HB is first phosphorylated by ATP and then converted to the CoA derivative, similar to the acetate kinase/phosphotransacetylase pathway in E. coli for the conversion of acetate to acetyl-CoA. The net cost of this route is one ATP, which is the same as is required to regenerate acetyl-CoA from acetate. The enzymes phosphotransbutyrylase (ptb) and butyrate kinase (bk) are known to carry out these steps on the non-hydroxylated molecules for butyrate production in C. acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 56:1576-1583 (1990); Valentine, R. C. and R. S. Wolfe, J Biol Chem. 235:1948-1952 (1960)). These enzymes are reversible, allowing synthesis to proceed in the direction of 4-HB.

BDO also can be produced via alpha-ketoglutarate in addition to or instead of through succinate. A described previously, and exemplified further below, one pathway to accomplish product biosynthesis is with the production of succinic semialdehyde via alpha-ketoglutarate using the endogenous enzymes (FIG. 1, Steps 4-5). An alternative is to use an alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase that can perform this conversion in one step (FIG. 1, Step 8; Tian et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A 102:10670-10675 (2005)).

For the construction of different strains of BDO-producing microbial organisms, a list of applicable genes was assembled for corroboration. Briefly, one or more genes within the 4-HB and/or BDO biosynthetic pathways were identified for each step of the complete BDO-producing pathway shown in FIG. 1, using available literature resources, the NCBI genetic database, and homology searches. The genes cloned and assessed in this study are presented below in in Table 6, along with the appropriate references and URL citations to the polypeptide sequence. As discussed further below, some genes were synthesized for codon optimization while others were cloned via PCR from the genomic DNA of the native or wild-type organism. For some genes both approaches were used, and in this case the native genes are indicated by an “n” suffix to the gene identification number when used in an experiment. Note that only the DNA sequences differ; the proteins are identical.

TABLE 6
Genes expressed in host BDO-producting microbial organisms.
	Reaction
Gene ID	number	Gene
number	(FIG. 1)	name	Source organism	Enzyme name	Link to protein sequence	Reference
0001	9	Cat2	Clostridium kluyveri	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	1
			DSM 555	coenzyme A	viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=
				transferase	1228100
0002	12/13	adhE	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Aldehyde/alcohol	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&val=
					15004739
0003	12/13	adhE2	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Aldehyde/alcohol	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?val=NP_149325.1
0004	1	Cat1	Clostridium kluyveri	Succinate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	1
			DSM 555	coenzyme A	viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=
				transferase	1228100
0008	6	sucD	Clostridium kluyveri	Succinic	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	1
			DSM 555	semialdehyde	viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=
				dehydrogenase	1228100
				(CoA-dependent)
0009	7	4-HBd	Ralstonia eutropha	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			H16	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?val=YP_726053.1
				(NAD-dependent)
0010	7	4-HBd	Clostridium kluyveri	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	1
			DSM 555	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=
				(NAD-dependent)	1228100
0011	12/13	adhE	E. coli	Aldehyde/alcohol	shigen.nig.ac.jp/ecoli/pec/
				dehydrogenase	genes.List.DetailAction.do?
					fromListFlag=true&featureType=
					1&orfId=1219
0012	12/13	yqhD	E. coli	Aldehyde/alcohol	shigen.nig.ac.jp/ecoli/pec/
				dehydrogenase	genes.List.DetailAction.do
0013	13	bdhB	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Butanol	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824	dehydrogenase II	viewer.fcgi?val=NP_349891.1
0020	11	ptb	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Phospho-	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824	transbutyrylase	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
					15896327
0021	10	buk1	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Butyrate kinase I	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824		viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
					20137334
0022	10	buk2	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Butyrate kinase II	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824		viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
					20137415
0023	13	adhEm	isolated from metalibrary	Alcohol		(37)d}
			of anaerobic sewage digester	dehydrogenase
			microbial consortia
0024	13	adhE	Clostridium thermocellum	Alcohol	genome.jp/dbget-
				dehydrogenase	bin/www_bget?cth:Cthe_0423
0025	13	ald	Clostridium beijerinckii	Coenzyme A-	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	(31)d}
				acylating aldehyde	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
				dehydrogenase	49036681
0026	13	bdhA	Clostridium acetobutylicum	Butanol	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	2
			ATCC 824	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?val=NP_349892.1
0027	12	bld	Clostridium	Butyraldehyde	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	4
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
					31075383
0028	13	bdh	Clostridium	Butanol	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	4
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum	dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&id=
					124221917
0029	12/13	adhE	Clostridium tetani	Aldehyde/alcohol	genome.jp/dbget-
				dehydrogenase	bin/www_bget?ctc:CTC01366
0030	12/13	adhE	Clostridium perfringens	Aldehyde/alcohol	genome.jp/dbget-
				dehydrogenase	bin/www_bget?cpe:CPE2531
0031	12/13	adhE	Clostridium difficile	Aldehyde/alcohol	genome.jp/dbget-
				dehydrogenase	bin/www_bget?cdf:CD2966
0032	8	sucA	Mycobacterium bovis	α-ketoglutarate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	5
			BCG, Pasteur	decarboxylase	viewer.fcgi?val=YP_977400.1
0033	9	cat2	Clostridium aminobutyricum	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/
				coenzyme A	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&val=
				transferase	6249316
0034	9	cat2	Porphyromonas gingivalis	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/
			W83	coenzyme A	viewer.fcgi?db=protein&val=
				transferase	34541558
0035	6	sucD	Porphyromonas gingivalis	Succinic	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/
			W83	semialdehyde	viewer.fcgi?val=NP_904963.1
				dehydrogenase
				(CoA-dependent)
0036	7	4-HBd	Porphyromonas gingivalis	NAD-dependent	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/
			W83	4-hydroxybutyrate	viewer.fcgi?val=NP_904964.1
				dehydrogenase
0037	7	gbd	Uncultured bacterium	4-hydroxybutyrate	ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/	6
				dehydrogenase	viewer.fcgi?db=nuccore&id=
					5916168
0038	1	sucCD	E. coli	Succinyl-CoA	shigen.nig.ac.jp/ecoli/pec/
				synthetase	genes.List.DetailAction.do
1 Sohling and Gottschalk, Eur. J. Biochem. 212: 121-127 (1993); Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178: 871-880 (1996)
2 Nolling et al., J., J. Bacteriol. 183: 4823-4838 (2001)
3 Pohlmann et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 24: 1257-1262 (2006)
4 Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 71: 58-68 (2007)
5 Brosch et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104: 5596-5601 (2007)
6 Henne et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65: 3901-3907 (1999)

Expression Vector Construction for BDO Pathway.

Vector backbones and some strains were obtained from Dr. Rolf Lutz of Expressys (expressys.de/). The vectors and strains are based on the pZ Expression System developed by Dr. Rolf Lutz and Prof Hermann Bujard (Lutz, R. and H. Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res 25:1203-1210 (1997)). Vectors obtained were pZE13luc, pZA33luc, pZS*13luc and pZE22luc and contained the luciferase gene as a stuffer fragment. To replace the luciferase stuffer fragment with a lacZ-alpha fragment flanked by appropriate restriction enzyme sites, the luciferase stuffer fragment was first removed from each vector by digestion with EcoRI and XbaI. The lacZ-alpha fragment was PCR amplified from pUC19 with the following primers:

lacZalpha-RI
(SEQ ID NO: 1)
5′GACGAATTCGCTAGCAAGAGGAGAAGTCGACATGTCCAATTCACTGGC
CGTCGTTTTAC3′
lacZalpha 3′BB
(SEQ ID NO: 2)
5′-GACCCTAGGAAGCTTTCTAGAGTCGACCTATGCGGCATCAGAGCAG
A-3′.

This generated a fragment with a 5′ end of EcoRI site, NheI site, a Ribosomal Binding Site, a SalI site and the start codon. On the 3′ end of the fragment contained the stop codon, XbaI, HindIII, and AvrII sites. The PCR product was digested with EcoRI and AvrII and ligated into the base vectors digested with EcoRI and XbaI (XbaI and AvrII have compatible ends and generate a non-site). Because NheI and XbaI restriction enzyme sites generate compatible ends that can be ligated together (but generate a NheI/XbaI non-site that is not digested by either enzyme), the genes cloned into the vectors could be “Biobricked” together (http://openwetware.org/wiki/Synthetic_Biology:BioBricks). Briefly, this method allows joining an unlimited number of genes into the vector using the same 2 restriction sites (as long as the sites do not appear internal to the genes), because the sites between the genes are destroyed after each addition.

All vectors have the pZ designation followed by letters and numbers indication the origin of replication, antibiotic resistance marker and promoter/regulatory unit. The origin of replication is the second letter and is denoted by E for ColE1, A for p15A and S for pSC101-based origins. The first number represents the antibiotic resistance marker (1 for Ampicillin, 2 for Kanamycin, 3 for Chloramphenicol, 4 for Spectinomycin and 5 for Tetracycline). The final number defines the promoter that regulated the gene of interest (1 for PLtetO-1, 2 for PLlacO-1, 3 for PAllacO-1, and 4 for Plac/ara-1). The MCS and the gene of interest follows immediately after. For the work discussed here we employed two base vectors, pZA33 and pZE13, modified for the biobricks insertions as discussed above. Once the gene(s) of interest have been cloned into them, resulting plasmids are indicated using the four digit gene codes given in Table 6; e.g., pZA33-XXXX-YYYY- . . . .

Host Strain Construction. The parent strain in all studies described here is E. coli K-12 strain MG1655. Markerless deletion strains in adhE, gabD, and aldA were constructed under service contract by a third party using the redET method (Datsenko, K. A. and B. L. Wanner, Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 97:6640-6645 (2000)). Subsequent strains were constructed via bacteriophage P1 mediated transduction (Miller, J. Experiments in Molecular Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, New York (1973)). Strain C600Z1 (laciq, PN25-tetR, SpR, lacY1, leuB6, mcrB+, supE44, thi-1, thr-1, tonA21) was obtained from Expressys and was used as a source of a lacIq allele for P1 transduction. Bacteriophage P1vir was grown on the C600Z1 E. coli strain, which has the spectinomycin resistance gene linked to the lacIq. The P1 lysate grown on C600Z1 was used to infect MG1655 with selection for spectinomycin resistance. The spectinomycin resistant colonies were then screened for the linked lacIq by determining the ability of the transductants to repress expression of a gene linked to a PA1lacO-1 promoter. The resulting strain was designated MG1655 lacIq. A similar procedure was used to introduce lacIQ into the deletion strains.

Production of 4-HB From Succinate. For construction of a 4-HB producer from succinate, genes encoding steps from succinate to 4-HB and 4-HB-CoA (1, 6, 7, and 9 in FIG. 1) were assembled onto the pZA33 and pZE13 vectors as described below. Various combinations of genes were assessed, as well as constructs bearing incomplete pathways as controls (Tables 7 and 8). The plasmids were then transformed into host strains containing lacIQ, which allow inducible expression by addition of isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG). Both wild-type and hosts with deletions in genes encoding the native succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (step 2 in FIG. 1) were tested.

Activity of the heterologous enzymes were first tested in in vitro assays, using strain MG1655 lacIQ as the host for the plasmid constructs containing the pathway genes. Cells were grown aerobically in LB media (Difco) containing the appropriate antibiotics for each construct, and induced by addition of IPTG at 1 mM when the optical density (OD600) reached approximately 0.5. Cells were harvested after 6 hours, and enzyme assays conducted as discussed below.

In Vitro Enzyme Assays. To obtain crude extracts for activity assays, cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4,500 rpm (Beckman-Coulter, Allegera X-15R) for 10 min. The pellets were resuspended in 0.3 mL BugBuster (Novagen) reagent with benzonase and lysozyme, and lysis proceeded for 15 minutes at room temperature with gentle shaking. Cell-free lysate was obtained by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm (Eppendorf centrifuge 5402) for 30 min at 4° C. Cell protein in the sample was determined using the method of Bradford et al., Anal. Biochem. 72:248-254 (1976), and specific enzyme assays conducted as described below. Activities are reported in Units/mg protein, where a unit of activity is defined as the amount of enzyme required to convert 1 μmol of substrate in 1 min. at room temperature. In general, reported values are averages of at least 3 replicate assays.

Succinyl-CoA transferase (Cat1) activity was determined by monitoring the formation of acetyl-CoA from succinyl-CoA and acetate, following a previously described procedure Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996). Succinyl-CoA synthetase (SucCD) activity was determined by following the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate and CoA in the presence of ATP. The experiment followed a procedure described by Cha and Parks, J. Biol. Chem. 239:1961-1967 (1964). CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (SucD) activity was determined by following the conversion of NAD to NADH at 340 nm in the presence of succinate semialdehyde and CoA (Sohling and Gottschalk, Eur. J. Biochem. 212:121-127 (1993)). 4-HB dehydrogenase (4-HBd) enzyme activity was determined by monitoring the oxidation of NADH to NAD at 340 nm in the presence of succinate semialdehyde. The experiment followed a published procedure Gerhardt et al. Arch. Microbiol. 174:189-199 (2000). 4-HB CoA transferase (Cat2) activity was determined using a modified procedure from Scherf and Buckel, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:2699-2702 (1991). The formation of 4-HB-CoA or butyryl-CoA formation from acetyl-CoA and 4-HB or butyrate was determined using HPLC.

Alcohol (ADH) and aldehyde (ALD) dehydrogenase was assayed in the reductive direction using a procedure adapted from several literature sources (Durre et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 17:251-262 (1995); Palosaari and Rogers, J. Bacteriol. 170:2971-2976 (1988) and Welch et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 273:309-318 (1989). The oxidation of NADH is followed by reading absorbance at 340 nM every four seconds for a total of 240 seconds at room temperature. The reductive assays were performed in 100 mM MOPS (adjusted to pH 7.5 with KOH), 0.4 mM NADH, and from 1 to 50 μl of cell extract. The reaction is started by adding the following reagents: 100 μl of 100 mM acetaldehyde or butyraldehyde for ADH, or 100 μl of 1 mM acetyl-CoA or butyryl-CoA for ALD. The Spectrophotometer is quickly blanked and then the kinetic read is started. The resulting slope of the reduction in absorbance at 340 nM per minute, along with the molar extinction coefficient of NAD(P)H at 340 nM (6000) and the protein concentration of the extract, can be used to determine the specific activity.

The enzyme activity of PTB is measured in the direction of butyryl-CoA to butyryl-phosphate as described in Cary et al. J. Bacteriol. 170:4613-4618 (1988). It provides inorganic phosphate for the conversion, and follows the increase in free CoA with the reagent 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid), or DTNB. DTNB rapidly reacts with thiol groups such as free CoA to release the yellow-colored 2-nitro-5-mercaptobenzoic acid (TNB), which absorbs at 412 nm with a molar extinction coefficient of 14,140 M cm-1. The assay buffer contained 150 mM potassium phosphate at pH 7.4, 0.1 mM DTNB, and 0.2 mM butyryl-CoA, and the reaction was started by addition of 2 to 50 μL cell extract. The enzyme activity of BK is measured in the direction of butyrate to butyryl-phosphate formation at the expense of ATP. The procedure is similar to the assay for acetate kinase previously described Rose et al., J. Biol. Chem. 211:737-756 (1954). However we have found another acetate kinase enzyme assay protocol provided by Sigma to be more useful and sensitive. This assay links conversion of ATP to ADP by acetate kinase to the linked conversion of ADP and phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to ATP and pyruvate by pyruvate kinase, followed by the conversion of pyruvate and NADH to lactate and NAD+ by lactate dehydrogenase. Substituting butyrate for acetate is the only major modification to allow the assay to follow BK enzyme activity. The assay mixture contained 80 mM triethanolamine buffer at pH 7.6, 200 mM sodium butyrate, 10 mM MgCl2, 0.1 mM NADH, 6.6 mM ATP, 1.8 mM phosphoenolpyruvate. Pyruvate kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and myokinase were added according to the manufacturer's instructions. The reaction was started by adding 2 to 50 μL cell extract, and the reaction was monitored based on the decrease in absorbance at 340 nm indicating NADH oxidation.

Analysis of CoA Derivatives by HPLC. An HPLC based assay was developed to monitor enzymatic reactions involving coenzyme A (CoA) transfer. The developed method allowed enzyme activity characterization by quantitative determination of CoA, acetyl CoA (AcCoA), butyryl CoA (BuCoA) and 4-hydroxybutyrate CoA (4-HBCoA) present in in-vitro reaction mixtures. Sensitivity down to low μM was achieved, as well as excellent resolution of all the CoA derivatives of interest.

Chemical and sample preparation was performed as follows. Briefly, CoA, AcCoA, BuCoA and all other chemicals, were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. The solvents, methanol and acetonitrile, were of HPLC grade. Standard calibration curves exhibited excellent linearity in the 0.01-1 mg/mL concentration range. Enzymatic reaction mixtures contained 100 mM Tris HCl buffer (pH 7), aliquots were taken at different time points, quenched with formic acid (0.04% final concentration) and directly analyzed by HPLC.

HPLC analysis was performed using an Agilent 1100 HPLC system equipped with a binary pump, degasser, thermostated autosampler and column compartment, and diode array detector (DAD), was used for the analysis. A reversed phase column, Kromasil 100 Sum C18, 4.6×150 mm (Peeke Scientific), was employed. 25 mM potassium phosphate (pH 7) and methanol or acetonitrile, were used as aqueous and organic solvents at 1 mL/min flow rate. Two methods were developed: a short one with a faster gradient for the analysis of well-resolved CoA, AcCoA and BuCoA, and a longer method for distinguishing between closely eluting AcCoA and 4-HBCoA. Short method employed acetonitrile gradient (0 min—5%, 6 min—30%, 6.5 min—5%, 10 min—5%) and resulted in the retention times 2.7, 4.1 and 5.5 min for CoA, AcCoA and BuCoA, respectively. In the long method methanol was used with the following linear gradient: 0 min—5%, 20 min—35%, 20.5 min—5%, 25 min—5%. The retention times for CoA, AcCoA, 4-HBCoA and BuCoA were 5.8, 8.4, 9.2 and 16.0 min, respectively. The injection volume was 5 μL, column temperature 30° C., and UV absorbance was monitored at 260 nm.

The results demonstrated activity of each of the four pathway steps (Table 7), though activity is clearly dependent on the gene source, position of the gene in the vector, and the context of other genes with which it is expressed. For example, gene 0035 encodes a succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase that is more active than that encoded by 0008, and 0036 and 0010n are more active 4-HB dehydrogenase genes than 0009. There also seems to be better 4-HB dehydrogenase activity when there is another gene preceding it on the same operon.

TABLE 7
In vitro enzyme activities in cell extracts from MG1655 lacIQ containing the plasmids expressing genes
in the 4-HB-CoA pathway. Activities are reported in Units/mg protein, where a unit of activity is defined
as the amount of enzyme required to convert 1 μmol of substrate in 1 min. at room temperature.
Sample #	pZE13 (a)	pZA33 (b)	OD600	Cell Prot (c)	Cat1	SucD	4HBd	Cat2
1	cat1 (0004)		2.71	6.43	1.232	0.00
2	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)		2.03	5.00	0.761	2.57
3	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)		1.04	3.01	0.783	0.01
4	sucD (0035)		2.31	6.94		2.32
5	sucD (0008)		1.10	4.16		0.05
6		4hbd (0009)	2.81	7.94	0.003		0.25
7		4hbd (0036)	2.63	7.84			3.31
8		4hbd (0010n)	2.00	5.08			2.57
9	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0009)	2.07	5.04	0.600	1.85	0.01
10	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0036)	2.08	5.40	0.694	1.73	0.41
11	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0010n)	2.44	4.73	0.679	2.28	0.37
12	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0009)	1.08	3.99	0.572	−0.01	0.02
13	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0036)	0.77	2.60	0.898	−0.01	0.04
14	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0010n)	0.63	2.47	0.776	0.00	0.00
15		cat2 (0034)	2.56	7.86				1.283
16		cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	3.13	8.04			24.86	0.993
17		cat2(0034)-4hbd(0010n)	2.38	7.03			7.45	0.675
18		4hbd(0036)-cat2(0034)	2.69	8.26			2.15	7.490
19		4hbd(0010n)-cat2(0034)	2.44	6.59			0.59	4.101
Genes expressed from Plac on pZE13, a high-copy plasmid with colE1 origin and ampicillin resistance. Gene identification numbers are as given in Table 6
Genes expressed from Plac on pZA33, a medium-copy plasmid with pACYC origin and chloramphenicol resistance.
(c) Cell protein given as mg protein per mL extract.

Recombinant strains containing genes in the 4-HB pathway were then evaluated for the ability to produce 4-HB in vivo from central metabolic intermediates. Cells were grown anaerobically in LB medium to OD600 of approximately 0.4, then induced with 1 mM IPTG. One hour later, sodium succinate was added to 10 mM, and samples taken for analysis following an additional 24 and 48 hours. 4-HB in the culture broth was analyzed by GC-MS as described below. The results indicate that the recombinant strain can produce over 2 mM 4-HB after 24 hours, compared to essentially zero in the control strain (Table 8).

TABLE 8
Production of 4-HB from succinate in E. coli strains harboring plasmids expressing various combinations of 4-HB pathway genes.
Sample		24 Hours	48 Hours
#	Host Strain	pZE13	pZA33	OD600	4HB, μM	4HB norm. (a)	OD600	4HB, μM	4HB norm. (a)
1	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0009)	0.47	487	1036	1.04	1780	1711
2	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0027)	0.41	111	270	0.99	214	217
3	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0036)	0.47	863	1835	0.48	2152	4484
4	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0010n)	0.46	956	2078	0.49	2221	4533
5	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0009)	0.38	493	1296	0.37	1338	3616
6	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0027)	0.32	26	81	0.27	87	323
7	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0036)	0.24	506	2108	0.31	1448	4672
8	MG1655 lacIq	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0010n)	0.24	78	324	0.56	233	416
9	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0009)	0.53	656	1237	1.03	1643	1595
10	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0027)	0.44	92	209	0.98	214	218
11	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0036)	0.51	1072	2102	0.97	2358	2431
12	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0035)	4hbd (0010n)	0.51	981	1924	0.97	2121	2186
13	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0009)	0.35	407	1162	0.77	1178	1530
14	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0027)	0.51	19	36	1.07	50	47
15	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0036)	0.35	584	1669	0.78	1350	1731
16	MG1655 lacIq gabD	cat1 (0004)-sucD (0008)	4hbd (0010n)	0.32	74	232	0.82	232	283
17	MG1655 lacIq	vector only	vector only	0.8	1	2	1.44	3	2
18	MG1655 lacIq gabD	vector only	vector only	0.89	1	2	1.41	7	5
(a) Normalized 4-HB concentration, μM/OD600 units

An alternate to using a CoA transferase (cat1) to produce succinyl-CoA from succinate is to use the native E. coli sucCD genes, encoding succinyl-CoA synthetase. This gene cluster was cloned onto pZE13 along with candidate genes for the remaining steps to 4-HB to create pZE13-0038-0035-0036.

Production of 4-HB from Glucose. Although the above experiments demonstrate a functional pathway to 4-HB from a central metabolic intermediate (succinate), an industrial process would require the production of chemicals from low-cost carbohydrate feedstocks such as glucose or sucrose. Thus, the next set of experiments was aimed to determine whether endogenous succinate produced by the cells during growth on glucose could fuel the 4-HB pathway. Cells were grown anaerobically in M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na2HPO4, 3.0 g/L KH2PO4, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH4Cl, 1 mM MgSO4, 0.1 mM CaCl2) supplemented with 20 g/L glucose, 100 mM 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) to improve the buffering capacity, 10 μg/mL thiamine, and the appropriate antibiotics. 0.25 mM IPTG was added when OD600 reached approximately 0.2, and samples taken for 4-HB analysis every 24 hours following induction. In all cases 4-HB plateaued after 24 hours, with a maximum of about 1 mM in the best strains (FIG. 3a), while the succinate concentration continued to rise (FIG. 3b). This indicates that the supply of succinate to the pathway is likely not limiting, and that the bottleneck may be in the activity of the enzymes themselves or in NADH availability. 0035 and 0036 are clearly the best gene candidates for CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase and 4-HB dehydrogenase, respectively. The elimination of one or both of the genes encoding known (gabD) or putative (aldA) native succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenases had little effect on performance. Finally, it should be noted that the cells grew to a much lower OD in the 4-HB-producing strains than in the controls (FIG. 3c).

An alternate pathway for the production of 4-HB from glucose is via α-ketoglutarate. We explored the use of an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tian et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:10670-10675 (2005) to produce succinic semialdehyde directly from α-ketoglutarate (step 8 in FIG. 1). To demonstrate that this gene (0032) was functional in vivo, we expressed it on pZE13 in the same host as 4-HB dehydrogenase (gene 0036) on pZA33. This strain was capable of producing over 1.0 mM 4-HB within 24 hours following induction with 1 mM IPTG (FIG. 4). Since this strain does not express a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, the possibility of succinic semialdehyde production via succinyl-CoA is eliminated. It is also possible that the native genes responsible for producing succinic semialdehyde could function in this pathway (steps 4 and 5 in FIG. 1); however, the amount of 4-HB produced when the pZE13-0032 plasmid was left out of the host is the negligible.

Production of BDO from 4-HB. The production of BDO from 4-HB required two reduction steps, catalyzed by dehydrogenases. Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases (ADH and ALD, respectively) are NAD+/H and/or NADP+/H-dependent enzymes that together can reduce a carboxylic acid group on a molecule to an alcohol group, or in reverse, can perform the oxidation of an alcohol to a carboxylic acid. This biotransformation has been demonstrated in wild-type Clostridium acetobutylicum (Jewell et al., Current Microbiology, 13:215-19 (1986)), but neither the enzymes responsible nor the genes responsible were identified. In addition, it is not known whether activation to 4-HB-CoA is first required (step 9 in FIG. 1), or if the aldehyde dehydrogenase (step 12) can act directly on 4-HB. We developed a list of candidate enzymes from C. acetobutylicum and related organisms based on known activity with the non-hydroxylated analogues to 4-HB and pathway intermediates, or by similarity to these characterized genes (Table 6). Since some of the candidates are multifunctional dehydrogenases, they could potentially catalyze both the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of the acid (or CoA-derivative) to the aldehyde, and of the aldehyde to the alcohol. Before beginning work with these genes in E. coli, we first validated the result referenced above using C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824. Cells were grown in Schaedler broth (Accumedia, Lansing, Mich.) supplemented with 10 mM 4-HB, in an anaerobic atmosphere of 10% CO2, 10% H2, and 80% N2 at 30° C. Periodic culture samples were taken, centrifuged, and the broth analyzed for BDO by GC-MS as described below. BDO concentrations of 0.1 mM, 0.9 mM, and 1.5 mM were detected after 1 day, 2 days, and 7 days incubation, respectively. No BDO was detected in culture grown without 4-HB addition. To demonstrate that the BDO produced was derived from glucose, we grew the best BDO producing strain MG1655 lacIQ pZE13-0004-0035-0002 pZA33-0034-0036 in M9 minimal medium supplemented with 4 g/L uniformly labeled 13C-glucose. Cells were induced at OD of 0.67 with 1 mM IPTG, and a sample taken after 24 hours. Analysis of the culture supernatant was performed by mass spectrometry.

Gene candidates for the 4-HB to BDO conversion pathway were next tested for activity when expressed in the E. coli host MG1655 lacIQ. Recombinant strains containing each gene candidate expressed on pZA33 were grown in the presence of 0.25 mM IPTG for four hours at 37° C. to fully induce expression of the enzyme. Four hours after induction, cells were harvested and assayed for ADH and ALD activity as described above. Since 4-HB-CoA and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde are not available commercially, assays were performed using the non-hydroxylated substrates (Table 9). The ratio in activity between 4-carbon and 2-carbon substrates for C. acetobutylicum adhE2 (0002) and E. coli adhE (0011) were similar to those previously reported in the literature a Atsumi et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1207:1-11 (1994).

TABLE 9
In vitro enzyme activities in cell extracts from MG1655 lacIQ containing pZA33
expressing gene candidates for aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenases. Activities are expressed in
μmol min−1 mg cell protein−1. N.D., not determined.
		Aldehyde dehydrogenase	Alcohol dehydrogenase
Gene	Substrate	Butyryl-CoA	Acetyl-CoA	Butyraldehyde	Acetaldehyde
0002	0.0076	0.0046	0.0264	0.0247
0003n	0.0060	0.0072	0.0080	0.0075
0011	0.0069	0.0095	0.0265	0.0093
0013	N.D.	N.D.	0.0130	0.0142
0023	0.0089	0.0137	0.0178	0.0235
0025	0	0.0001	N.D.	N.D.
0026	0	0.0005	0.0024	0.0008

For the BDO production experiments, cat2 from Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 (gene 0034) was included on pZA33 for the conversion of 4-HB to 4-HB-CoA, while the candidate dehydrogenase genes were expressed on pZE13. The host strain was MG1655 lacIQ. Along with the alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase candidates, we also tested the ability of CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenases (sucD) to function in this step, due to the similarity of the substrates. Cells were grown to an OD of about 0.5 in LB medium supplemented with 10 mM 4-HB, induced with 1 mM IPTG, and culture broth samples taken after 24 hours and analyzed for BDO as described below. The best BDO production occurred using adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum, sucD from C. kluyveri, or sucD from P. gingivalis (FIG. 5). Interestingly, the absolute amount of BDO produced was higher under aerobic conditions; however, this is primarily due to the lower cell density achieved in anaerobic cultures. When normalized to cell OD, the BDO production per unit biomass is higher in anaerobic conditions (Table 10).

TABLE 10
Absolute and normalized BDO concentrations from cultures of cells expressing
adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum, sucD from C. kluyveri, or sucD from P. gingivalis (data from
experiments 2, 9, and 10 in FIG. 3), as well as the negative control (experiment 1).
Gene		BDO	OD
expressed	Conditions	(μM)	(600 nm)	BDO/OD
none	Aerobic	0	13.4	0
none	Microaerobic	0.5	6.7	0.09
none	Anaerobic	2.2	1.26	1.75
0002	Aerobic	138.3	9.12	15.2
0002	Microaerobic	48.2	5.52	8.73
0002	Anaerobic	54.7	1.35	40.5
0008n	Aerobic	255.8	5.37	47.6
0008n	Microaerobic	127.9	3.05	41.9
0008n	Anaerobic	60.8	0.62	98.1
0035	Aerobic	21.3	14.0	1.52
0035	Microaerobic	13.1	4.14	3.16
0035	Anaerobic	21.3	1.06	20.1

As discussed above, it may be advantageous to use a route for converting 4-HB to 4-HB-CoA that does not generate acetate as a byproduct. To this aim, we tested the use of phosphotransbutyrylase (ptb) and butyrate kinase (bk) from C. acetobutylicum to carry out this conversion via steps 10 and 11 in FIG. 1. The native ptb/bk operon from C. acetobutylicum (genes 0020 and 0021) was cloned and expressed in pZA33. Extracts from cells containing the resulting construct were taken and assayed for the two enzyme activities as described herein. The specific activity of BK was approximately 65 U/mg, while the specific activity of PTB was approximately 5 U/mg. One unit (U) of activity is defined as conversion of 1 μM substrate in 1 minute at room temperature. Finally, the construct was tested for participation in the conversion of 4-HB to BDO. Host strains were transformed with the pZA33-0020-0021 construct described and pZE13-0002, and compared to use of cat2 in BDO production using the aerobic procedure used above in FIG. 5. The BK/PTB strain produced 1 mM BDO, compared to 2 mM when using cat2 (Table 11). Interestingly, the results were dependent on whether the host strain contained a deletion in the native adhE gene.

TABLE 11
Absolute and normalized BDO concentrations from cultures
of cells expressing adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum
in pZE13 along with either cat2 from P. gingivalis (0034)
or thePTB/BK genes from C. acetobutylicum on pZA33.
Host strains were either MG1655 lacIQ or MG1655 ΔadhE lacIQ.
		BDO	OD
Genes	Host Strain	(μM)	(600 nm)	BDO/OD
0034	MG1655 lacIQ	0.827	19.9	0.042
0020 + 00021	MG1655 lacIQ	0.007	9.8	0.0007
0034	MG1655 ΔadhE	2.084	12.5	0.166
	lacIQ
0020 + 0021	MG1655 ΔadhE	0.975	18.8	0.052
	lacIQ

Production of BDO from Glucose. The final step of pathway corroboration is to express both the 4-HB and BDO segments of the pathway in E. coli and demonstrate production of BDO in glucose minimal medium. New plasmids were constructed so that all the required genes fit on two plamids. In general, cat1, adhE, and sucD genes were expressed from pZE13, and cat2 and 4-HBd were expressed from pZA33. Various combinations of gene source and gene order were tested in the MG1655 lacI^Q background. Cells were grown anaerobically in M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na₂HPO₄, 3.0 g/L KH₂PO₄, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH₄Cl, 1 mM MgSO₄, 0.1 mM CaCl₂) supplemented with 20 g/L glucose, 100 mM 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) to improve the buffering capacity, 10 μg/mL thiamine, and the appropriate antibiotics. 0.25 mM IPTG was added approximately 15 hours following inoculation, and culture supernatant samples taken for BDO, 4-HB, and succinate analysis 24 and 48 hours following induction. The production of BDO appeared to show a dependency on gene order (Table 12). The highest BDO production, over 0.5 mM, was obtained with cat2 expressed first, followed by 4-HBd on pZA33, and cat1 followed by P. gingivalis sucD on pZE13. The addition of C. acetobutylicum adhE2 in the last position on pZE13 resulted in slight improvement. 4-HB and succinate were also produced at higher concentrations.

TABLE 12
Production of BDO, 4-HB, and succinate in recombinant E. coli strains expressing combinations of BDO
pathway genes, grown in minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose. Concentrations are given in mM.
	24 Hours	48 Hours
			Induction	OD600				OD600
Sample	pZE13	pZA33	OD	nm	Su	4HB	BDO	nm	Su	4HB	BDO
1	cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	0.92	1.29	5.44	1.37	0.240	1.24	6.42	1.49	0.280
2	cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	0.36	1.11	6.90	1.24	0.011	1.06	7.63	1.33	0.011
3	adhE(0002)-cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	0.20	0.44	0.34	1.84	0.050	0.60	1.93	2.67	0.119
4	cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)-adhE(0002)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	1.31	1.90	9.02	0.73	0.073	1.95	9.73	0.82	0.077
5	adhE(0002)-cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	0.17	0.45	1.04	1.04	0.008	0.94	7.13	1.02	0.017
6	cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)-adhE(0002)	4hbd (0036)-cat2(0034)	1.30	1.77	10.47	0.25	0.004	1.80	11.49	0.28	0.003
7	cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	1.09	1.29	5.63	2.15	0.461	1.38	6.66	2.30	0.520
8	cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	1.81	2.01	11.28	0.02	0.000	2.24	11.13	0.02	0.000
9	adhE(0002)-cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	0.24	1.99	2.02	2.32	0.106	0.89	4.85	2.41	0.186
10	cat1(0004)-sucD(0035)-adhE(0002)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	0.98	1.17	5.30	2.08	0.569	1.33	6.15	2.14	0.640
11	adhE(0002)-cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	0.20	0.53	1.38	2.30	0.019	0.91	8.10	1.49	0.034
12	cat1(0004)-sucD(0008N)-adhE(0002)	cat2(0034)-4hbd(0036)	2.14	2.73	12.07	0.16	0.000	3.10	11.79	0.17	0.002
13	vector only	vector only	2.11	2.62	9.03	0.01	0.000	3.00	12.05	0.01	0.000

Analysis of BDO, 4-HB and succinate by GCMS. BDO, 4-HB and succinate in fermentation and cell culture samples were derivatized by silylation and quantitatively analyzed by GCMS using methods adapted from literature reports ((Simonov et al., J. Anal Chem. 59:965-971 (2004)). The developed method demonstrated good sensitivity down to 1 μM, linearity up to at least 25 mM, as well as excellent selectivity and reproducibility.

Sample preparation was performed as follows: 100 μL filtered (0.2 μm or 0.45 μm syringe filters) samples, e.g. fermentation broth, cell culture or standard solutions, were dried down in a Speed Vac Concentrator (Savant SVC-100H) for approximately 1 hour at ambient temperature, followed by the addition of 20 μL 10 mM cyclohexanol solution, as an internal standard, in dimethylformamide. The mixtures were vortexed and sonicated in a water bath (Branson 3510) for 15 min to ensure homogeneity. 100 μL silylation derivatization reagent, N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)trifluoro-acetimide (BSTFA) with 1% trimethylchlorosilane, was added, and the mixture was incubated at 70° C. for 30 min. The derivatized samples were centrifuged for 5 min, and the clear solutions were directly injected into GCMS. All the chemicals and reagents were from Sigma-Aldrich, with the exception of BDO which was purchased from J. T. Baker.

GCMS was performed on an Agilent gas chromatograph 6890N, interfaced to a mass-selective detector (MSD) 5973N operated in electron impact ionization (EI) mode has been used for the analysis. A DB-5MS capillary column (J&W Scientific, Agilent Technologies), 30 m×0.25 mm i.d.×0.25 μm film thickness, was used. The GC was operated in a split injection mode introducing 1 μL of sample at 20:1 split ratio. The injection port temperature was 250° C. Helium was used as a carrier gas, and the flow rate was maintained at 1.0 mL/min. A temperature gradient program was optimized to ensure good resolution of the analytes of interest and minimum matrix interference. The oven was initially held at 80° C. for 1 min, then ramped to 120° C. at 2° C./min, followed by fast ramping to 320° C. at 100° C./min and final hold for 6 min at 320° C. The MS interface transfer line was maintained at 280° C. The data were acquired using ‘lowmass’ MS tune settings and 30-400 m/z mass-range scan. The total analysis time was 29 min including 3 min solvent delay. The retention times corresponded to 5.2, 10.5, 14.0 and 18.2 min for BSTFA-derivatized cyclohexanol, BDO, 4-HB and succinate, respectively. For quantitative analysis, the following specific mass fragments were selected (extracted ion chromatograms): m/z 157 for internal standard cyclohexanol, 116 for BDO, and 147 for both 4-HB and succinate. Standard calibration curves were constructed using analyte solutions in the corresponding cell culture or fermentation medium to match sample matrix as close as possible. GCMS data were processed using Environmental Data Analysis ChemStation software (Agilent Technologies).

The results indicated that most of the 4-HB and BDO produced were labeled with 13C (FIG. 6, right-hand sides). Mass spectra from a parallel culture grown in unlabeled glucose are shown for comparison (FIG. 6, left-hand sides). Note that the peaks seen are for fragments of the derivatized molecule containing different numbers of carbon atoms from the metabolite. The derivatization reagent also contributes some carbon and silicon atoms that naturally-occurring label distribution, so the results are not strictly quantitative.

Production of BDO from 4-HB using alternate pathways. The various alternate pathways were also tested for BDO production. This includes use of the native E. coli SucCD enzyme to convert succinate to succinyl-CoA (Table 13, rows 2-3), use of alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase in the alpha-ketoglutarate pathway (Table 13, row 4), and use of PTB/BK as an alternate means to generate the CoA-derivative of 4HB (Table 13, row 1). Strains were constructed containing plasmids expressing the genes indicated in Table 13, which encompass these variants. The results show that in all cases, production of 4-HB and BDO occurred (Table 13).

TABLE 13
Production of BDO, 4-HB, and succinate in recombinant E. coli strains
genes for different BDO pathway variants, grown anaerobically in minimal
medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose, and harvested 24 hours
after induction with 0.1 mM IPTG. Concentrations are given in mM.
Genes on pZE13	Genes on pZA33	Succinate	4-HB	BDO
0002 + 004 + 0035	0020n-0021n-0036	0.336	2.91	0.230
0038 + 0035	0034-0036	0.814	2.81	0.126
0038 + 0035	0036-0034	0.741	2.57	0.114
0035 + 0032	0034-0036	5.01	0.538	0.154

Example III

Biosynthesis of 4-Hydroxybutanoic Acid, γ-Butyrolactone and 1,4-Butanediol

This Example describes the biosynthetic production of 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, γ-butyrolactone and 1,4-butanediol using fermentation and other bioprocesses.

Methods for the integration of the 4-HB fermentation step into a complete process for the production of purified GBL, 1,4-butanediol (BDO) and tetrahydrofuran (THF) are described below. Since 4-HB and GBL are in equilibrium, the fermentation broth will contain both compounds. At low pH this equilibrium is shifted to favor GBL. Therefore, the fermentation can operate at pH 7.5 or less, generally pH 5.5 or less. After removal of biomass, the product stream enters into a separation step in which GBL is removed and the remaining stream enriched in 4-HB is recycled. Finally, GBL is distilled to remove any impurities. The process operates in one of three ways: 1) fed-batch fermentation and batch separation; 2) fed-batch fermentation and continuous separation; 3) continuous fermentation and continuous separation. The first two of these modes are shown schematically in FIG. 7. The integrated fermentation procedures described below also are used for the BDO producing cells of the invention for biosynthesis of BDO and subsequent BDO family products.

Fermentation protocol to produce 4-HB/GBL (batch): The production organism is grown in a 10 L bioreactor sparged with an N2/CO2 mixture, using 5 L broth containing 5 g/L potassium phosphate, 2.5 g/L ammonium chloride, 0.5 g/L magnesium sulfate, and 30 g/L corn steep liquor, and an initial glucose concentration of 20 g/L. As the cells grow and utilize the glucose, additional 70% glucose is fed into the bioreactor at a rate approximately balancing glucose consumption. The temperature of the bioreactor is maintained at 30 degrees C. Growth continues for approximately 24 hours, until 4-HB reaches a concentration of between 20-200 g/L, with the cell density being between 5 and 10 g/L. The pH is not controlled, and will typically decrease to pH 3-6 by the end of the run. Upon completion of the cultivation period, the fermenter contents are passed through a cell separation unit (e.g., centrifuge) to remove cells and cell debris, and the fermentation broth is transferred to a product separations unit. Isolation of 4-HB and/or GBL would take place by standard separations procedures employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of 4-HB/GBL. The resulting solution is then subjected to standard distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide GBL (boiling point 204-205° C.) which is isolated as a purified liquid.

Fermentation protocol to produce 4-HB/GBL (fully continuous): The production organism is first grown up in batch mode using the apparatus and medium composition described above, except that the initial glucose concentration is 30-50 g/L. When glucose is exhausted, feed medium of the same composition is supplied continuously at a rate between 0.5 L/hr and 1 L/hr, and liquid is withdrawn at the same rate. The 4-HB concentration in the bioreactor remains constant at 30-40 g/L, and the cell density remains constant between 3-5 g/L. Temperature is maintained at 30 degrees C., and the pH is maintained at 4.5 using concentrated NaOH and HCl, as required. The bioreactor is operated continuously for one month, with samples taken every day to assure consistency of 4-HB concentration. In continuous mode, fermenter contents are constantly removed as new feed medium is supplied. The exit stream, containing cells, medium, and products 4-HB and/or GBL, is then subjected to a continuous product separations procedure, with or without removing cells and cell debris, and would take place by standard continuous separations methods employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as continuous liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of 4-HB/GBL. The resulting solution is subsequently subjected to standard continuous distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide GBL (boiling point 204-205° C.) which is isolated as a purified liquid.

GBL Reduction Protocol: Once GBL is isolated and purified as described above, it will then be subjected to reduction protocols such as those well known in the art (references cited) to produce 1,4-butanediol or tetrahydrofuran (THF) or a mixture thereof. Heterogeneous or homogeneous hydrogenation catalysts combined with GBL under hydrogen pressure are well known to provide the products 1,4-butanediol or tetrahydrofuran (THF) or a mixture thereof. It is important to note that the 4-HB/GBL product mixture that is separated from the fermentation broth, as described above, may be subjected directly, prior to GBL isolation and purification, to these same reduction protocols to provide the products 1,4-butanediol or tetrahydrofuran or a mixture thereof. The resulting products, 1,4-butanediol and THF are then isolated and purified by procedures well known in the art.

Fermentation and Hydrogenation Protocol to Produce BDO or THF Directly (Batch):

Cells are grown in a 10 L bioreactor sparged with an N2/CO2 mixture, using 5 L broth containing 5 g/L potassium phosphate, 2.5 g/L ammonium chloride, 0.5 g/L magnesium sulfate, and 30 g/L corn steep liquor, and an initial glucose concentration of 20 g/L. As the cells grow and utilize the glucose, additional 70% glucose is fed into the bioreactor at a rate approximately balancing glucose consumption. The temperature of the bioreactor is maintained at 30 degrees C. Growth continues for approximately 24 hours, until 4-HB reaches a concentration of between 20-200 g/L, with the cell density being between 5 and 10 g/L. The pH is not controlled, and will typically decrease to pH 3-6 by the end of the run. Upon completion of the cultivation period, the fermenter contents are passed through a cell separation unit (e.g., centrifuge) to remove cells and cell debris, and the fermentation broth is transferred to a reduction unit (e.g., hydrogenation vessel), where the mixture 4-HB/GBL is directly reduced to either 1,4-butanediol or THF or a mixture thereof. Following completion of the reduction procedure, the reactor contents are transferred to a product separations unit. Isolation of 1,4-butanediol and/or THF would take place by standard separations procedures employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of 1,4-butanediol and/or THF. The resulting solution is then subjected to standard distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide 1,4-butanediol and/or THF which are isolated as a purified liquids.

Fermentation and hydrogenation protocol to produce BDO or THF directly (fully continuous): The cells are first grown up in batch mode using the apparatus and medium composition described above, except that the initial glucose concentration is 30-50 g/L. When glucose is exhausted, feed medium of the same composition is supplied continuously at a rate between 0.5 L/hr and 1 L/hr, and liquid is withdrawn at the same rate. The 4-HB concentration in the bioreactor remains constant at 30-40 g/L, and the cell density remains constant between 3-5 g/L. Temperature is maintained at 30 degrees C., and the pH is maintained at 4.5 using concentrated NaOH and HCl, as required. The bioreactor is operated continuously for one month, with samples taken every day to assure consistency of 4-HB concentration. In continuous mode, fermenter contents are constantly removed as new feed medium is supplied. The exit stream, containing cells, medium, and products 4-HB and/or GBL, is then passed through a cell separation unit (e.g., centrifuge) to remove cells and cell debris, and the fermentation broth is transferred to a continuous reduction unit (e.g., hydrogenation vessel), where the mixture 4-HB/GBL is directly reduced to either 1,4-butanediol or THF or a mixture thereof. Following completion of the reduction procedure, the reactor contents are transferred to a continuous product separations unit. Isolation of 1,4-butanediol and/or THF would take place by standard continuous separations procedures employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of 1,4-butanediol and/or THF. The resulting solution is then subjected to standard continuous distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide 1,4-butanediol and/or THF which are isolated as a purified liquids.

Fermentation protocol to produce BDO directly (batch): The production organism is grown in a 10 L bioreactor sparged with an N2/CO2 mixture, using 5 L broth containing 5 g/L potassium phosphate, 2.5 g/L ammonium chloride, 0.5 g/L magnesium sulfate, and 30 g/L corn steep liquor, and an initial glucose concentration of 20 g/L. As the cells grow and utilize the glucose, additional 70% glucose is fed into the bioreactor at a rate approximately balancing glucose consumption. The temperature of the bioreactor is maintained at 30 degrees C. Growth continues for approximately 24 hours, until BDO reaches a concentration of between 20-200 g/L, with the cell density generally being between 5 and 10 g/L. Upon completion of the cultivation period, the fermenter contents are passed through a cell separation unit (e.g., centrifuge) to remove cells and cell debris, and the fermentation broth is transferred to a product separations unit. Isolation of BDO would take place by standard separations procedures employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of BDO. The resulting solution is then subjected to standard distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide BDO (boiling point 228-229° C.) which is isolated as a purified liquid.

Fermentation protocol to produce BDO directly (fully continuous): The production organism is first grown up in batch mode using the apparatus and medium composition described above, except that the initial glucose concentration is 30-50 g/L. When glucose is exhausted, feed medium of the same composition is supplied continuously at a rate between 0.5 L/hr and 1 L/hr, and liquid is withdrawn at the same rate. The BDO concentration in the bioreactor remains constant at 30-40 g/L, and the cell density remains constant between 3-5 g/L. Temperature is maintained at 30 degrees C., and the pH is maintained at 4.5 using concentrated NaOH and HCl, as required. The bioreactor is operated continuously for one month, with samples taken every day to assure consistency of BDO concentration. In continuous mode, fermenter contents are constantly removed as new feed medium is supplied. The exit stream, containing cells, medium, and the product BDO, is then subjected to a continuous product separations procedure, with or without removing cells and cell debris, and would take place by standard continuous separations methods employed in the art to separate organic products from dilute aqueous solutions, such as continuous liquid-liquid extraction using a water immiscible organic solvent (e.g., toluene) to provide an organic solution of BDO. The resulting solution is subsequently subjected to standard continuous distillation methods to remove and recycle the organic solvent and to provide BDO (boiling point 228-229° C.) which is isolated as a purified liquid (mpt 20° C.).

Example IV

Exemplary BDO Pathways

This example describes exemplary enzymes and corresponding genes for 1,4-butandiol (BDO) synthetic pathways.

Exemplary BDO synthetic pathways are shown in FIGS. 8-13. The pathways depicted in FIGS. 8-13 are from common central metabolic intermediates to 1,4-butanediol. All transformations depicted in FIGS. 8-13 fall into the 18 general categories of transformations shown in Table 14. Below is described a number of biochemically characterized candidate genes in each category. Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations in FIGS. 9-13 when cloned and expressed in a host organism. The top three exemplary genes for each of the key steps in FIGS. 9-13 are provided in Tables 15-23 (see below). Exemplary genes were provided for the pathways depicted in FIG. 8 are described herein.

TABLE 14
Enzyme types required to convert common central metabolic intermediates
into 1,4-butanediol. The first three digits of each label correspond to
the first three Enzyme Commission number digits which denote the
general type of transformation independent of substrate specificity.
Label   Function
1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (ketone to hydroxyl or aldehyde to alcohol)
1.1.1.c Oxidoreductase (2 step, acyl-CoA to alcohol)
1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde)
1.2.1.c Oxidoreductase (2-oxo acid to acyl-CoA, decarboxylation)
1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphorylating/dephosphorylating)
1.3.1.a Oxidoreductase operating on CH—CH donors
1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase operating on amino acids
2.3.1.a Acyltransferase (transferring phosphate group)
2.6.1.a Aminotransferase
2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase, carboxyl group acceptor
2.8.3.a Coenzyme-A transferase
3.1.2.a Thiolester hydrolase (CoA specific)
4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase
4.2.1.a Hydro-lyase
4.3.1.a Ammonia-lyase
5.3.3.a Isomerase
5.4.3.a Aminomutase
6.2.1.a Acid-thiol ligase

1.1.1.a—Oxidoreductase (Aldehyde to Alcohol or Ketone to Hydroxyl)

Aldehyde to alcohol. Exemplary genes encoding enzymes that catalyze the conversion of an aldehyde to alcohol, that is, alcohol dehydrogenase or equivalently aldehyde reductase, include alrA encoding a medium-chain alcohol dehydrogenase for C2-C14 (Tani et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66:5231-5235 (2000)), ADH2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Atsumi et al. Nature 451:86-89 (2008)), yqhD from E. coli which has preference for molecules longer than C(3) (Sulzenbacher et al. Journal of Molecular Biology 342:489-502 (2004)), and bdh I and bdh II from C. acetobutylicum which converts butyryaldehyde into butanol (Walter et al. Journal of Bacteriology 174:7149-7158 (1992)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products, if available, can be found using the following GenBank accession numbers:

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
alrA	BAB12273.1	9967138	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
ADH2	NP_014032.1	6323961	Saccharymyces cerevisiae
yqhD	NP_417484.1	16130909	Escherichia coli
bdh I	NP_349892.1	15896543	Clostridium acetobutylicum
bdh II	NP_349891.1	15896542	Clostridium acetobutylicum

Enzymes exhibiting 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.61) also fall into this category. Such enzymes have been characterized in Ralstonia eutropha (Bravo et al. J. Forensic Sci. 49:379-387 (2004), Clostridium kluyveri (Wolff et al. Protein Expr. Purif. 6:206-212 (1995)) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Breitkreuz et al. J. Biol. Chem. 278:41552-41556 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
4hbd	YP_726053.1	113867564	Ralstonia eutropha H16
4hbd	L21902.1	146348486	Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555
4hbd	Q94B07	75249805	Arabidopsis thaliana

Another exemplary enzyme is 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase which catalyzes the reversible oxidation of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methylmalonate semialdehyde. This enzyme participates in valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation and has been identified in bacteria, eukaryotes, and mammals. The enzyme encoded by P84067 from Thermus thermophilus HB8 has been structurally characterized (Lokanath et al. J Mol Biol 352:905-17 (2005)). The reversibility of the human 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase was demonstrated using isotopically-labeled substrate (Manning et al. Biochem J231:481-484 (1985)). Additional genes encoding this enzyme include 3hidh in Homo sapiens (Hawes et al. Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)) and Oryctolagus cuniculus (Chowdhury et al. Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996); Hawes et al. Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)), mmsb in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and dhat in Pseudomonas putida (Aberhart et al. J. Chem. Soc. [Perkin 1] 6:1404-1406 (1979); Chowdhury et al. Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 67:438-441 (2003); Chowdhury et al. Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
P84067	P84067	75345323	Thermus thermophilus
mmsb	P28811.1	127211	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
dhat	Q59477.1	2842618	Pseudomonas putida
3hidh	P31937.2	12643395	Homo sapiens
3hidh	P32185.1	416872	Oryctolagus cuniculus

Several 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase enzymes have also been shown to convert malonic semialdehyde to 3-hydroxyproprionic acid (3-HP). Three gene candidates exhibiting this activity are mmsB from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1(62), mmsB from Pseudomonas putida KT2440 (Liao et al., US Publication 2005/0221466) and mmsB from Pseudomonas putida E23 (Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996)). An enzyme with 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase activity in Alcaligenes faecalis M3A has also been identified (Gokam et al., U.S. Pat. No. 7,393,676; Liao et al., US Publication No. 2005/0221466). Additional gene candidates from other organisms including Rhodobacter spaeroides can be inferred by sequence similarity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mmsB	AAA25892.1	151363	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
mmsB	NP_252259.1	15598765	Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1
mmsB	NP_746775.1	26991350	Pseudomonas putida KT2440
mmsB	JC7926	60729613	Pseudomonas putida E23
orfB1	AAL26884	16588720	Rhodobacter spaeroides

The conversion of malonic semialdehyde to 3-HP can also be accomplished by two other enzymes: NADH-dependent 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase and NADPH-dependent malonate semialdehyde reductase. An NADH-dependent 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase is thought to participate in beta-alanine biosynthesis pathways from propionate in bacteria and plants (Rathinasabapathi, B. Journal of Plant Pathology 159:671-674 (2002); Stadtman, E. R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 77:5765-5766 (1955)). This enzyme has not been associated with a gene in any organism to date. NADPH-dependent malonate semialdehyde reductase catalyzes the reverse reaction in autotrophic CO₂-fixing bacteria. Although the enzyme activity has been detected in Metallosphaera sedula, the identity of the gene is not known (Alber et al. J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)).

Ketone to Hydroxyl.

There exist several exemplary alcohol dehydrogenases that convert a ketone to a hydroxyl functional group. Two such enzymes from E. coli are encoded by malate dehydrogenase (mdh) and lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA). In addition, lactate dehydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha has been shown to demonstrate high activities on substrates of various chain lengths such as lactate, 2-oxobutyrate, 2-oxopentanoate and 2-oxoglutarate (Steinbuchel and Schlegel, Eur. J. Biochem. 130:329-334 (1983)). Conversion of alpha-ketoadipate into alpha-hydroxyadipate can be catalyzed by 2-ketoadipate reductase, an enzyme reported to be found in rat and in human placenta (Suda et al. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 176:610-620 (1976); Suda et al. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 77:586-591 (1977)). An additional candidate for this step is the mitochondrial 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (bdh) from the human heart which has been cloned and characterized (Marks et al. J. Biol. Chem. 267:15459-15463 (1992)). This enzyme is a dehydrogenase that operates on a 3-hydroxyacid. Another exemplary alcohol dehydrogenase converts acetone to isopropanol as was shown in C. beijerinckii (Ismaiel et al. J. Bacteriol. 175:5097-5105 (1993)) and T. brockii (Lamed et al. Biochem. J. 195:183-190 (1981); Peretz and Burstein Biochemistry 28:6549-6555 (1989)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mdh	AAC76268.1	1789632	Escherichia coli
ldhA	NP_415898.1	16129341	Escherichia coli
ldh	YP_725182.1	113866693	Ralstonia eutropha
bdh	AAA58352.1	177198	Homo sapiens
adh	AAA23199.2	60592974	Clostridium beijerinckii NRRL B593
adh	P14941.1	113443	Thermoanaerobacter brockii HTD4

Exemplary 3-hydroxyacyl dehydrogenases which convert acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA include hbd from C. acetobutylicum (Boynton et al. Journal of Bacteriology 178:3015-3024 (1996)), hbd from C. beijerinckii (Colby et al. Appl Environ. Microbiol 58:3297-3302 (1992)), and a number of similar enzymes from Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al. Archaea. Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
hbd	NP_349314.1	15895965	Clostridium acetobutylicum
hbd	AAM14586.1	20162442	Clostridium beijerinckii
Msed_1423	YP_001191505	146304189	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0399	YP_001190500	146303184	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0389	YP_001190490	146303174	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_1993	YP_001192057	146304741	Metallosphaera sedula

1.1.1.c—Oxidoredutase (2 Step, Acyl-CoA to Alcohol)

Exemplary 2-step oxidoreductases that convert an acyl-CoA to alcohol include those that transform substrates such as acetyl-CoA to ethanol (for example, adhE from E. coli (Kessler et al. FEBS. Lett. 281:59-63 (1991)) and butyryl-CoA to butanol (for example, adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum (Fontaine et al. J. Bacteriol. 184:821-830 (2002)). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxide the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972); Koo et al. Biotechnol Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
adhE	NP_415757.1	16129202	Escherichia coli
adhE2	AAK09379.1	12958626	Clostridium acetobutylicum
adhE	AAV66076.1	55818563	Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Another exemplary enzyme can convert malonyl-CoA to 3-HP. An NADPH-dependent enzyme with this activity has characterized in Chloroflexus aurantiacus where it participates in the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002); Strauss and Fuchs, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:633-643 (1993)). This enzyme, with a mass of 300 kDa, is highly substrate-specific and shows little sequence similarity to other known oxidoreductases (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). No enzymes in other organisms have been shown to catalyze this specific reaction; however there is bioinformatic evidence that other organisms may have similar pathways (Klatt et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:2067-2078 (2007)). Enzyme candidates in other organisms including Roseiflexus castenholzii, Erythrobacter sp. NAP1 and marine gamma proteobacterium HTCC2080 can be inferred by sequence similarity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mcr	AAS20429.1	42561982	Chloroflexus
			aurantiacus
Rcas_2929	YP_001433009.1	156742880	Roseiflexus castenholzii
NAP1_02720	ZP_01039179.1	85708113	Erythrobacter
			sp. NAP 1
MGP2080_00535	ZP_01626393.1	119504313	marine gamma
			proteobacterium
			HTCC2080

Longer chain acyl-CoA molecules can be reduced by enzymes such as the jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) FAR which encodes an alcohol-forming fatty acyl-CoA reductase. Its overexpression in E. coli resulted in FAR activity and the accumulation of fatty alcohol (Metz et al. Plant Physiology 122:635-644) 2000)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	FAR	AAD38039.1	5020215	Simmondsia chinensis

1.2.1.b—Oxidoreductase (Acyl-CoA to Aldehyde)

Several acyl-CoA dehydrogenases are capable of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville, J. Bacteriology 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk J Bacteriol 178:871-80 (1996); Sohling and Gottschalk J Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Takahashi et al. J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al. J Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
acr1	YP_047869.1	50086359	Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
acr1	AAC45217	1684886	Acinetobacter baylyi
acr1	BAB85476.1	18857901	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
sucD	P38947.1	730847	Clostridium kluyveri
sucD	NP_904963.1	34540484	Porphyromonas gingivalis
bphG	BAA03892.1	425213	Pseudomonas sp

An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archael bacteria (Berg et al. Science 318:1782-1786 (2007); Thauer, R. K. Science 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alber et al. J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Hugler et al. J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed_—0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al. J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Berg et al. Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al. J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	146303492	Metallosphaera sedula
mcr	NP_378167.1	15922498	Sulfolobus tokodaii
asd-2	NP_343563.1	15898958	Sulfolobus solfataricus
Saci_2370	YP_256941.1	70608071	Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

1.2.1.c—Oxidoreductase (2-Oxo Acid to Acyl-CoA, Decarboxylation)

Enzymes in this family include 1) branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase, 2) alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and 3) the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex (PDHC). These enzymes are multi-enzyme complexes that catalyze a series of partial reactions which result in acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Each of the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes occupies key positions in intermediary metabolism, and enzyme activity is typically tightly regulated (Fries et al. Biochemistry 42:6996-7002 (2003)). The enzymes share a complex but common structure composed of multiple copies of three catalytic components: alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (E1), dihydrolipoamide acyltransferase (E2) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). The E3 component is shared among all 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes in an organism, while the E1 and E2 components are encoded by different genes. The enzyme components are present in numerous copies in the complex and utilize multiple cofactors to catalyze a directed sequence of reactions via substrate channeling. The overall size of these dehydrogenase complexes is very large, with molecular masses between 4 and 10 million Da (that is, larger than a ribosome).

Activity of enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase family is normally low or limited under anaerobic conditions in E. coli. Increased production of NADH (or NADPH) could lead to a redox-imbalance, and NADH itself serves as an inhibitor to enzyme function. Engineering efforts have increased the anaerobic activity of the E. coli pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (Kim et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al. J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858) 2008); Zhou et al. Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). For example, the inhibitory effect of NADH can be overcome by engineering an H322Y mutation in the E3 component (Kim et al. J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008)). Structural studies of individual components and how they work together in complex provide insight into the catalytic mechanisms and architecture of enzymes in this family (Aevarsson et al. Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); Zhou et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:14802-14807 (2001)). The substrate specificity of the dehydrogenase complexes varies in different organisms, but generally branched-chain keto-acid dehydrogenases have the broadest substrate range.

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (AKGD) converts alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA and is the primary site of control of metabolic flux through the TCA cycle (Hansford, R. G. Curr. Top. Bioenerg. 10:217-278 (1980)). Encoded by genes sucA, sucB and lpd in E. coli, AKGD gene expression is downregulated under anaerobic conditions and during growth on glucose (Park et al. Mol. Microbiol. 15:473-482 (1995)). Although the substrate range of AKGD is narrow, structural studies of the catalytic core of the E2 component pinpoint specific residues responsible for substrate specificity (Knapp et al. J. Mol. Biol. 280:655-668 (1998)). The Bacillus subtilis AKGD, encoded by odhAB (E1 and E2) and pdhD (E3, shared domain), is regulated at the transcriptional level and is dependent on the carbon source and growth phase of the organism (Resnekov et al. Mol. Gen. Genet. 234:285-296 (1992)). In yeast, the LPD1 gene encoding the E3 component is regulated at the transcriptional level by glucose (Roy and Dawes J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:925-933 (1987)). The E1 component, encoded by KGD1, is also regulated by glucose and activated by the products of HAP2 and HAP3 (Repetto and Tzagoloff Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:2695-2705 (1989)). The AKGD enzyme complex, inhibited by products NADH and succinyl-CoA, is well-studied in mammalian systems, as impaired function of has been linked to several neurological diseases (Tretter and dam-Vizi Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 360:2335-2345 (2005)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
sucA	NP_415254.1	16128701	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
sucB	NP_415255.1	16128702	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
lpd	NP_414658.1	16128109	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
odhA	P23129.2	51704265	Bacillus subtilis
odhB	P16263.1	129041	Bacillus subtilis
pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
KGD1	NP_012141.1	6322066	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
KGD2	NP_010432.1	6320352	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LPD1	NP_116635.1	14318501	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKAD), also known as 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase, participates in branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways, converting 2-keto acids derivatives of valine, leucine and isoleucine to their acyl-CoA derivatives and CO₂. The complex has been studied in many organisms including Bacillus subtilis (Wang et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)), Rattus norvegicus (Namba et al. J. Biol. Chem. 244:4437-4447 (1969)) and Pseudomonas putida (Sokatch J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). In Bacillus subtilis the enzyme is encoded by genes pdhD (E3 component), bfmBB (E2 component), bfmBAA and bfmBAB (E1 component) (Wang et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)). In mammals, the complex is regulated by phosphorylation by specific phosphatases and protein kinases. The complex has been studied in rat hepatocites (Chicco et al. J. Biol. Chem. 269:19427-19434 (1994)) and is encoded by genes Bckdha (E1 alpha), Bckdhb (E1 beta), Dbt (E2), and Dld (E3). The E1 and E3 components of the Pseudomonas putida BCKAD complex have been crystallized (Aevarsson et al. Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); Mattevi Science 255:1544-1550 (1992)) and the enzyme complex has been studied (Sokatch et al. J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). Transcription of the P. putida BCKAD genes is activated by the gene product of bkdR (Hester et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 233:828-836 (1995)). In some organisms including Rattus norvegicus (Paxton et al. Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sinclair et al. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 31:911-922 (1993)), this complex has been shown to have a broad substrate range that includes linear oxo-acids such as 2-oxobutanoate and alpha-ketoglutarate, in addition to the branched-chain amino acid precursors. The active site of the bovine BCKAD was engineered to favor alternate substrate acetyl-CoA (Meng and Chuang, Biochemistry 33:12879-12885 (1994)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
bfmBB	NP_390283.1	16079459	Bacillus subtilis
bfmBAA	NP_390285.1	16079461	Bacillus subtilis
bfmBAB	NP_390284.1	16079460	Bacillus subtilis
pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
lpdV	P09063.1	118677	Pseudomonas putida
bkdB	P09062.1	129044	Pseudomonas putida
bkdA1	NP_746515.1	26991090	Pseudomonas putida
bkdA2	NP_746516.1	26991091	Pseudomonas putida
Bckdha	NP_036914.1	77736548	Rattus norvegicus
Bckdhb	NP_062140.1	158749538	Rattus norvegicus
Dbt	NP_445764.1	158749632	Rattus norvegicus
Dld	NP_955417.1	40786469	Rattus norvegicus

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, catalyzing the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, has also been extensively studied. In the E. coli enzyme, specific residues in the E1 component are responsible for substrate specificity (Bisswanger, H. J Biol. Chem. 256:815-822 (1981); Bremer, J. Eur. J Biochem. 8:535-540 (1969); Gong et al. J Biol. Chem. 275:13645-13653 (2000)). As mentioned previously, enzyme engineering efforts have improved the E. coli PDH enzyme activity under anaerobic conditions (Kim et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008); Zhou et al. Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). In contrast to the E. coli PDH, the B. subtilis complex is active and required for growth under anaerobic conditions (Nakano J. Bacteriol. 179:6749-6755 (1997)). The Klebsiella pneumoniae PDH, characterized during growth on glycerol, is also active under anaerobic conditions (Menzel et al. J. Biotechnol. 56:135-142 (1997)). Crystal structures of the enzyme complex from bovine kidney (Zhou et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:14802-14807 (2001)) and the E2 catalytic domain from Azotobacter vinelandii are available (Mattevi et al. Science 255:1544-1550 (1992)). Some mammalian PDH enzymes complexes can react on alternate substrates such as 2-oxobutanoate, although comparative kinetics of Rattus norvegicus PDH and BCKAD indicate that BCKAD has higher activity on 2-oxobutanoate as a substrate (Paxton et al. Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aceE	NP_414656.1	16128107	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
aceF	NP_414657.1	16128108	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
lpd	NP_414658.1	16128109	Escherichia coli str. K12
			substr. MG1655
pdhA	P21881.1	3123238	Bacillus subtilis
pdhB	P21882.1	129068	Bacillus subtilis
pdhC	P21883.2	129054	Bacillus subtilis
pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
aceE	YP_001333808.1	152968699	Klebsiella pneumonia MGH78578
aceF	YP_001333809.1	152968700	Klebsiella pneumonia MGH78578
lpdA	YP_001333810.1	152968701	Klebsiella pneumonia MGH78578
Pdha1	NP_001004072.2	124430510	Rattus norvegicus
Pdha2	NP_446446.1	16758900	Rattus norvegicus
Dlat	NP_112287.1	78365255	Rattus norvegicus
Dld	NP_955417.1	40786469	Rattus norvegicus

As an alternative to the large multienzyme 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes described above, some anaerobic organisms utilize enzymes in the 2-ketoacid oxidoreductase family (OFOR) to catalyze acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Unlike the dehydrogenase complexes, these enzymes contain iron-sulfur clusters, utilize different cofactors, and use ferredoxin or flavodixin as electron acceptors in lieu of NAD(P)H. While most enzymes in this family are specific to pyruvate as a substrate (POR) some 2-keto-acid:ferredoxin oxidoreductases have been shown to accept a broad range of 2-ketoacids as substrates including alpha-ketoglutarate and 2-oxobutanoate (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); Zhang et al. J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). One such enzyme is the OFOR from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii 7, which contains an alpha and beta subunit encoded by gene ST2300 (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); Zhang et al. J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). A plasmid-based expression system has been developed for efficiently expressing this protein in E. coli (Fukuda et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 268:5639-5646 (2001)) and residues involved in substrate specificity were determined (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002)). Two OFORs from Aeropyrum pernix str. K1 have also been recently cloned into E. coli, characterized, and found to react with a broad range of 2-oxoacids (Nishizawa et al. FEBS Lett. 579:2319-2322 (2005)). The gene sequences of these OFOR candidates are available, although they do not have GenBank identifiers assigned to date. There is bioinformatic evidence that similar enzymes are present in all archaea, some anaerobic bacteria and amitochondrial eukarya (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2005)). This class of enzyme is also interesting from an energetic standpoint, as reduced ferredoxin could be used to generate NADH by ferredoxin-NAD reductase (Petitdemange et al. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 421:334-337 (1976)). Also, since most of the enzymes are designed to operate under anaerobic conditions, less enzyme engineering may be required relative to enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex family for activity in an anaerobic environment.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
ST2300	NP_378302.1	15922633	Sulfolobus tokodaii 7

1.2.1.d—Oxidoreductase (Phosphorylating/Dephosphorylating)

Exemplary enzymes in this class include glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase which converts glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate (for example, E. coli gapA (Branlant and Branlant Eur. J. Biochem. 150:61-66 (1985)), aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase which converts L-aspartate-4-semialdehyde into L-4-aspartyl-phosphate (for example, E. coli asd (Biellmann et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 104:53-58 (1980)), N-acetyl-gamma-glutamyl-phosphate reductase which converts N-acetyl-L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into N-acetyl-L-glutamyl-5-phosphate (for example, E. coli argC (Parsot et al. Gene 68:275-283 (1988)), and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase which converts L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into L-glutamyl-5-phospate (for example, E. coli proA (Smith et al. J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gapA	POA9B2.2	71159358	Escherichia coli
asd	NP_417891.1	16131307	Escherichia coli
argC	NP_418393.1	16131796	Escherichia coli
proA	NP_414778.1	16128229	Escherichia coli

1.3.1.a—Oxidoreductase Operating on CH—CH Donors

An exemplary enoyl-CoA reductase is the gene product of bcd from C. acetobutylicum (Atsumi et al. Metab Eng (2007); Boynton et al. Journal of Bacteriology 178:3015-3024 (1996), which naturally catalyzes the reduction of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA. Activity of this enzyme can be enhanced by expressing bcd in conjunction with expression of the C. acetobutylicum etfAB genes, which encode an electron transfer flavoprotein. An additional candidate for the enoyl-CoA reductase step is the mitochondrial enoyl-CoA reductase from E. gracilis (Hoffmeister et al. Journal of Biological Chemistry 280:4329-4338 (2005)). A construct derived from this sequence following the removal of its mitochondrial targeting leader sequence was cloned in E. coli resulting in an active enzyme (Hoffmeister et al., supra, (2005)). This approach is well known to those skilled in the art of expressing eukarytotic genes, particularly those with leader sequences that may target the gene product to a specific intracellular compartment, in prokaryotic organisms. A close homolog of this gene, TDE0597, from the prokaryote Treponema denticola represents a third enoyl-CoA reductase which has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Tucci and Martin FEBS Letters 581:1561-1566 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
bcd	NP_349317.1	15895968	Clostridium acetobutylicum
etfA	NP_349315.1	15895966	Clostridium acetobutylicum
etfB	NP_349316.1	15895967	Clostridium acetobutylicum
TER	Q5EU90.1	62287512	Euglena gracilis
TDE0597	NP_971211.1	42526113	Treponema denticola

Exemplary 2-enoate reductase (EC 1.3.1.31) enzymes are known to catalyze the NADH-dependent reduction of a wide variety of α,β-unsaturated carboxylic acids and aldehydes (Rohdich et al. J. Biol. Chem. 276:5779-5787 (2001)). 2-Enoate reductase is encoded by enr in several species of Clostridia (Giesel and Simon Arch Microbiol. 135(1): p. 51-57 (2001) including C. tyrobutyricum, and C. thermoaceticum (now called Moorella thermoaceticum) (Rohdich et al., supra, (2001)). In the recently published genome sequence of C. kluyveri, 9 coding sequences for enoate reductases have been reported, out of which one has been characterized (Seedorf et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 105(6):2128-33 (2008)). The enr genes from both C. tyrobutyricum and C. thermoaceticum have been cloned and sequenced and show 59% identity to each other. The former gene is also found to have approximately 75% similarity to the characterized gene in C. kluyveri (Giesel and Simon Arch Microbiol 135(1):51-57 (1983)). It has been reported based on these sequence results that enr is very similar to the dienoyl CoA reductase in E. coli (fadH) (163 Rohdich et al., supra (2001)). The C. thermoaceticum enr gene has also been expressed in an enzymatically active form in E. coli (163 Rohdich et al., supra (2001)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
fadH	NP_417552.1	16130976	Escherichia coli
enr	ACA54153.1	169405742	Clostridium botulinum A3 str
enr	CAA71086.1	2765041	Clostridium tyrobutyricum
enr	CAA76083.1	3402834	Clostridium kluyveri
enr	YP_430895.1	83590886	Moorella thermoacetica

1.4.1.a—Oxidoreductase Operating on Amino Acids

Most oxidoreductases operating on amino acids catalyze the oxidative deamination of alpha-amino acids with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor. Exemplary oxidoreductases operating on amino acids include glutamate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by gdhA, leucine dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by ldh, and aspartate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by nadX. The gdhA gene product from Escherichia coli (Korber et al. J. Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273 (1993); McPherson and Wootton Nucleic. Acids Res. 11:5257-5266 (1983)), gdh from Thermotoga maritima (Kort et al. Extremophiles 1:52-60 (1997); Lebbink, et al. J. Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998)); Lebbink et al. J. Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999)), and gdhA1 from Halobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al. Gene 349:237-244 (2005)) catalyze the reversible interconversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate and ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively. The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein that has a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine, valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Ansorge and Kula Biotechnol Bioeng. 68:557-562 (2000); Stoyan et al. J. Biotechnol 54:77-80 (1997)). The nadX gene from Thermotoga maritime encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenase is involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al. J. Biol. Chem. 278:8804-8808 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gdhA	P00370	118547	Escherichia coli
gdh	P96110.4	6226595	Thermotoga maritima
gdhA1	NP_279651.1	15789827	Halobacterium salinarum
ldh	P0A393	61222614	Bacillus cereus
nadX	NP_229443.1	15644391	Thermotoga maritima

The lysine 6-dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by lysDH gene, catalyze the oxidative deamination of the ε-amino group of L-lysine to form 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde, which in turn nonenzymatically cyclizes to form Δ1-piperideine-6-carboxylate (Misono and Nagasaki J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)). The lysDH gene from Geobacillus stearothermophilus encodes a thermophilic NAD-dependent lysine 6-dehydrogenase (Heydari et al. Appl Environ. Microbiol 70:937-942 (2004)). In addition, the lysDH gene from Aeropyrum pernix K1 is identified through homology from genome projects.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
lysDH	AB052732	13429872	Geobacillus stearothermophilus
lysDH	NP_147035.1	14602185	Aeropyrum pernix K1
ldh	P0A393	61222614	Bacillus cereus

2.3.1.a—Acyltransferase (Transferring Phosphate Group)

Exemplary phosphate transferring acyltransferases include phosphotransacetylase, encoded by pta, and phosphotransbutyrylase, encoded by ptb. The pta gene from E. coli encodes an enzyme that can convert acetyl-CoA into acetyl-phosphate, and vice versa (Suzuki, T. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191:559-569 (1969)). This enzyme can also utilize propionyl-CoA instead of acetyl-CoA forming propionate in the process (Hesslinger et al. Mol. Microbiol 27:477-492 (1998)). Similarly, the ptb gene from C. acetobutylicum encodes an enzyme that can convert butyryl-CoA into butyryl-phosphate (Walter et al. Gene 134(1): p. 107-11 (1993)); Huang et al. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2(1): p. 33-38 (2000). Additional ptb genes can be found in butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 (Louis et al. J. Bacteriol. 186:2099-2106 (2004)) and Bacillus megaterium (Vazquez et al. Curr. Microbiol 42:345-349 (2001)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
pta	NP_416800.1	16130232	Escherichia coli
ptb	NP_349676	15896327	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ptb	AAR19757.1	38425288	butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50
ptb	CAC07932.1	10046659	Bacillus megaterium

2.6.1.a—Aminotransferase

Aspartate aminotransferase transfers an amino group from aspartate to alpha-ketoglutarate, forming glutamate and oxaloacetate. This conversion is catalyzed by, for example, the gene products of aspC from Escherichia coli (Yagi et al. FEBS Lett. 100:81-84 (1979); Yagi et al. Methods Enzymol. 113:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi et al. J Biochem. 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASPS from Arabidopsis thaliana (48, 108, 225 48. de la et al. Plant J 46:414-425 (2006); Kwok and Hanson J Exp. Bot. 55:595-604 (2004); Wilkie and Warren Protein Expr. Purif. 12:381-389 (1998)). Valine aminotransferase catalyzes the conversion of valine and pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate and alanine The E. coli gene, avtA, encodes one such enzyme (Whalen and Berg J. Bacteriol. 150:739-746 (1982)). This gene product also catalyzes the amination of α-ketobutyrate to generate α-aminobutyrate, although the amine donor in this reaction has not been identified (Whalen and Berg J. Bacteriol. 158:571-574 (1984)). The gene product of the E. coli serC catalyzes two reactions, phosphoserine aminotransferase and phosphohydroxythreonine aminotransferase (Lam and Winkler J. Bacteriol. 172:6518-6528 (1990)), and activity on non-phosphorylated substrates could not be detected (Drewke et al. FEBS. Lett. 390:179-182 (1996)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aspC	NP_415448.1	16128895	Escherichia coli
AAT2	P23542.3	1703040	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
ASP5	P46248.2	20532373	Arabidopsis thaliana
avtA	YP_026231.1	49176374	Escherichia coli
serC	NP_415427.1	16128874	Escherichia coli

Cargill has developed a beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase for producing 3-HP from beta-alanine via malonyl-semialdehyde (PCT/US2007/076252 (Jessen et al)). The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was also shown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor (Andersen et al. FEBS. J. 274:1804-1817 (2007)). SkUGA1 encodes a homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGA1 (Ramos et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 149:401-404 (1985)), whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both β-alanine and GABA transamination (Andersen et al. FEBS. J. 274:1804-1817 (2007)). 3-Amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme has been characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat (Kakimoto et al. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 156:374-380 (1968); Tamaki et al. Methods Enzymol. 324:376-389 (2000)). Enzyme candidates in other organisms with high sequence homology to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase include Gta-1 in C. elegans and gabT in Bacillus subtilus. Additionally, one of the native GABA aminotransferases in E. coli, encoded by gene gabT, has been shown to have broad substrate specificity (Liu et al. Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 (2004); Schulz et al. Appl Environ Microbiol 56:1-6 (1990)). The gene product of puuE catalyzes the other 4-aminobutyrate transaminase in E. coli (Kurihara et al. J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608 (2005)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	98626772	Saccharomyces kluyveri
SkUGA1	ABF58894.1	98626792	Saccharomyces kluyveri
UGA1	NP_011533.1	6321456	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Abat	P50554.3	122065191	Rattus norvegicus
Abat	P80147.2	120968	Sus scrofa
Gta-1	Q21217.1	6016091	Caenorhabditis elegans
gabT	P94427.1	6016090	Bacillus subtilus
gabT	P22256.1	120779	Escherichia coli K12
puuE	NP_415818.1	16129263	Escherichia coli K12

The X-ray crystal structures of E. coli 4-aminobutyrate transaminase unbound and bound to the inhibitor were reported (Liu et al. Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 (2004)). The substrates binding and substrate specificities were studied and suggested. The roles of active site residues were studied by site-directed mutagenesis and X-ray crystallography (Liu et al. Biochemistry 44:2982-2992 (2005)). Based on the structural information, attempt was made to engineer E. coli 4-aminobutyrate transaminase with novel enzymatic activity. These studies provide a base for evolving transaminase activity for BDO pathways.

2.7.2.a—Phosphotransferase, Carboxyl Group Acceptor

Exemplary kinases include the E. coli acetate kinase, encoded by ackA (Skarstedt and Silverstein J. Biol. Chem. 251:6775-6783 (1976)), the C. acetobutylicum butyrate kinases, encoded by buk1 and buk2 (Walter et al. Gene 134(1):107-111 (1993) (Huang et al. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2(1):33-38 (2000)), and the E. coli gamma-glutamyl kinase, encoded by proB (Smith et al. J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)). These enzymes phosphorylate acetate, butyrate, and glutamate, respectively. The ackA gene product from E. coli also phosphorylates propionate (Hesslinger et al. Mol. Microbiol 27:477-492 (1998)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
ackA	NP_416799.1	16130231	Escherichia coli
buk1	NP_349675	15896326	Clostridium acetobutylicum
buk2	Q97II1	20137415	Clostridium acetobutylicum
proB	NP_414777.1	16128228	Escherichia coli

2.8.3.a—Coenzyme-A Transferase

In the CoA-transferase family, E. coli enzyme acyl-CoA:acetate-CoA transferase, also known as acetate-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.8), has been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies and Schink Appl Environ Microbiol 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al. Biochem. Biophys. Res Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel, supra (1968)). This enzyme is encoded by atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) in E. coli sp. K12 (Korolev et al. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002); Vanderwinkel, supra (1968)) and actA and cg0592 in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al. Appl Environ Microbiol 68:5186-5190 (2002)). Additional genes found by sequence homology include atoD and atoA in Escherichia coli UT189.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
atoA	P76459.1	2492994	Escherichia coli K12
atoD	P76458.1	2492990	Escherichia coli K12
actA	YP_226809.1	62391407	Corynebacterium glutamicum
			ATCC 13032
cg0592	YP_224801.1	62389399	Corynebacterium glutamicum
			ATCC 13032
atoA	ABE07971.1	91073090	Escherichia coli UT189
atoD	ABE07970.1	91073089	Escherichia coli UT189

Similar transformations are catalyzed by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri which have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA acetyltransferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 105(6):2128-2133 (2008); Sohling and Gottschalk J Bacteriol 178(3):871-880 (1996)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	cat1	P38946.1	729048	Clostridium kluyveri
	cat2	P38942.2	1705614	Clostridium kluyveri
	cat3	EDK35586.1	146349050	Clostridium kluyveri

The glutaconate-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with diacid glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack and Buckel FEBS Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mac et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	gctA	CAA57199.1	559392	Acidaminococcus fermentans
	gctB	CAA57200.1	559393	Acidaminococcus fermentans

3.1.1.a Hydroxyacylhydrolase

FIG. 64B is the transformation of 4-hydroxybutyrate to GBL. This step can be catalyzed by enzymes in the 3.1.1 family that act on carboxylic ester bonds molecules for the interconversion between cyclic lactones and the open chain hydroxycarboxylic acids. The 1,4-lacton hydroxyacylhydrolase (EC 3.1.1.25), also known as 1,4-lactonase or gamma-lactonase, is specific for 1,4-lactones with 4-8 carbon atoms. It does not hydrolyze simple aliphatic esters, acetylcholine, or sugar lactones. The gamma lactonase in human blood and rat liver microsomes was purified (Fishbein et al., J Biol Chem 241:4835-4841 (1966)) and the lactonase activity was activated and stabilized by calcium ions (Fishbein et al., J Biol Chem 241:4842-4847 (1966)). The optimal lactonase activities were observed at pH 6.0, whereas high pH resulted in hydrolytic activities (Fishbein and Bessman, J Biol Chem 241:4842-4847 (1966)). The following genes have been annotated as 1,4-lactonase and can be utilized to catalyze the transformation of 4-hydroxybutyrate to GBL, including a lactonase from Fusarium oxysporum (Zhang et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 75:1087-1094 (2007)). The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products, if available, can be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown below.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
xccb100_2516	YP_001903921.1	188991911	Xanthomonas campestris
An16g06620	CAK46996.1	134083519	Aspergillus niger
BAA34062	BAA34062.1	3810873	Fusarium oxysporum

Additionally, it has been reported that lipases such as Candida antarctica lipase B can catalyze the lactonization of 4-hydroxybutyrate to GBL (Efe et al., Biotechnol Bioeng 99:1392-1406 (2008)). Therefore, the following genes coding for lipases can also be utilized for Step AB in FIG. 1. The protein sequences for each of these exemplary gene products, if available, can be found using the following GenBank accession numbers shown below.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	calB	P41365.1	1170790	Candida antarctica
	lipB	P41773.1	1170792	Pseudomonas fluorescens
	estA	P37957.1	7676155	Bacillus subtilis

3.1.2.a—Thiolester Hydrolase (CoA Specific)

In the CoA hydrolase family, the enzyme 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase is specific for 3-HIBCoA and has been described to efficiently catalyze the desired transformation during valine degradation (Shimomura et al. J Biol Chem 269:14248-14253 (1994)). Genes encoding this enzyme include hibch of Rattus norvegicus (Shimomura et al., supra (1994); Shimomura et al. Methods Enzymol. 324:229-240 (2000) and Homo sapiens (Shimomura et al., supra, 2000). Candidate genes by sequence homology include hibch of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and BC 2292 of Bacillus cereus.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
hibch	Q5XIE6.2	146324906	Rattus norvegicus
hibch	Q6NVY1.2	146324905	Homo sapiens
hibch	P28817.2	2506374	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
BC_2292	Q81DR3	81434808	Bacillus cereus

The conversion of adipyl-CoA to adipate can be carried out by an acyl-CoA hydrolase or equivalently a thioesterase. The top E. coli gene candidate is tesB (Naggert et al. J Biol. Chem. 266(17):11044-11050 (1991)) which shows high similarity to the human acot8 which is a dicarboxylic acid acetyltransferase with activity on adipyl-CoA (Westin et al. J Biol Chem 280(46): 38125-38132 (2005). This activity has also been characterized in the rat liver (Deana, Biochem Int. 26(4): p. 767-773 (1992)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	tesB	NP_414986	16128437	Escherichia coli
	acot8	CAA15502	3191970	Homo sapiens
	acot8	NP_570112	51036669	Rattus norvegicus

Other potential E. coli thiolester hydrolases include the gene products of tesA (Bonner and Bloch, J Biol Chem. 247(10):3123-3133 (1972)), ybgC (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol Rev. 29(2):263-279 (2005); Zhuang et al., FEBS Lett. 516(1-3):161-163 (2002)) paal (Song et al., J Biol Chem. 281(16):11028-11038 (2006)), and ybdB (Leduc et al., J Bacteriol. 189(19):7112-7126 (2007)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	tesA	NP_415027	16128478	Escherichia coli
	ybgC	NP_415264	16128711	Escherichia coli
	paaI	NP_415914	16129357	Escherichia coli
	ybdB	NP_415129	16128580	Escherichia coli

Several eukaryotic acetyl-CoA hydrolases (EC 3.1.2.1) have broad substrate specificity. The enzyme from Rattus norvegicus brain (Robinson et al. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 71:959-965 (1976)) can react with butyryl-CoA, hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	acotl2	NP_570103.1	18543355	Rattus norvegicus

4.1.1.a—Carboxy-Lyase

An exemplary carboxy-lyase is acetolactate decarboxylase which participates in citrate catabolism and branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis, converting 2-acetolactate to acetoin. In Lactococcus lactis the enzyme is composed of six subunits, encoded by gene aldB, and is activated by valine, leucine and isoleucine (Goupil et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:2636-2640 (1996); Goupil-Feuillerat et al. J. Bacteriol. 182:5399-5408 (2000)). This enzyme has been overexpressed and characterized in E. coli (Phalip et al. FEBS Lett. 351:95-99 (1994)). In other organisms the enzyme is a dimer, encoded by aldC in Streptococcus thermophilus (Monnet et al. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 36:399-405 (2003)), aldB in Bacillus brevis (Diderichsen et al. J. Bacteriol. 172:4315-4321 (1990); Najmudin et al. Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 59:1073-1075 (2003)) and budA from Enterobacter aerogenes (Diderichsen et al. J. Bacteriol. 172:4315-4321 (1990)). The enzyme from Bacillus brevis was cloned and overexpressed in Bacillus subtilis and characterized crystallographically (Najmudin et al. Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 59:1073-1075 (2003)). Additionally, the enzyme from Leuconostoc lactis has been purified and characterized but the gene has not been isolated (O'Sullivan et al. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 194:245-249 (2001)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aldB	NP_267384.1	15673210	Lactococcus lactis
aldC	Q8L208	75401480	Streptococcus thermophilus
aldB	P23616.1	113592	Bacillus brevis
budA	P05361.1	113593	Enterobacter aerogenes

Aconitate decarboxylase catalyzes the final step in itaconate biosynthesis in a strain of Candida and also in the filamentous fungus Aspergillus terreus (Bonnarme et al. J. Bacteriol. 177:3573-3578 (1995); Willke and Vorlop Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 56:289-295 (2001)). Although itaconate is a compound of biotechnological interest, the aconitate decarboxylase gene or protein sequence has not been reported to date.

4-oxalocronate decarboxylase has been isolated from numerous organisms and characterized. Genes encoding this enzyme include dmpH and dmpE in Pseudomonas sp. (strain 600) (Shingler et al. J Bacteriol. 174:711-724 (1992)), xylII and xylIII from Pseudomonas putida (Kato and Asano Arch. Microbiol 168:457-463 (1997); Lian and Whitman J. Am. Chem. Soc. 116:10403-10411 (1994); Stanley et al. Biochemistry 39:3514 (2000)) and Reut_B5691 and Reut_B5692 from Ralstonia eutropha JMP134 (Hughes et al. J Bacteriol. 158:79-83 (1984)). The genes encoding the enzyme from Pseudomonas sp. (strain 600) have been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Shingler et al. J Bacteriol. 174:711-724 (1992)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
dmpH	CAA43228.1	45685	Pseudomonas sp. CF600
dmpE	CAA43225.1	45682	Pseudomonas sp. CF600
xylII	YP_709328.1	111116444	Pseudomonas putida
xylIII	YP_709353.1	111116469	Pseudomonas putida
Reut_B5691	YP_299880.1	73539513	Ralstonia eutropha JMP134
Reut_B5692	YP_299881.1	73539514	Ralstonia eutropha JMP134

An additional class of decarboxylases has been characterized that catalyze the conversion of cinnamate (phenylacrylate) and substituted cinnamate derivatives to the corresponding styrene derivatives. These enzymes are common in a variety of organisms and specific genes encoding these enzymes that have been cloned and expressed in E. coli are: pad 1 from Saccharomyces cerevisae (Clausen et al. Gene 142:107-112 (1994)), pdc from Lactobacillus plantarum (Barthelmebs et al. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:1063-1069 (2001); Qi et al. Metab Eng 9:268-276 (2007); Rodriguez et al. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56:3068-3072 (2008)), pofK (pad) from Klebsiella oxytoca (Hashidoko et al. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem. 58:217-218 (1994); Uchiyama et al. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 72:116-123 (2008)), Pedicoccus pentosaceus (Barthelmebs et al. Appl Environ Microbiol 67:1063-1069 (2001)), and padC from Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus pumilus (Lingen et al. Protein Eng 15:585-593 (2002)). A ferulic acid decarboxylase from Pseudomonas fluorescens also has been purified and characterized (Huang et al. J. Bacteriol. 176:5912-5918 (1994)). Importantly, this class of enzymes have been shown to be stable and do not require either exogenous or internally bound co-factors, thus making these enzymes ideally suitable for biotransformations (Sariaslani, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 61:51-69 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
pad1	AB368798	188496948	Saccharomyces
	BAG32372.1	188496949	cerevisae
pdc	U63827	1762615, 1762616	Lactobacillus
	AAC45282.1		plantarum
pofK (pad)	AB330293,	149941607,	Klebsiella oxytoca
	BAF65031.1	149941608
padC	AF017117	2394281, 2394282	Bacillus subtilis
	AAC46254.1
pad	AJ276891	11322456, 11322458	Pedicoccus
	CAC16794.1		pentosaceus
pad	AJ278683	11691809, 11691810	Bacillus pumilus
	CAC18719.1

Additional decarboxylase enzymes can form succinic semialdehyde from alpha-ketoglutarate. These include the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase enzymes from Euglena gracilis (Shigeoka et al. Biochem. J. 282(Pt 2):319-323 (1992); Shigeoka and Nakano Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991); Shigeoka and Nakano Biochem. J. 292 (Pt 2):463-467 (1993)), whose corresponding gene sequence has yet to be determined, and from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tian et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 102:10670-10675 (2005)). In addition, glutamate decarboxylase enzymes can convert glutamate into 4-aminobutyrate such as the products of the E. coli gadA and gadB genes (De Biase et al. Protein. Expr. Purif. 8:430-438 (1993)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
kgd	O50463.4	160395583	Mycobacterium tuberculosis
gadA	NP_417974	16131389	Escherichia coli
gadB	NP_416010	16129452	Escherichia coli

Keto-Acid Decarboxylases

Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC, EC 4.1.1.1), also termed keto-acid decarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing the decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. This enzyme has a broad substrate range for aliphatic 2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, 3-hydroxypyruvate and 2-phenylpyruvate (Berg et al. Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). The PDC from Zymomonas mobilus, encoded by pdc, has been a subject of directed engineering studies that altered the affinity for different substrates (Siegert et al. Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The PDC from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has also been extensively studied, engineered for altered activity, and functionally expressed in E. coli (Killenberg-Jabs et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001); Li and Jordan Biochemistry 38:10004-10012 (1999); ter Schure et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1303-1307 (1998)). The crystal structure of this enzyme is available (Killenberg-Jabs Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001)). Other well-characterized PDC candidates include the enzymes from Acetobacter pasteurians (Chandra et al. Arch. Microbiol. 176:443-451 (2001)) and Kluyveromyces lactis (Krieger et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 269:3256-3263 (2002)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	pdc	P06672.1	118391	Zymomonas mobilus
	pdcl	P06169	30923172	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	pdc	Q8L388	75401616	Acetobacter pasteurians
	pdcl	Q12629	52788279	Kluyveromyces lactis

Like PDC, benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7) has a broad substrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies. The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied and crystal structures of this enzyme are available (Hasson et al. Biochemistry 37:9918-9930 (1998); Polovnikova et al. Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003)). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site of the Pseudomonas putida enzyme altered the affinity (Km) of naturally and non-naturally occurring substrates (Siegert Protein Eng Des Sel 18:345-357 (2005)). The properties of this enzyme have been further modified by directed engineering (Lingen et al. Protein Eng 15:585-593 (2002)); Lingen Chembiochem 4:721-726 (2003)). The enzyme from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, encoded by mdlC, has also been characterized experimentally (Barrowman et al. FEMS Microbiology Letters 34:57-60 (1986)). Additional gene candidates from Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas fluorescens and other organisms can be inferred by sequence homology or identified using a growth selection system developed in Pseudomonas putida (Henning et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:7510-7517 (2006)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	mdlC	P20906.2	3915757	Pseudomonas putida
	mdlC	Q9HUR2.1	81539678	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
	dpgB	ABN80423.1	126202187	Pseudomonas stutzeri
	ilvB-1	YP_260581.1	70730840	Pseudomonas fluorescens

4.2.1.a—Hydro-Lyase

The 2-(hydroxymethyl)glutarate dehydratase of Eubacterium barkeri is an exemplary hydro-lyase. This enzyme has been studied in the context of nicotinate catabolism and is encoded by hmd (Alhapel et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:12341-12346 (2006)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology are found in Bacteroides capillosus, Anaerotruncus colihominis, and Natranaerobius thermophilius.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
hmd	ABC88407.1	86278275	Eubacterium barkeri
BACCAP_02294	ZP_02036683.1	154498305	Bacteroides capillosus
			ATCC 29799
ANACOL_02527	ZP_02443222.1	167771169	Anaerotruncus
			colihominis DSM 17241
NtherDRAFT_2368	ZP_02852366.1	169192667	Natranaerobius
			thermophilus
			JW/NM-WN-LF

A second exemplary hydro-lyase is fumarate hydratase, an enzyme catalyzing the dehydration of malate to fumarate. A wealth of structural information is available for this enzyme and researchers have successfully engineered the enzyme to alter activity, inhibition and localization (Weaver, T. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol Crystallogr. 61:1395-1401 (2005)). Additional fumarate hydratases include those encoded by fumC from Escherichia coli (Estevez et al. Protein Sci. 11:1552-1557 (2002); Hong and Lee Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 9:252-255 (2004); Rose and Weaver Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A. 101:3393-3397 (2004)), Campylobacter jejuni (Smith et al. Int. J Biochem. Cell Biol 31:961-975 (1999)) and Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:49-55 (1998)), and fumH from Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi et al. J Biochem. 89:1923-1931 (1981)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology include fum1 from Arabidopsis thaliana and fumC from Corynebacterium glutamicum.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
fumC	P05042.1	120601	Escherichia coli K12
fumC	O69294.1	9789756	Campylobacter jejuni
fumC	P84127	75427690	Thermus thermophilus
fumH	P14408.1	120605	Rattus norvegicus
fum1	P93033.2	39931311	Arabidopsis thaliana
fumC	Q8NRN8.1	39931596	Corynebacterium glutamicum

Citramalate hydrolyase, also called 2-methylmalate dehydratase, converts 2-methylmalate to mesaconate. 2-Methylmalate dehydratase activity was detected in Clostridium tetanomorphum, Morganella morganii, Citrobacter amalonaticus in the context of the glutamate degradation VI pathway (Kato and Asano Arch. Microbiol 168:457-463 (1997)); however the genes encoding this enzyme have not been sequenced to date.

The gene product of crt from C. acetobutylicum catalyzes the dehydration of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA (Atsumi et al. Metab Eng.; 29 (2007)); Boynton et al. Journal of Bacteriology 178:3015-3024 (1996)). The enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism; (Olivera et al. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95(11):6419-6424 (1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (14 Olivera et al., supra, 1998). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC (Park and Lee J Bacteriol 185(18):5391-5397 (2003)), paaF (Park and Lee Biotechnol Bioeng. 86(6):681-686 (2004a)); Park and Lee Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 113-116: 335-346 (2004b)); Ismail et al. Eur J Biochem 270(14):p. 3047-3054 (2003), and paaG (Park and Lee, supra, 2004; Park and Lee supra, 2004b; Ismail et al., supra, 2003).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
maoC	NP_415905.1	16129348	Escherichia coli
paaF	NP_415911.1	16129354	Escherichia coli
paaG	NP_415912.1	16129355	Escherichia coli
crt	NP_349318.1	15895969	Clostridium acetobutylicum
paaA	NP_745427.1	26990002	Pseudomonas putida
paaB	NP_745426.1	26990001	Pseudomonas putida
phaA	ABF82233.1	106636093	Pseudomonas fluorescens
phaB	ABF82234.1	106636094	Pseudomonas fluorescens

The E. coli genes fadA and fadB encode a multienzyme complex that exhibits ketoacyl-CoA thiolase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, and enoyl-CoA hydratase activities (Yang et al. Biochemistry 30(27): p. 6788-6795 (1991); Yang et al. J Biol Chem 265(18): p. 10424-10429 (1990); Yang et al. J Biol Chem 266(24): p. 16255 (1991); Nakahigashi and Inokuchi Nucleic Acids Res 18(16): p. 4937 (1990)). The fadI and fadJ genes encode similar functions and are naturally expressed only anaerobically (Campbell et al. Mol Microbiol 47(3): p. 793-805 (2003). A method for producing poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] in E. coli that involves activating fadB (by knocking out a negative regulator, fadR) and co-expressing a non-native ketothiolase (phaA from Ralstonia eutropha) has been described previously (Sato et al. J Biosci Bioeng 103(1): 38-44 (2007)). This work clearly demonstrates that a β-oxidation enzyme, in particular the gene product of fadB which encodes both 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase and enoyl-CoA hydratase activities, can function as part of a pathway to produce longer chain molecules from acetyl-CoA precursors.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	fadA	YP_026272.1	49176430	Escherichia coli
	fadB	NP_418288.1	16131692	Escherichia coli
	fadI	NP_416844.1	16130275	Escherichia coli
	fadJ	NP_416843.1	16130274	Escherichia coli
	fadR	NP_415705.1	16129150	Escherichia coli

4.3.1.a—Ammonia-Lyase

Aspartase (EC 4.3.1.1), catalyzing the deamination of aspartate to fumarate, is a widespread enzyme in microorganisms, and has been characterized extensively (Viola, R. E. Adv. Enzymol. Relat Areas Mol. Biol. 74:295-341 (2000)). The crystal structure of the E. coli aspartase, encoded by aspA, has been solved (Shi et al. Biochemistry 36:9136-9144 (1997)). The E. coli enzyme has also been shown to react with alternate substrates aspartatephenylmethylester, asparagine, benzyl-aspartate and malate (Ma et al. Ann N.Y. Acad Sci 672:60-65 (1992)). In a separate study, directed evolution was been employed on this enzyme to alter substrate specificity (Asano et al. Biomol. Eng 22:95-101 (2005)). Enzymes with aspartase functionality have also been characterized in Haemophilus influenzae (Sjostrom et al. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1324:182-190 (1997)), Pseudomonas fluorescens (Takagi et al. J. Biochem. 96:545-552 (1984)), Bacillus subtilus (Sjostrom et al. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1324:182-190 (1997)) and Serratia marcescens (Takagi and Kisumi J Bacteriol. 161:1-6 (1985)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aspA	NP_418562	90111690	Escherichia coli K12 subsp. MG1655
aspA	P44324.1	1168534	Haemophilus influenzae
aspA	P07346.1	114273	Pseudomonas fluorescens
ansB	P26899.1	114271	Bacillus subtilus
aspA	P33109.1	416661	Serratia marcescens

3-methylaspartase (EC 4.3.1.2), also known as beta-methylaspartase or 3-methylaspartate ammonia-lyase, catalyzes the deamination of threo-3-methylasparatate to mesaconate. The 3-methylaspartase from Clostridium tetanomorphum has been cloned, functionally expressed in E. coli, and crystallized (Asuncion et al. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol Crystallogr. 57:731-733 (2001); Asuncion et al. J Biol Chem. 277:8306-8311 (2002); Botting et al. Biochemistry 27:2953-2955 (1988); Goda et al. Biochemistry 31:10747-10756 (1992). In Citrobacter amalonaticus, this enzyme is encoded by BAA28709 (Kato and Asano Arch. Microbiol 168:457-463 (1997)). 3-Methylaspartase has also been crystallized from E. coli YG1002 (Asano and Kato FEMS Microbiol Lett. 118:255-258 (1994)) although the protein sequence is not listed in public databases such as GenBank. Sequence homology can be used to identify additional candidate genes, including CTC 02563 in C. tetani and ECs0761 in Escherichia coli O157:H7.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
MAL	AAB24070.1	259429	Clostridium tetanomorphum
BAA28709	BAA28709.1	3184397	Citrobacter amalonaticus
CTC_02563	NP_783085.1	28212141	Clostridium tetani
ECs0761	BAB34184.1	13360220	Escherichia coli
			O157:H7 str. Sakai

Ammonia-lyase enzyme candidates that form enoyl-CoA products include beta-alanyl-CoA ammonia-lyase (EC 4.3.1.6), which deaminates beta-alanyl-CoA, and 3-aminobutyryl-CoA ammonia-lyase (EC 4.3.1.14). Two beta-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyases have been identified and characterized in Clostridium propionicum (Herrmann et al. FEBS J. 272:813-821 (2005)). No other beta-alanyl-CoA ammonia lyases have been studied to date, but gene candidates can be identified by sequence similarity. One such candidate is MXAN_—4385 in Myxococcus xanthus.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
ac12	CAG29275.1	47496504	Clostridium propionicum
ac11	CAG29274.1	47496502	Clostridium propionicum
MXAN_4385	YP_632558.1	108756898	Myxococcus xanthus

5.3.3.a—Isomerase

The 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratases from both Clostridium aminobutyrium and C. kluyveri catalyze the reversible conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA and posses an intrinsic vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase activity (Scherf and Buckel Eur. J Biochem. 215:421-429 (1993); Scherf et al. Arch. Microbiol 161:239-245 (1994)). Both native enzymes were purified and characterized, including the N-terminal amino acid sequences (Scherf and Buckel, supra, 1993; Scherf et al., supra, 1994). The abfD genes from C. aminobutyrium and C. kluyveri match exactly with these N-terminal amino acid sequences, thus are encoding the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratases/vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase. In addition, the abfD gene from Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC 33277 is identified through homology from genome projects.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
abfD	YP_001396399.1	153955634	Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555
abfD	P55792	84028213	Clostridium aminobutyricum
abfD	YP_001928843	188994591	Porphyromonas gingivalis
			ATCC 33277

5.4.3.a—Aminomutase

Lysine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.2) is an exemplary aminomutase that converts lysine to (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate, shifting an amine group from the 2- to the 3-position. The enzyme is found in bacteria that ferment lysine to acetate and butyrate, including as Fusobacterium nuleatum (kamA) (Barker et al. J. Bacteriol. 152:201-207 (1982)) and Clostridium subterminale (kamA) (Chirpich et al. J. Biol. Chem. 245:1778-1789 (1970)). The enzyme from Clostridium subterminale has been crystallized (Lepore et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 102:13819-13824 (2005)). An enzyme encoding this function is also encoded by yodO in Bacillus subtilus (Chen et al. Biochem. J. 348 Pt 3:539-549 (2000)). The enzyme utilizes pyridoxal 5′-phosphate as a cofactor, requires activation by S-Adenosylmethoionine, and is stereoselective, reacting with the only with L-lysine. The enzyme has not been shown to react with alternate substrates.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	yodO	O34676.1	4033499	Bacillus subtilus
	kamA	Q9XBQ8.1	75423266	Clostridium subterminale
	kamA	Q8RHX4	81485301	Fusobacterium nuleatum
				subsp. nuleatum

A second aminomutase, beta-lysine 5,6-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.3), catalyzes the next step of lysine fermentation to acetate and butyrate, which transforms (3S)-3,6-diaminohexanoate to (3S,5S)-3,5-diaminohexanoate, shifting a terminal amine group from the 6- to the 5-position. This enzyme also catalyzes the conversion of lysine to 2,5-diaminohexanoate and is also called lysine-5,6-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.4). The enzyme has been crystallized in Clostridium sticklandii (kamD, kamE) (Berkovitch et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 101:15870-15875 (2004)). The enzyme from Porphyromonas gingivalis has also been characterized (Tang et al. Biochemistry 41:8767-8776 (2002)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
kamD	AAC79717.1	3928904	Clostridium sticklandii
kamE	AAC79718.1	3928905	Clostridium sticklandii
kamD	NC_002950.2	34539880,	Porphyromonas gingivalis
		34540809	W83
kamE	NC_002950.2	34539880,	Porphyromonas gingivalis
		34540810	W83

Ornithine 4,5-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.5) converts D-ornithine to 2,4-diaminopentanoate, also shifting a terminal amine to the adjacent carbon. The enzyme from Clostridium sticklandii is encoded by two genes, oraE and oraS, and has been cloned, sequenced and expressed in E. coli (Chen et al. J. Biol. Chem. 276:44744-44750 (2001)). This enzyme has not been characterized in other organisms to date.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	oraE	AAK72502	17223685	Clostridium sticklandii
	oraS	AAK72501	17223684	Clostridium sticklandii

Tyrosine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.6) participates in tyrosine biosynthesis, reversibly converting tyrosine to 3-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoate by shifting an amine from the 2- to the 3-position. In Streptomyces globisporus the enzyme has also been shown to react with tyrosine derivatives (Christenson et al. Biochemistry 42:12708-12718 (2003)). Sequence information is not available.

Leucine 2,3-aminomutase (EC 5.4.3.7) converts L-leucine to beta-leucine during leucine degradation and biosynthesis. An assay for leucine 2,3-aminomutase detected activity in many organisms (Poston, J. M. Methods Enzymol. 166:130-135 (1988)) but genes encoding the enzyme have not been identified to date.

Cargill has developed a novel 2,3-aminomutase enzyme to convert L-alanine to β-alanine, thus creating a pathway from pyruvate to 3-HP in four biochemical steps (Liao et al., U.S. Publication No. 2005-0221466).

6.2.1.a—Acid-Thiol Ligase

An exemplary acid-thiol ligase is the gene products of sucCD of E. coli which together catalyze the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concaminant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al. Biochemistry 24(22): p. 6245-6252 (1985)). Additional exemplary CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al. Biochem J. 230(3): p. 683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-Maceiras et al. Biochem J395(1):147-155 (2006); Wang et al. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 360(2):453-458 (2007)), the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al. J Biol Chem. 265(12):7084-7090 (1990)), and the 6-carboxyhexanoate-CoA ligase from Bacillus subtilis (Bower et al. J Bacteriol 178(14):4122-4130 (1996)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	sucC	NP_415256.1	16128703	Escherichia coli
	sucD	AAC73823.1	1786949	Escherichia coli
	phl	CAJ15517.1	77019264	Penicillium chrysogenum
	phlB	ABS19624.1	152002983	Penicillium chrysogenum
	paaF	AAC24333.2	22711873	Pseudomonas putida
	bioW	NP_390902.2	50812281	Bacillus subtilis

Example V

Exemplary BDO Pathway from Succinyl-CoA

This example describes exemplary BDO pathways from succinyl-CoA.

BDO pathways from succinyl-CoA are described herein and have been described previously (see U.S. application Ser. No. 12/049,256, filed Mar. 14, 2008, and PCT application serial No. US08/57168, filed Mar. 14, 2008, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). Additional pathways are shown in FIG. 8A. Enzymes of such exemplary BDO pathways are listed in Table 15, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, succinyl-CoA can be converted to succinic semialdehyde by succinyl-CoA reductase (or succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). Succinate semialdehyde can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate by 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a), as previously described. Alternatively, succinyl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate by succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). 4-Hydroxybutyrate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), as previously described, or by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a) or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase (or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyrate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate by 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase (EC 2.7.2.a), as previously described. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase (EC 2.3.1.a), as previously described. Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). 4-Hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a), as previously described.

TABLE 15
BDO pathway from succinyl-CoA.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrates
8A	1.2.1.b	succinyl-CoA	succinic	succinyl-CoA	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	succinyl-CoA
			semialdehyde	reductase			kluyveri
				(or succinate
				semialdehyde
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	malonyl-CoA
							sedula
8A	1.1.1.a	succinate	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyrate	4hbd	YP_726053.1	Ralstonia	4-hydroxy-
		semialdehyde	butyrate	dehydrogenase			eutropha H16	butyrate
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
							kluyveri DSM 555	butyrate
					4hbd	Q94B07	Arabidopsis	4-hydroxy-
							thaliana	butyrate
8A	1.1.1.c	succinyl-CoA	4-hydroxy-	succinyl-CoA	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
			butyrate	reductase			acetobutylicum
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
8A	2.8.3.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
				transferase		EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
8A	3.1.2.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA			coli
				hydrolase
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
8A	6.2.1.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA		AAC73823.1	coli
				ligase (or 4-
				hydroxybutyryl-
				CoA synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
8A	2.7.2.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	ackA	NP_416799.1	Escherichia	acetate,
		butyrate	butyryl-	butyrate			coli	propionate
			phosphate	kinase
					buk1	NP_349675	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
					buk2	Q97II1	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
8A	2.3.1.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	phosphotrans-4-	ptb	NP_349676	Clostridium	butyryl-
		butyryl-	butyryl-CoA	hydroxybutyrylase			acetobutylicum	phosphate
		phosphate
					ptb	AAR19757.1	butyrate-	butyryl-
							producing	phosphate
							bacterium L2-50
					ptb	CAC07932.1	Bacillus	butyryl-
							megaterium	phosphate
8A	1.2.1.d	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutanal	asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
		butyryl-	butanal	dehydrogenase			coli	phosphate
		phosphate		(phosphorylating)
					proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-
							coli	5-phospate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
8A	1.2.1.b	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	butyryl-CoA			kluyveri
				reductase (or 4-
				hydroxybutanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	malonyl-CoA
							sedula
8A	1.1.1.c	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	4-hydroxy-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanediol	butyryl-CoA			acetobutylicum
				reductase
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
8A	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

Example VI

Additional Exemplary BDO Pathways from Alpha-Ketoglutarate

This example describes exemplary BDO pathways from alpha-ketoglutarate.

BDO pathways from succinyl-CoA are described herein and have been described previously (see U.S. application Ser. No. 12/049,256, filed Mar. 14, 2008, and PCT application serial No. US08/57168, filed Mar. 14, 2008, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). Additional pathways are shown in FIG. 8B. Enzymes of such exemplary BDO pathways are listed in Table 16, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, alpha-ketoglutarate can be converted to succinic semialdehyde by alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.a), as previously described. Alternatively, alpha-ketoglutarate can be converted to glutamate by glutamate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.a). 4-Aminobutyrate can be converted to succinic semialdehyde by 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). Glutamate can be converted to 4-aminobutyrate by glutamate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.a). Succinate semialdehyde can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate by 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a), as previously described. 4-Hydroxybutyrate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), as previously described, or by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a), or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase (or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). 4-Hydroxybutyrate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate by 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase (EC 2.7.2.a). 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase (EC 2.3.1.a), as previously described. Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b), as previously described. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). 4-Hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a), as previously described.

TABLE 16
BDO pathway from alpha-ketoglutarate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrates
8B	4.1.1.a	alpha-keto-	succinic	alpha-keto-	kgd	O50463.4	Mycobacterium	alpha-keto-
		glutarate	semialdehyde	glutarate			tuberculosis	glutarate
				decarboxylase
					gadA	NP_417974	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
					gadB	NP_416010	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
8B	1.4.1.a	alpha-keto-	glutamate	glutamate	gdhA	P00370	Escherichia	glutamate
		glutarate		dehydrogenase			coli
					gdh	P96110.4	Thermotoga	glutamate
							maritima
					gdhA1	NP_279651.1	Halobacterium	glutamate
							salinarum
8B	1.4.1.a	4-amino-	succinic	4-aminobutyrate	lysDH	AB052732	Geobacillus	lysine
		butyrate	semialdehyde	oxidoreductase			stearothermophilus
				(deaminating)
					lysDH	NP_147035.1	Aeropyrum	lysine
							pernix K1
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine,
							cereus	isoleucine,
								valine, 2-
								aminobutanoate
8B	2.6.1.a	4-amino-	succinic	4-aminobutyrate	gabT	P22256.1	Escherichia	4-amino-
		butyrate	semialdehyde	transaminase			coli	butyryate
					puuE	NP_415818.1	Escherichia	4-amino-
							coli	butyryate
					UGA1	NP_011533.1	Saccharomyces	4-amino-
							cerevisiae	butyryate
8B	4.1.1.a	glutamate	4-amino-	glutamate	gadA	NP_417974	Escherichia	glutamate
			butyrate	decarboxylase			coli
					gadB	NP_416010	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
					kgd	O50463.4	Mycobacterium	alpha-keto-
							tuberculosis	glutarate
8B	1.1.1.a	succinate	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyrate	4hbd	YP_726053.1	Ralstonia	4-hydroxy-
		semialdehyde	butyrate	dehydrogenase			eutropha H16	butyrate
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
							kluyveri DSM 555	butyrate
					4hbd	Q94B07	Arabidopsis	4-hydroxy-
							thaliana	butyrate
8B	2.8.3.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
8B	3.1.2.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
8B	6.2.1.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA ligase (or 4-		AAC73823.1	coli
				hydroxybutyryl-
				CoA synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
8B	2.7.2.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyrate	ackA	NP_416799.1	Escherichia	acetate,
		butyrate	butyryl-	kinase			coli	propionate
			phosphate
					buk1	NP_349675	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
					buk2	Q97II1	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
8B	2.3.1.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	phosphotrans-4-	ptb	NP_349676	Clostridium	butyryl-
		butyryl-	butyryl-CoA	hydroxybutyrylase			acetobutylicum	phosphate
		phosphate
					ptb	AAR19757.1	butyrate-	butyryl-
							producing	phosphate
							bacterium L2-50
					ptb	CAC07932.1	Bacillus	butyryl-
							megaterium	phosphate
8B	1.2.1.d	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutanal	asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
		butyryl-	butanal	dehydrogenase			coli	phosphate
		phosphate		(phosphorylating)
					proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-5-
							coli	phospate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
8B	1.2.1.b	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	CoA reductase (or			kluyveri
				4-hydroxybutanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	malonyl-CoA
							sedula
8B	1.1.1.c	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanediol	CoA reductase			acetobutylicum
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
8B	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

Example VII

BDO Pathways from 4-Aminobutyrate

This example describes exemplary BDO pathway from 4-aminobutyrate.

FIG. 9A depicts exemplary BDO pathways in which 4-aminobutyrate is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 17, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, 4-aminobutyrate can be converted to 4-aminobutyryl-CoA by 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a), or 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase (or 4-aminobutyryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). 4-aminobutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-oxobutyryl-CoA by 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). 4-oxobutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). 4-hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a).

TABLE 17
BDO pathway from 4-aminobutyrate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrates
9A	2.8.3.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyrate	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
9A	3.1.2.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyryl-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
9A	6.2.1.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyrate-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA ligase (or 4-		AAC73823.1	coli
				aminobutyryl-CoA
				synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
9A	1.4.1.a	4-amino-	4-oxo-	4-aminobutyryl-	lysDH	AB052732	Geobacillus	lysine
		butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA	CoA oxidoreductase			stearothermophilus
				(deaminating)
					lysDH	NP_147035.1	Aeropyrum	lysine
							pernix K1
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine, isoleucine,
							cereus	valine, 2-
								aminobutanoate
9A	2.6.1.a	4-amino-	4-oxo-	4-aminobutyryl-	gabT	P22256.1	Escherichia	4-aminobutyryate
		butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA	CoA transaminase			coli
					abat	P50554.3	Rattus	3-amino-2-
							norvegicus	methylpropionate
					SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	Saccharomyces	beta-alanine
							kluyveri
9A	1.1.1.a	4-oxo-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA	CoA dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
8	1.1.1.c	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanediol	CoA reductase			acetobutylicum
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
8	1.2.1.b	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	CoA reductase (or			kluyveri
				4 -hydroxybutanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	Succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
8	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

Enzymes for another exemplary BDO pathway converting 4-aminobutyrate to BDO is shown in FIG. 9A. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 18, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, 4-aminobutyrate can be converted to 4-aminobutyryl-CoA by 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a) or 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase (or 4-aminobutyryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). 4-aminobutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-aminobutan-1-ol by 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). Alternatively, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-aminobutanal by 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-aminobutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b), and 4-aminobutanal converted to 4-aminobutan-1-ol by 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 4-aminobutan-1-ol can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). 4-hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a).

TABLE 18
BDO pathway from 4-aminobutyrate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
9A	2.8.3.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyrate	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
9A	3.1.2.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyryl-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
9A	6.2.1.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyrate-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		butyrate	butyryl-CoA	CoA ligase (or 4-		AAC73823.1	coli
				aminobutyryl-CoA
				synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
9A	1.1.1.c	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyryl-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butan-1-ol	CoA reductase			acetobutylicum
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
9A	1.2.1.b	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutyryl-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	CoA reductase (or			kluyveri
				4-aminobutanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	Succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
9A	1.1.1.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butan-1-ol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
9A	1.4.1.a	4-amino-	4-hydroxy-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	lysDH	AB052732	Geobacillus	lysine
		butan-1-ol	butanal	oxidoreductase			stearothermophilus
				(deaminating)
					lysDH	NP_147035.1	Aeropyrum	lysine
							pernix K1
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine,
							cereus	isoleucine,
								valine, 2-
								aminobutanoate
9A	2.6.1.a	4-amino-	4-hydroxy-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	gabT	P22256.1	Escherichia	4-amino-
		butan-1-ol	butanal	transaminase			coli	butyryate
					abat	P50554.3	Rattus	3-amino-2-
							norvegicus	methylpropionate
					SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	Saccharomyces	beta-alanine
							kluyveri
9A	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

FIG. 9B depicts exemplary BDO pathway in which 4-aminobutyrate is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 19, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, 4-aminobutyrate can be converted to [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy] phosphonic acid by 4-aminobutyrate kinase (EC 2.7.2.a). [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy] phosphonic acid can be converted to 4-aminobutanal by 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). 4-aminobutanal can be converted to 4-aminobutan-1-ol by 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 4-aminobutan-1-ol can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). Alternatively, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy] phosphonic acid can be converted to [(4-oxobutanolyl)oxy] phosphonic acid by [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). [(4-oxobutanolyl)oxy] phosphonic acid can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate by 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). 4-hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a).

TABLE 19
BDO pathway from 4-aminobutyrate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
9B	2.7.2.a	4-amino-	[(4-amino-	4-amino-	ackA	NP_416799.1	Escherichia	acetate,
		butyrate	butanolyl)oxy]	butyrate kinase			coli	propionate
			phosphonic
			acid
					buk1	NP_349675	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
					proB	NP_414777.1	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
9B	1.2.1.d	[(4-amino-	4-amino-	4-amino-	asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
		butanolyl)oxy]	butanal	butyraldehyde			coli	phosphate
		phosphonic		dehydrogenase
		acid		(phosphorylating)
					proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-
							coli	5-phospate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
9B	1.1.1.a	4-amino-	4-amino-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butan-1-ol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
9B	1.4.1.a	4-amino-	4-hydroxy-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	lysDH	AB052732	Geobacillus	lysine
		butan-1-ol	butanal	oxidoreductase			stearothermophilus
				(deaminating)
					lysDH	NP_147035.1	Aeropyrum	lysine
							pernix K1
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine,
							cereus	isoleucine,
								valine,
								2-aminobutanoate
9B	2.6.1.a	4-amino-	4-hydroxy-	4-aminobutan-1-ol	gabT	P22256.1	Escherichia	4-aminobutyryate
		butan-1-ol	butanal	transaminase			coli
					abat	P50554.3	Rattus	3-amino-2-
							norvegicus	methylpropionate
					SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	Saccharomyces	beta-alanine
							kluyveri
9B	1.4.1.a	[(4-amino-	[(4-oxo-	[(4-amino-	lysDH	AB052732	Geobacillus	lysine
		butanolyl)oxy]	butanolyl)oxy]	butanolyl)oxy]phos-			stearothermophilus
		phosphonic	phosphonic	phonic acid
		acid	acid	oxidoreductase
				(deaminating)
					lysDH	NP_147035.1	Aeropyrum	lysine
							pernix K1
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine,
							cereus	isoleucine,
								valine,
								2-aminobutanoate
9B	2.6.1.a	[(4-amino-	[(4-oxo-	[(4-amino-	gabT	P22256.1	Escherichia	4-aminobutyryate
		butanolyl)oxy]	butanolyl)oxy]	butanolyl)oxy]phos-			coli
		phosphonic	phosphonic	phonic acid
		acid	acid	transaminase
					SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	Saccharomyces	beta-alanine
							kluyveri
					serC	NP_415427.1	Escherichia	phosphoserine,
							coli	phospho-
								hydroxythreonine
9B	1.1.1.a	[(4-oxo-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanolyl)oxy]	butyryl-	butyryl-			cerevisiae
		phosphonic	phosphate	phosphate
		acid		dehydrogenase
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
9B	1.2.1.d	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
		butyryl-	butanal	butyraldehyde			coli	phosphate
		phosphate		dehydrogenase
				(phosphorylating)
					proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-
							coli	5-phospate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
9B	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

FIG. 9C shows an exemplary pathway through acetoacetate.

Example VIII

Exemplary BDO Pathways from Alpha-Ketoglutarate

This example describes exemplary BDO pathways from alpha-ketoglutarate.

FIG. 10 depicts exemplary BDO pathways in which alpha-ketoglutarate is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 20, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, alpha-ketoglutarate can be converted to alpha-ketoglutaryl-phosphate by alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase (EC 2.7.2.a). Alpha-ketoglutaryl-phosphate can be converted to 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid by 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid can be converted to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid by 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase (EC 1.1.1.a). Alternatively, alpha-ketoglutarate can be converted to alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA by alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a) or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase (or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). Alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA can be converted to 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid by alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (or 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). 2,5-Dioxopentanoic acid can be converted to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid by 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase. Alternatively, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA can be converted to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid by alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.a). 4-hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (EC 1.2.1.c).

TABLE 20
BDO pathway from alpha-ketoglutarate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
10	2.7.2.a	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	ackA	NP_416799.1	Escherichia	acetate,
		glutarate	glutaryl-	glutarate			coli	propionate
			phosphate	5-kinase
					buk1	NP_349675	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
					proB	NP_414777.1	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
10	1.2.1.d	alpha-keto-	2,5-dioxo-	2,5-	proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-
		glutaryl-	pentanoic acid	dioxopentanoic			coli	5-phospate
		phosphate		semialdehyde
				dehydrogenase
				(phosphorylating)
					asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
							coli	phosphate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
10	1.1.1.a	2,5-dioxo-	5-hydroxy-2-	2,5-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		pentanoic acid	oxopentanoic	dioxopentanoic			cerevisiae
			acid	acid reductase
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
10	2.8.3.a	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		glutarate	glutaryl-CoA	glutarate CoA	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
				transferase		EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
10	3.1.2.a	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		glutarate	glutaryl-CoA	glutaryl-CoA			coli
				hydrolase
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
10	6.2.1.a	alpha-keto-	alpha-keto-	alpha-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		glutarate	glutaryl-CoA	ketoglutaryl-		AAC73823.1	coli
				CoA ligase (or
				alpha-
				ketoglutaryl-
				CoA
				synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
10	1.2.1.b	alpha-keto-	2,5-dioxo-	alpha-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		glutaryl-CoA	pentanoic acid	ketoglutaryl-			kluyveri
				CoA reductase
				(or 2,5-
				dioxopentanoic
				acid
				dehydrogenase)
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
					bphG	BAA03892.1	Pseudomonas sp	Acetaldehyde,
								Propionaldehyde,
								Butyraldehyde,
								Isobutyraldehyde
								and Formaldehyde
10	1.1.1.a	2,5-dioxo-	5-hydroxy-2-	5-hydroxy-2-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		pentanoic acid	oxopentanoic	oxopentanoic	yqhD	NP_417484.1	cerevisiae	>C3
			acid	acid	4hbd	L21902.1	Escherichia	Succinate
				dehydrogenase			coli	semialdehyde
							Clostridium
							kluyveri DSM 555
10	1.1.1.c	alpha-keto-	5-hydroxy-2-	alpha-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		glutaryl-CoA	oxopentanoic	ketoglutaryl-			acetobutylicum
			acid	CoA reductase
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
10	4.1.1.a	5-hydroxy-2-	4-hydroxy-	5-hydroxy-2-	pdc	P06672.1	Zymomonas	2-oxopentanoic
		oxopentanoic	butanal	oxopentanoic			mobilus	acid
		acid		acid
				decarboxylase
					mdlC	P20906.2	Pseudomonas	2-oxopentanoic
							putida	acid
					pdc1	P06169	Saccharomyces	pyruvate
							cerevisiae
10	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
10	1.2.1.c	5-hydroxy-2-	4-hydroxy-	5-hydroxy-2-	sucA, sucB,	NP_415254.1,	Escherichia	Alpha-
		oxopentanoic	butyryl-CoA	oxopentanoic	lpd	NP_415255.1,	coli	ketoglutarate
		acid		acid		NP_414658.1
				dehydrogenase
				(decarboxylation)
					bfmBB,	NP_390283.1,	Bacillus	2-keto acids
					bfmBAA,	NP_390285.1,	subtilis	derivatives of
					bfmBAB,	NP_390284.1,		valine, leucine
					bfmBAB,	P21880.1		and isoleucine
					pdhD
					Bckdha,	NP_036914.1,	Rattus	2-keto acids
					Bckdhb,	NP_062140.1,	norvegicus	derivatives of
					Dbt, Dld	NP_445764.1,		valine, leucine
						NP_955417.1		and isoleucine

Example IX

Exemplary BDO Pathways from Glutamate

This example describes exemplary BDO pathways from glutamate.

FIG. 11 depicts exemplary BDO pathways in which glutamate is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 21, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, glutamate can be converted to glutamyl-CoA by glutamate CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), glutamyl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a) or glutamyl-CoA ligase (or glutamyl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). Alternatively, glutamate can be converted to glutamate-5-phosphate by glutamate 5-kinase (EC 2.7.2.a). Glutamate-5-phosphate can be converted to glutamate-5-semialdehyde by glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating) (EC 1.2.1.d). Glutamyl-CoA can be converted to glutamate-5-semialdehyde by glutamyl-CoA reductase (or glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). Glutamate-5-semialdehyde can be converted to 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid by glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase (EC 1.1.1.a). Alternatively, glutamyl-CoA can be converted to 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid by glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). 2-Amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid can be converted to 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid by 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) (EC 1.4.1.a) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase (EC 2.6.1.a). 5-Hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.a). 4-Hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). Alternatively, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation) (EC 1.2.1.c).

TABLE 21
BDO pathway from glutamate.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
11	2.8.3.a	glutamate	glutamyl-	glutamate CoA	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
			CoA	transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
11	3.1.2.a	glutamate	glutamyl-	glutamyl-CoA	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
			CoA	hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
11	6.2.1.a	glutamate	glutamyl-	glutamyl-CoA	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
			CoA	ligase (or		AAC73823.1	coli
				glutamyl-
				CoA synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
11	2.7.2.a	glutamate	glutamate-5-	glutamate	ackA	NP_416799.1	Escherichia	acetate,
			phosphate	5-kinase			coli	propionate
					buk1	NP_349675	Clostridium	butyrate
							acetobutylicum
					proB	NP_414777.1	Escherichia	glutamate
							coli
11	1.2.1.d	glutamate-5-	glutamate-	glutamate-5-	proA	NP_414778.1	Escherichia	L-glutamyl-5-
		phosphate	5-semi-	semialdehyde			coli	phospate
			aldehyde	dehydrogenase
				(phosphorylating)
					asd	NP_417891.1	Escherichia	L-4-aspartyl-
							coli	phosphate
					gapA	P0A9B2.2	Escherichia	Glyceraldehyde-
							coli	3-phosphate
11	1.2.1.b	glutamyl-	glutamate-	glutamyl-CoA	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		CoA	5-semi-	reductase (or			kluyveri
			aldehyde	glutamate-5-
				semialdehyde
				dehydrogenase)
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
					bphG	BAA03892.1	Pseudomonas sp	Acetaldehyde,
								Propionaldehyde,
								Butyraldehyde,
								Isobutyraldehyde
								and Formaldehyde
11	1.1.1.a	glutamate-	2-amino-5-	glutamate-5-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		5-semi-	hydroxy-	semialdehyde			cerevisiae
		aldehyde	pentanoic	reductase
			acid
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
11	1.1.1.c	glutamyl-	2-amino-5-	glutamyl-CoA	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		CoA	hydroxy-	reductase			acetobutylicum
			pentanoic	(alcohol forming)
			acid
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
11	1.4.1.a	2-amino-5-	5-hydroxy-2-	2-amino-5-	gdhA	P00370	Escherichia	glutamate
		hydroxy-	oxopentanoic	hydroxypentanoic			coli
		pentanoic	acid	acid oxido-
		acid		reductase
				(deaminating)
					ldh	P0A393	Bacillus	leucine,
							cereus	isoleucine,
								valine, 2-
								aminobutanoate
					nadX	NP_229443.1	Thermotoga	aspartate
							maritima
11	2.6.1.a	2-amino-5-	5-hydroxy-2-	2-amino-5-	aspC	NP_415448.1	Escherichia	aspartate
		hydroxy-	oxopentanoic	hydroxy-			coli
		pentanoic	acid	pentanoic acid
		acid		transaminase
					AAT2	P23542.3	Saccharomyces	aspartate
							cerevisiae
					avtA	YP_026231.1	Escherichia	valine, alpha-
							coli	aminobutyrate
11	4.1.1.a	5-hydroxy-2-	4-hydroxy-	5-hydroxy-2-	pdc	P06672.1	Zymomonas	2-oxopentanoic
		oxopentanoic	butanal	oxopentanoic acid			mobilus	acid
		acid		decarboxylase
					mdlC	P20906.2	Pseudomonas	2-oxopentanoic
							putida	acid
					pdc1	P06169	Saccharomyces	pyruvate
							cerevisiae
11	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde
11	1.2.1.c	5-hydroxy-2-	4-hydroxy-	5-hydroxy-2-	sucA, sucB,	NP_415254.1,	Escherichia	Alpha-keto-
		oxopentanoic	butyryl-CoA	oxopentanoic acid	lpd	NP_415255.1,	coli	glutarate
		acid		dehydrogenase		NP_414658.1
				(decarboxylation)
					bfmBB,	NP_390283.1,	Bacillus	2-keto acids
					bfmBAA,	NP_390285.1,	subtilis	derivatives of
					bfmBAB,	NP_390284.1,		valine, leucine
					bfmBAB, pdhD	P21880.1		and isoleucine
					Bckdha,	NP_036914.1,	Rattus	2-keto acids
					Bckdhb,	NP_062140.1,	norvegicus	derivatives of
					Dbt, Dld	NP_445764.1,		valine, leucine
						NP_955417.1		and isoleucine

Example X

Exemplary BDO from Acetoacetyl-CoA

This example describes an exemplary BDO pathway from acetoacetyl-CoA.

FIG. 12 depicts exemplary BDO pathways in which acetoacetyl-CoA is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 22, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, acetoacetyl-CoA can be converted to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a). 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to crotonoyl-CoA by 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.a). Crotonoyl-CoA can be converted to vinylacetyl-CoA by vinylacetyl-CoA A-isomerase (EC 5.3.3.3). Vinylacetyl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.a). 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). 4-Hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a).

TABLE 22
BDO pathway from acetoacetyl-CoA.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
12	1.1.1.a	acetoacetyl-	3-hydroxy-	3-hydroxy-	hbd	NP_349314.1	Clostridium	3-hydroxy-
		CoA	butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA			acetobutylicum	butyryl-CoA
				dehydrogenase
					hbd	AAM14586.1	Clostridium	3-hydroxy-
							beijerinckii	butyryl-CoA
					Msed_1423	YP_001191505	Metallosphaera	presumed 3-
							sedula	hydroxy-
								butyryl-CoA
12	4.2.1.a	3-hydroxy-	crotonoyl-	3-hydroxy-	crt	NP_349318.1	Clostridium	3-hydroxy-
		butyryl-CoA	CoA	butyryl-CoA			acetobutylicum	butyryl-CoA
				dehydratase
					maoC	NP_415905.1	Escherichia	3-hydroxy-
							coli	butyryl-CoA
					paaF	NP_415911.1	Escherichia	3-hydroxy-
							coli	adipyl-CoA
12	5.3.3.3	crotonoyl-	vinylacetyl-	vinylacetyl-	abfD	YP_001396399.1	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
		CoA	CoA	CoA Δ-			kluyveri DSM 555	butyryl-CoA
				isomerase
					abfD	P55792	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
							aminobutyricum	butyryl-CoA
					abfD	YP_001928843	Porphyromonas	4-hydroxy-
							gingivalis	butyryl-CoA
							ATCC 33277
12	4.2.1.a	vinylacetyl-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	abfD	YP_001396399.1	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
		CoA	butyryl-CoA	butyryl-CoA			kluyveri DSM 555	butyryl-CoA
				dehydratase
					abfD	P55792	Clostridium	4-hydroxy-
							aminobutyricum	butyryl-CoA
					abfD	YP_001928843	Porphyromonas	4-hydroxy-
							gingivalis	butyryl-CoA
							ATCC 33277
12	1.1.1.c	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	4-hydroxy-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanediol	butyryl-CoA			acetobutylicum
				reductase
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
12	1.2.1.b	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	butyryl-CoA			kluyveri
				reductase (or
				4-hydroxy-
				butanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	Succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
12	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	butanediol			cerevisiae
				dehydrogenase
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

Example XI

Exemplary BDO Pathway from Homoserine

This example describes an exemplary BDO pathway from homoserine.

FIG. 13 depicts exemplary BDO pathways in which homoserine is converted to BDO. Enzymes of such an exemplary BDO pathway are listed in Table 23, along with exemplary genes encoding these enzymes.

Briefly, homoserine can be converted to 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate by homoserine deaminase (EC 4.3.1.a). Alternatively, homoserine can be converted to homoserine-CoA by homoserine CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), homoserine-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a) or homoserine-CoA ligase (or homoserine-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). Homoserine-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA by homoserine-CoA deaminase (EC 4.3.1.a). 4-Hydroxybut-2-enoate can be converted to 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA by 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a), or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase (or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate by 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase (EC 1.3.1.a). 4-Hydroxybutyrate can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-coA by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.a), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase (EC 3.1.2.a), or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase (or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase) (EC 6.2.1.a). 4-Hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (EC 1.3.1.a). 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming) (EC 1.1.1.c). Alternatively, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal by 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase) (EC 1.2.1.b). 4-Hydroxybutanal can be converted to 1,4-butanediol by 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.a).

TABLE 23
BDO pathway from homoserine.
	EC	Desired	Desired		Gene	GenBank ID		Known
Figure	class	substrate	product	Enzyme name	name	(if available)	Organism	Substrate
13	4.3.1.a	homoserine	4-hydroxybut-	homoserine	aspA	NP_418562	Escherichia	aspartate
			2-enoate	deaminase			coli
					aspA	P44324.1	Haemophilus	aspartate
							influenzae
					aspA	P07346	Pseudomonas	aspartate
							fluorescens
13	2.8.3.a	homoserine	homoserine-	homoserine CoA	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
			CoA	transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
13	3.1.2.a	homoserine	homoserine-	homoserine-CoA	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
			CoA	hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
13	6.2.1.a	homoserine	homoserine-	homoserine-CoA	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
			CoA	ligase (or		AAC73823.1	coli
				homoserine-CoA
				synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
13	4.3.1.a	homoserine-	4-hydroxybut-	homoserine-CoA	acl1	CAG29274.1	Clostridium	beta-alanyl-
		CoA	2-enoyl-CoA	deaminase			propionicum	CoA
					acl2	CAG29275.1	Clostridium	beta-alanyl-
							propionicum	CoA
					MXAN_4385	YP_632558.1	Myxococcus	beta-alanyl-
							xanthus	CoA
13	2.8.3.a	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-2-	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		2-enoate	2-enoyl-CoA	enoyl-CoA	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
				transferase		EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
13	3.1.2.a	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-2-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		2-enoate	2-enoyl-CoA	enoyl-CoA			coli
				hydrolase
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
13	6.2.1.a	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxybut-2-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		2-enoate	2-enoyl-CoA	enoyl-CoA		AAC73823.1	coli
				ligase (or 4-
				hydroxybut-2-
				enoyl-CoA
				synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
13	1.3.1.a	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybut-2-	enr	CAA71086.1	Clostridium
		2-enoate	butyrate	enoate reductase			tyrobutyricum
					enr	CAA76083.1	Clostridium
							kluyveri
					enr	YP_430895.1	Moorella
							thermoacetica
13	2.8.3.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	cat1, cat2,	P38946.1,	Clostridium	succinate, 4-
		butyrate	butyryl-coA	CoA transferase	cat3	P38942.2,	kluyveri	hydroxybutyrate,
						EDK35586.1		butyrate
					gctA, gctB	CAA57199.1,	Acidaminococcus	glutarate
						CAA57200.1	fermentans
					atoA, atoD	P76459.1,	Escherichia	butanoate
						P76458.1	coli
13	3.1.2.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	tesB	NP_414986	Escherichia	adipyl-CoA
		butyrate	butyryl-coA	CoA hydrolase			coli
					acot12	NP_570103.1	Rattus	butyryl-CoA
							norvegicus
					hibch	Q6NVY1.2	Homo sapiens	3-hydroxy-
								propanoyl-CoA
13	6.2.1.a	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	sucCD	NP_415256.1,	Escherichia	succinate
		butyrate	butyryl-coA	butyryl-CoA		AAC73823.1	coli
				ligase (or 4-
				hydroxybutyryl-
				CoA synthetase)
					phl	CAJ15517.1	Penicillium	phenylacetate
							chrysogenum
					bioW	NP_390902.2	Bacillus	6-carboxy-
							subtilis	hexanoate
13	1.3.1.a	4-hydroxybut-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxybut-2-	bcd, etfA,	NP_349317.1,	Clostridium
		2-enoyl-CoA	butyryl-CoA	enoyl-CoA	etfB	NP_349315.1,	acetobutylicum
				reductase		NP_349316.1
					TER	Q5EU90.1	Euglena
							gracilis
					TDE0597	NP_971211.1	Treponema
							denticola
8	1.1.1.c	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	4-hydroxybutyryl-	adhE2	AAK09379.1	Clostridium	butanoyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanediol	CoA reductase			acetobutylicum
				(alcohol forming)
					mcr	AAS20429.1	Chloroflexus	malonyl-CoA
							aurantiacus
					FAR	AAD38039.1	Simmondsia	long chain
							chinensis	acyl-CoA
8	1.2.1.b	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	4-hydroxy-	sucD	P38947.1	Clostridium	Succinyl-CoA
		butyryl-CoA	butanal	butyryl-CoA			kluyveri
				reductase (or 4-
				hydroxybutanal
				dehydrogenase)
					sucD	NP_904963.1	Porphyromonas	Succinyl-CoA
							gingivalis
					Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	Metallosphaera	Malonyl-CoA
							sedula
8	1.1.1.a	4-hydroxy-	1,4-	1,4-butanediol	ADH2	NP_014032.1	Saccharymyces	general
		butanal	butanediol	dehydrogenase			cerevisiae
					yqhD	NP_417484.1	Escherichia	>C3
							coli
					4hbd	L21902.1	Clostridium	Succinate
							kluyveri DSM 555	semialdehyde

Example XII

BDO Producing Strains Expressing Succinyl-CoA Synthetase

This example describes increased production of BDO in BDO producing strains expressing succinyl-CoA synthetase.

As discussed above, succinate can be a precursor for production of BDO by conversion to succinyl-CoA (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). Therefore, the host strain was genetically modified to overexpress the E. coli sucCD genes, which encode succinyl-CoA synthetase. The nucleotide sequence of the E. coli sucCD operon is shown in FIG. 14A, and the amino acid sequences for the encoded succinyl-CoA synthetase subunits are shown in FIGS. 14B and 14C. Briefly, the E. coli sucCD genes were cloned by PCR from E. coli chromosomal DNA and introduced into multicopy plasmids pZS*13, pZA13, and pZE33 behind the PA1lacO-1 promoter (Lutz and Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res. 25:1203-1210 (1997)) using standard molecular biology procedures.

The E. coli sucCD genes, which encode the succinyl-CoA synthetase, were overexpressed. The results showed that introducing into the strains sucCD to express succinyl-CoA synthetase improved BDO production in various strains compared to either native levels of expression or expression of cat1, which is a succinyl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase. Thus, BDO production was improved by overexpressing the native E. coli sucCD genes encoding succinyl-CoA synthetase.

Example XIII

Expression of Heterologous Genes Encoding BDO Pathway Enzymes

This example describes the expression of various non-native pathway enzymes to provide improved production of BDO.

Alpha-Ketoglutarate Decarboxylase.

The Mycobacterium bovis sucA gene encoding alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase was expressed in host strains. Overexpression of M. bovis sucA improved BDO production (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). The nucleotide and amino acid sequences of M. bovis sucA and the encoded alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase are shown in FIG. 15.

To construct the M. bovis sucA expressing strains, fragments of the sucA gene encoding the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase were amplified from the genomic DNA of Mycobacterium bovis BCG (ATCC 19015; American Type Culture Collection, Manassas Va.) using primers shown below. The full-length gene was assembled by ligation reaction of the four amplified DNA fragments, and cloned into expression vectors pZS*13 and pZE23 behind the P_A1lacO-1 promoter (Lutz and Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res. 25:1203-1210 (1997)). The nucleotide sequence of the assembled gene was verified by DNA sequencing.

Primers for fragment 1:
(SEQ ID NO: 3)
5′-ATGTACCGCAAGTTCCGC-3′
(SEQ ID NO: 4)
5′-CAATTTGCCGATGCCCAG-3′
Primers for fragment 2:
(SEQ ID NO: 5)
5′-GCTGACCACTGAAGACTTTG-3′
(SEQ ID NO: 6)
5′-GATCAGGGCTTCGGTGTAG-3′
Primers for fragment 3:
(SEQ ID NO: 7)
5′-TTGGTGCGGGCCAAGCAGGATCTGCTC-3′
(SEQ ID NO: 8)
5′-TCAGCCGAACGCCTCGTCGAGGATCTCCTG-3′
Primers for fragment 4:
(SEQ ID NO: 9)
5′-TGGCCAACATAAGTTCACCATTCGGGCAAAAC-3′
(SEQ ID NO: 10)
5′-TCTCTTCAACCAGCCATTCGTTTTGCCCG-3′

Functional expression of the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase was demonstrated using both in vitro and in vivo assays. The SucA enzyme activity was measured by following a previously reported method (Tian et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:10670-10675 (2005)). The reaction mixture contained 50 mM potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, 0.2 mM thiamine pyrophosphate, 1 mM MgCl₂, 0.8 mM ferricyanide, 1 mM alpha-ketoglutarate and cell crude lysate. The enzyme activity was monitored by the reduction of ferricyanide at 430 nm. The in vivo function of the SucA enzyme was verified using E. coli whole-cell culture. Single colonies of E. coli MG1655 lacI^q transformed with plasmids encoding the SucA enzyme and the 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (4Hbd) was inoculated into 5 mL of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. The cells were cultured at 37° C. overnight aerobically. A 200 uL of this overnight culture was introduced into 8 mL of M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na₂HPO₄, 3.0 g/L KH₂PO₄, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH₄C1, 1 mM MgSO₄, 0.1 mM CaCl₂) supplemented with 20 g/L glucose, 100 mM 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) to improve the buffering capacity, 10 μg/mL thiamine, and the appropriate antibiotics. Microaerobic conditions were established by initially flushing capped anaerobic bottles with nitrogen for 5 minutes, then piercing the septum with a 23 G needle following inoculation. The needle was kept in the bottle during growth to allow a small amount of air to enter the bottles. The protein expression was induced with 0.2 mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) when the culture reached mid-log growth phase. As controls, E. coli MG1655 lacIq strains transformed with only the plasmid encoding the 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase and only the empty vectors were cultured under the same condition (see Table 23). The accumulation of 4-hydroxybutyrate (4HB) in the culture medium was monitored using LCMS method. Only the E. coli strain expressing the Mycobacterium alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase produced significant amount of 4HB (see FIG. 16).

TABLE 24
Three strains containing various plasmid controls and encoding sucA and
4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase.
	Host	pZE13	pZA33
1	MG1655 laclq	vector	vector
2	MG1655 laclq	vector	4hbd
3	MG1655 laclq	sucA	4hbd

A separate experiment demonstrated that the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase pathway functions independently of the reductive TCA cycle. E. coli strain ECKh-401 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA) was used as the host strain. All the three constructs contained the gene encoding 4HB dehydrogenase (4Hbd). Construct 1 also contained the gene encoding the alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (sucA). Construct 2 contained the genes encoding the succinyl-CoA synthetase (sucCD) and the CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (sucD), which are required for the synthesis of 4HB via the reductive TCA cycle. Construct 3 contains all the genes from 1 and 2. The three E. coli strains were cultured under the same conditions as described above except the second culture was under the micro-aerobic condition. By expressing the SucA enzyme, construct 3 produced more 4HB than construct 2, which relies on the reductive TCA cycle for 4HB synthesis (see FIG. 17).

Further support for the contribution of alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase to production of 4HB and BDO was provided by flux analysis experiments. Cultures of ECKh-432, which contains both sucCD-sucD and sucA on the chromosome, were grown in M9 minimal medium containing a mixture of 1-13C-glucose (60%) and U-13C-glucose (40%). The biomass was harvested, the protein isolated and hydrolyzed to amino acids, and the label distribution of the amino acids analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) as described previously (Fischer and Sauer, Eur. J. Biochem. 270:880-891 (2003)). In addition, the label distribution of the secreted 4HB and BDO was analyzed by GCMS as described in WO2008115840 A2. This data was used to calculate the intracellular flux distribution using established methods (Suthers et al., Metab. Eng. 9:387-405 (2007)). The results indicated that between 56% and 84% of the alpha-ketoglutarate was channeled through alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase into the BDO pathway. The remainder was oxidized by alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, which then entered BDO via the succinyl-CoA route.

These results demonstrate 4-hydroxybutyrate producing strains that contain the sucA gene from Mycobacterium bovis BCG expressed on a plasmid. When the plasmid encoding this gene is not present, 4-hydroxybutyrate production is negligible when sucD (CoA-dependant succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase) is not expressed. The M. bovis gene is a close homolog of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis gene whose enzyme product has been previously characterized (Tian et al., supra, 2005).

Succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent), 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase. The genes from Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 can be effective components of the pathway for 1,4-butanediol production (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). The nucleotide sequence of CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (sucD) from Porphyromonas gingivalis is shown in FIG. 18A, and the encoded amino acid sequence is shown in FIG. 18B. The nucleotide sequence of 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (4-hbd) from Porphymonas gingivalis is shown in FIG. 19A, and the encoded amino acid sequence is shown in FIG. 19B. The nucleotide sequence of 4-hydroxybutyrate CoA transferase (cat2) from Porphyromonas gingivalis is shown in FIG. 20A, and the encoded amino acid sequence is shown in FIG. 20B.

Briefly, the genes from Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 encoding succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependent) and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and in some cases additionally 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA, were cloned by PCR from P. gingivalis chromosomal DNA and introduced into multicopy plasmids pZS*13, pZA13, and pZE33 behind the PA1lacO-1 promoter (Lutz and Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res. 25:1203-1210 (1997)) using standard molecular biology procedures. These plasmids were then introduced into host strains.

The Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 genes were introduced into production strains as described above. Some strains included only succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (CoA-dependant) and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase without 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/acetyl-CoA transferase.

Butyrate Kinase and Phosphotransbutyrylase.

Butyrate kinase (BK) and phosphotransbutyrylase (PTB) enzymes can be utlized to produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). In particular, the Clostridium acetobutylicum genes, buk1 and ptb, can be utilized as part of a functional BDO pathway.

Initial experiments involved the cloning and expression of the native C. acetobutylicum PTB (020) and BK (021) genes in E. coli. Where required, the start codon and stop codon for each gene were modified to “ATG” and “TAA,” respectively, for more optimal expression in E. coli. The C. acetobutylicum gene sequences (020N and 021N) and their corresponding translated peptide sequences are shown in FIGS. 21 and 22.

The PTB and BK genes exist in C. acetobutylicum as an operon, with the PTB (020) gene expressed first. The two genes are connected by the sequence “atta aagttaagtg gaggaatgtt aac” (SEQ ID NO:11) that includes a re-initiation ribosomal binding site for the downstream BK (021) gene. The two genes in this context were fused to lac-controlled promoters in expression vectors for expression in E. coli (Lutz and Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res. 25:1203-1210 (1997)).

Expression of the two proteins from these vector constructs was found to be low in comparison with other exogenously expressed genes due to the high incidence of codons in the C. acetobutylicum genes that occur only rarely in E. coli. Therefore new 020 and 021 genes were predicted that changed rare codons for alternates that are more highly represented in E. coli gene sequences. This method of codon optimization followed algorithms described previously (Sivaraman et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 36:e16 (2008)). This method predicts codon replacements in context with their frequency of occurrence when flanked by certain codons on either side. Alternative gene sequences for 020 (FIG. 23) and 021 (FIG. 24) were determined in which increasing numbers of rare codons were replaced by more prevalent codons (A<B<C<D) based on their incidence in the neighboring codon context. No changes in actual peptide sequence compared to the native 020 and 021 peptide sequences were introduced in these predicted sequences.

The improvement in expression of the BK and PTB proteins resulting from codon optimization is shown in FIG. 25A. Expression of the native gene sequences is shown in lane 2, while expression of the 020B-021B and 020C-021C is shown in lanes 3 and 4, respectively. Higher levels of protein expression in the codon-optimized operons 020B-021B (2021B) and 020C-021C (2021C) also resulted in increased activity compared to the native operon (2021n) in equivalently-expressed E. coli crude extracts (FIG. 25B).

The codon optimized operons were expressed on a plasmid in strain ECKh-432 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD::E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd) along with the C. acetobutylicum aldehyde dehydrogenase to provide a complete BDO pathway. Cells were cultured in M9 minimal medium containing 20 g/L glucose, using a 23 G needle to maintain microaerobic conditions as described above. The resulting conversion of glucose to the final product BDO was measured. Also measured was the accumulation of gamma-butyrylactone (GBL), which is a spontaneously rearranged molecule derived from 4Hb-CoA, the immediate product of the PTB-BK enzyme pair. FIG. 26 shows that expression of the native 2021n operon resulted in comparable BDO levels to an alternative enzyme function, Cat2 (034), that is capable of converting 4HB and free CoA to 4HB-CoA. GBL levels of 034 were significantly higher than 2021n, suggesting that the former enzyme has more activity than PTB-BK expressed from the native genes. However levels of both BDO and GBL were higher than either 034 or 2021n when the codon-optimized variants 2021B and 2021C were expressed, indicating that codon optimization of the genes for PTB and BK significantly increases their contributions to BDO synthesis in E. coli.

These results demonstrate that butyrate kinase (BK) and phosphotransbutyrylase (PTB) enzymes can be employed to convert 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. This eliminates the need for a transferase enzyme such as 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA/Acetyl-CoA transferase, which would generate one mole of acetate per mol of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA produced. The enzymes from Clostridium acetobutylicum are present in a number of engineered strains for BDO production.

4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA Reductase.

The Clostridium beijerinckii ald gene can be utilized as part of a functional BDO pathway (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). The Clostridium beijerinckii ald can also be utilized to lower ethanol production in BDO producing strains. Additionally, a specific codon-optimized ald variant (GNM0025B) was found to improve BDO production.

The native C. beijerinckii ald gene (025n) and the predicted protein sequence of the enzyme are shown in FIG. 27. As was seen for the Clostridium acetobutylicum PTB and BK genes, expression of the native C. beijerinckii ald gene was very low in E. coli. Therefore, four codon-optimized variants for this gene were predicted. FIGS. 28A-28D show alternative gene sequences for 025, in which increasing numbers of rare codons are replaced by more prevalent codons (A<B<C<D) based on their incidence in the neighboring codon context (25A, P=0.05; 25B, P=0.1; 25C, P=0.15; 25D, P=1). No changes in actual peptide sequence compared to the native 025 peptide sequence were introduced in these predictions. Codon optimization significantly increased expression of the C. beijerinckii ald (see FIG. 29), which resulted in significantly higher conversion of glucose to BDO in cells expressing the entire BDO pathway (FIG. 30A).

The native and codon-optimized genes were expressed on a plasmid along with P. gingivalis Cat2, in the host strain ECKh-432 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L ΔackA fimD::E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD::M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd), thus containing a complete BDO pathway. Cells were cultured microaerobically in M9 minimal medium containing 20 g/L glucose as described above. The relative production of BDO and ethanol by the C. beijerinckii Ald enzyme (expressed from codon-optimized variant gene 025B) was compared with the C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 enzyme (see FIG. 30B). The C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 enzyme (002C) produced nearly 4 times more ethanol than BDO. In comparison, the C. beijerinckii Ald (025B) (in conjunction with an endogenous ADH activity) produced equivalent amounts of BDO, yet the ratio of BDO to ethanol production was reversed for this enzyme compared to 002C. This suggests that the C. beijerinckii Ald is more specific for 4HB-CoA over acetyl-coA than the C. acetobutylicum AdhE2, and therefore the former is the preferred enzyme for inclusion in the BDO pathway.

The Clostridium beijerinckii ald gene (Toth et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999)) was tested as a candidate for catalyzing the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutanal. Over fifty aldehyde dehydrogenases were screened for their ability to catalyze the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde. The C. beijerinckii ald gene was chosen for implementation into BDO-producing strains due to the preference of this enzyme for 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA as a substrate as opposed to acetyl-CoA. This is important because most other enzymes with aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality (for example, adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum (Fontaine et al., J Bacteriol. 184:821-830 (2002)) preferentially convert acetyl-CoA to acetaldehyde, which in turn is converted to ethanol. Utilization of the C. beijerinckii gene lowers the amount of ethanol produced as a byproduct in BDO-producing organisms. Also, a codon-optimized version of this gene expresses very well in E. coli (Sivaraman et al., Nucleic Acids Res. 36:e16 (2008)).

4-hydroxybutanal Reductase.

4-hydroxybutanal reductase activity of adh1 from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius (M10EXG) was utilized. This led to improved BDO production by increasing 4-hydroxybutanal reductase activity over endogenous levels.

Multiple alcohol dehydrogenases were screened for their ability to catalyze the reduction of 4-hydroxybutanal to BDO. Most alcohol dehydrogenases with high activity on butyraldehyde exhibited far lower activity on 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde. One notable exception is the adh1 gene from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius M10EXG (Jeon et al., J. Biotechnol. 135:127-133 (2008)) (GNM0084), which exhibits high activity on both 4-hydroxybutanal and butanal.

The native gene sequence and encoded protein sequence if the adh1 gene from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius are shown in FIG. 31. The G. thermoglucosidasius ald1 gene was expressed in E. coli.

The Adh1 enzyme (084) expressed very well from its native gene in E. coli (see FIG. 32A). In ADH enzyme assays, the E. coli expressed enzyme showed very high reductive activity when butyraldehyde or 4HB-aldehyde were used as the substrates (see FIG. 32B). The Km values determined for these substrates were 1.2 mM and 4.0 mM, respectively. These activity values showed that the Adh1 enzyme was the most active on reduction of 4HB-aldehyde of all the candidates tested.

The 084 enzyme was tested for its ability to boost BDO production when coupled with the C. beijerinckii ald. The 084 gene was inserted behind the C. beijerinckii ald variant 025B gene to create a synthetic operon that results in coupled expression of both genes. Similar constructs linked 025B with other ADH candidate genes, and the effect of including each ADH with 025B on BDO production was tested. The host strain used was ECKh-459 (ΔadhE ldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::fnr-pflB6-K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd fimD:: C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb), which contains the remainder of the BDO pathway on the chromosome. The 084 ADH expressed in conjunction with 025B showed the highest amount of BDO (right arrow in FIG. 33) when compared with 025B only (left arrow in FIG. 33) and in conjunction with endogenous ADH functions. It also produced more BDO than did other ADH enzymes when paired with 025B, indicated as follows: 026A-C, codon-optimized variants of Clostridium acetobutylicum butanol dehydrogenase; 050, Zymomonas mobilis alcohol dehydrogenase I; 052, Citrobacter freundii 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase; 053, Lactobacillus brevis 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase; 057, Bacteroides fragilis lactaldehyde reductase; 058, E. coli 1,3-propanediol dehydrogenase; 071, Bacillus subtilis 168 alpha-ketoglutarate semialdehyde dehydrogenase. The constructs labeled “PT5lacO” are those in which the genes are driven by the PT5lacO promoter. In all other cases, the PA1lacO-1 promoter was used. This shows that inclusion of the 084 ADH in the BDO pathway increased BDO production.

Example XIV

BDO Producing Strains Expressing Pyruvate Dehydrogenase

This example describes the utilization of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) to enhance BDO production. Heterologous expression of the Klebsiella pneumonia lpdA gene was used to enhance BDO production.

Computationally, the NADH-generating conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA is required to reach the maximum theoretical yield of 1,4-butanediol (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351; WO 2008/018930; Kim et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008); Menzel et al., J. Biotechnol. 56:135-142 (1997)). Lack of PDH activity was shown to reduce the maximum anaerobic theoretical yield of BDO by 11% if phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) activity cannot be attained and by 3% if PEPCK activity can be attained. More importantly, however, absence of PDH activity in the OptKnock strain #439, described in WO 2009/023493 and U.S. publication 2009/0047719, which has the knockout of ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH and PFLi, would reduce the maximum anaerobic yield of BDO by 54% or by 43% if PEPCK activity is absent or present, respectively. In the presence of an external electron acceptor, lack of PDH activity would reduce the maximum yield of the knockout strain by 10% or by 3% assuming that PEPCK activity is absent or present, respectively.

PDH is one of the most complicated enzymes of central metabolism and is comprised of 24 copies of pyruvate decarboxylase (E1) and 12 molecules of dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (E3), which bind to the outside of the dihydrolipoyl transacetylase (E2) core. PDH is inhibited by high NADH/NAD, ATP/ADP, and Acetyl-CoA/CoA ratios. The enzyme naturally exhibits very low activity under oxygen-limited or anaerobic conditions in organisms such as E. coli due in large part to the NADH sensitivity of E3, encoded by lpdA. To this end, an NADH-insensitive version of the lpdA gene from Klebsiella pneumonia was cloned and expressed to increase the activity of PDH under conditions where the NADH/NAD ratio is expected to be high.

Replacement of the Native lpdA.

The pyruvate dehydrogenase operon of Klebsiella pneumoniae is between 78 and 95% identical at the nucleotide level to the equivalent operon of E. coli. It was shown previously that K. pneumoniae has the ability to grow anaerobically in presence of glycerol (Menzel et al., J. Biotechnol. 56:135-142 (1997); Menzel et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 60:617-626 (1998)). It has also been shown that two mutations in the lpdA gene of the operon of E. coli would increase its ability to grow anaerobically (Kim et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008)). The lpdA gene of K. pneumonia was amplified by PCR using genomic DNA (ATCC700721D) as template and the primers KP-lpdA-Bam (5′-acacgcggatccaacgtcccgg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:12) and KP-lpdA-Nhe (5′-agcggctccgctagccgcttatg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:13). The resulting fragment was cloned into the vector pCR-BluntII-TOPO (Invitrogen; Carlsbad Calif.), leading to plasmid pCR-KP-lpdA.

The chromosomal gene replacement was performed using a non-replicative plasmid and the sacB gene from Bacillus subtilis as a means of counterselection (Gay et al., J. Bacteriol. 153:1424-1431 (1983)). The vector used is pREl 18 (ATCC87693) deleted of the oriT and IS sequences, which is 3.6 kb in size and carrying the kanamycin resistance gene. The sequence was confirmed, and the vector was called pRE118-V2 (see FIG. 34).

The E. coli fragments flanking the lpdA gene were amplified by PCR using the combination of primers: EC-aceF-Pst (5′-aagccgttgctgcagctcttgagc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:14)+EC-aceF-Bam2 (5′-atctccggcggtcggatccgtcg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:15) and EC-yacH-Nhe (5′-aaagcggctagccacgccgc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:16)+EC-yacH-Kpn (5′-attacacgaggtacccaacg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:17). A BamHI-XbaI fragment containing the lpdA gene of K. pneumonia was isolated from plasmid pCR-KP-lpdA and was then ligated to the above E. coli fragments digested with PstI+BamHI and NheI-KpnI respectively, and the pRE118-V2 plasmid digested with KpnI and PstI. The resulting plasmid (called pRE118-M2.1 lpdA yac) was subjected to Site Directed Mutagenesis (SDM) using the combination of primers KP-lpdA-HisTyr-F (5′-atgctggcgtacaaaggtgtcc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:18) and (5′-ggacacctttgtacgccagcat-3′) (SEQ ID NO:19) for the mutation of the His 322 residue to a Tyr residue or primers KP-lpdA-GluLys-F (5′-atcgcctacactaaaccagaagtgg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:20) and KP-lpdA-GluLys-R (5′-ccacttctggtttagtgtaggcgat-3′) (SEQ ID NO:21) for the mutation of the residue Glu 354 to Lys residue. PCR was performed with the Polymerase Pfu Turbo (Stratagene; San Diego Calif.). The sequence of the entire fragment as well as the presence of only the desired mutations was verified. The resulting plasmid was introduced into electro competent cells of E. coli ΔadhE::Frt-ΔldhA::Frt by transformation. The first integration event in the chromosome was selected on LB agar plates containing Kanamycin (25 or 50 mg/L). Correct insertions were verified by PCR using 2 primers, one located outside the region of insertion and one in the kanamycin gene (5′-aggcagttccataggatggc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:22). Clones with the correct insertion were selected for resolution. They were sub-cultured twice in plain liquid LB at the desired temperature and serial dilutions were plated on LB-no salt-sucrose 10% plates. Clones that grew on sucrose containing plates were screened for the loss of the kanamycin resistance gene on LB-low salt agar medium and the lpdA gene replacement was verified by PCR and sequencing of the encompassing region. Sequence of the insertion region was verified, and is as described below. One clone (named 4-4-P1) with mutation Glu354Lys was selected. This clone was then transduced with P1 lysate of E. coli ΔPflB::Frt leading to strain ECKh-138 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322).

The sequence of the ECKh-138 region encompassing the aceF and lpdA genes is shown in FIG. 35. The K. pneumonia lpdA gene is underlined, and the codon changed in the Glu354Lys mutant shaded. The protein sequence comparison of the native E. coli lpdA and the mutant K. pneumonia lpdA is shown in FIG. 36.

To evaluate the benefit of using K. pneumoniae lpdA in a BDO production strain, the host strains AB3 and ECKh-138 were transformed with plasmids expressing the entire BDO pathway from strong, inducible promoters. Specifically, E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd were expressed on the medium copy plasmid pZA33, and P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 were expressed on the high copy plasmid pZE13. These plasmids have been described in the literature (Lutz and H. Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res 25:1203-1210 (1997)), and their use for BDO pathway expression is described in Example XIII and WO2008/115840.

Cells were grown anaerobically at 37° C. in M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na₂HPO₄, 3.0 g/L KH₂PO₄, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH₄Cl, 1 mM MgSO₄, 0.1 mM CaCl₂) supplemented with 20 g/L glucose, 100 mM 3-(N-morpholino)propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) to improve the buffering capacity, 10 μg/mL thiamine, and the appropriate antibiotics. Microaerobic conditions were established by initially flushing capped anaerobic bottles with nitrogen for 5 minutes, then piercing the septum with a 23 G needle following inoculation. The needle was kept in the bottle during growth to allow a small amount of air to enter the bottles. 0.25 mM IPTG was added when OD600 reached approximately 0.2 to induce the pathway genes, and samples taken for analysis every 24 hours following induction. The culture supernatants were analyzed for BDO, 4HB, and other by-products as described in Example II and in WO2008/115840. BDO and 4HB production in ECKh-138 was significantly higher after 48 hours than in AB3 or the host used in previous work, MG1655 ΔldhA (FIG. 37).

PDH Promoter Replacement.

It was previously shown that the replacement of the pdhR repressor by a transcriptional fusion containing the Fnr binding site, one of the pflB promoters, and its ribosome binding site (RBS), thus leading to expression of the aceEF-lpd operon by an anaerobic promoter, should increase pdh activity anaerobically (Zhou et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). A fusion containing the Fnr binding site, the pflB-p6 promoter and an RBS binding site were constructed by overlapping PCR. Two fragments were amplified, one using the primers aceE-upstream-RC (5′-tgacatgtaacacctaccttctgtgcctgtgccagtggttgctgtgatatagaag-3′) (SEQ ID NO:23) and pflBp6-Up-Nde (5′-ataataatacatatgaaccatgcgagttacgggcctataagccaggcg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:24) and the other using primers aceE-EcoRV-EC (5′-agtttttcgatatctgcatcagacaccggcacattgaaacgg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:25) and aceE-upstream (5′-ctggcacaggcacagaaggtaggtgttacatgtcagaacgtttacacaatgacgtggatc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:26). The tw fragments were assembled by overlapping PCR, and the final DNA fragment was digested with the restriction enzymes NdeI and BamHI. This fragment was subsequently introduced upstream of the aceE gene of the E. coli operon using pRE118-V2 as described above. The replacement was done in strains ECKh-138 and ECKh-422. The nucleotide sequence encompassing the 5′ region of the aceE gene was verified and is shown in FIG. 37. FIG. 37 shows the nucleotide sequence of 5′ end of the aceE gene fused to the pflB-p6 promoter and ribosome binding site (RBS). The 5′ italicized sequence shows the start of the aroP gene, which is transcribed in the opposite direction from the pdh operon. The 3′ italicized sequence shows the start of the aceE gene. In upper case: pflB RBS. Underlined: FNR binding site. In bold: pflB-p6 promoter sequence.

lpdA Promoter Replacement.

The promoter region containing the fnr binding site, the pflB-p6 promoter and the RBS of the pflB gene was amplified by PCR using chromosomal DNA template and primers aceF-pflBp6-fwd (5′-agacaaatcggttgccgtttgttaagccaggcgagatatgatctatatc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:27) and lpdA-RBS-B-rev (5′-gagttttgatttcagtactcatcatgtaacacctaccttcttgctgtgatatag-3′) (SEQ ID NO:28). Plasmid 2-4a was amplified by PCR using primers B-RBS-lpdA fwd (5′-ctatatcacagcaagaaggtaggtgttacatgatgagtactgaaatcaaaactc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:29) and pflBp6-aceF-rev (5′-gatatagatcatatctcgcctggcttaacaaacggcaaccgatttgtct-3′) (SEQ ID NO:30). The two resulting fragments were assembled using the BPS cloning kit (BPS Bioscience; San Diego Calif.). The resulting construct was sequenced verified and introduced into strain ECKh-439 using the pRE118-V2 method described above. The nucleotide sequence encompassing the aceF-lpdA region in the resulting strain ECKh-456 is shown in FIG. 39.

The host strain ECKh-439 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L ackA fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd), the construction of which is described below, and the pdhR and lpdA promoter replacement derivatives ECKh-455 and ECKh-456, were tested for BDO production. The strains were transformed with pZS*13 containing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald to provide a complete BDO pathway. Cells were cultured in M9 minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose as described above. 48 hours after induction with 0.2 mM IPTG, the concentrations of BDO, 4HB, and pyruvate were as shown in FIG. 40. The promoter replacement strains produce slightly more BDO than the isogenic parent.

These results demonstrated that expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase increased production of BDO in BDO producing strains.

Example XV

BDO Producing Strains Expressing Citrate Synthase and Aconitase

This example describes increasing activity of citrate synthase and aconitase to increase production of BDO. An R163L mutation into gltA was found to improve BDO production. Additionally, an arcA knockout was used to improve BDO production.

Computationally, it was determined that flux through citrate synthase (CS) and aconitase (ACONT) is required to reach the maximum theoretical yield of 1,4-butanediol (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). Lack of CS or ACONT activity would reduce the maximum theoretical yield by 14% under anaerobic conditions. In the presence of an external electron acceptor, the maximum yield is reduced by 9% or by 6% without flux through CS or ACONT assuming the absence or presence of PEPCK activity, respectively. As with pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), the importance of CS and ACONT is greatly amplified in the knockout strain background in which ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH and PFLi are knocked out (design #439) (see WO 2009/023493 and U.S. publication 2009/0047719, which is incorporated herein by reference).

The minimal OptKnock strain design described in WO 2009/023493 and U.S. publication 2009/0047719 had one additional deletion beyond ECKh-138, the mdh gene, encoding malate dehydrogenase. Deletion of this gene is intended to prevent flux to succinate via the reductive TCA cycle. The mdh deletion was performed using the λ red homologeous recombination method (Datsenko and Wanner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6640-6645 (2000)). The following oligonucleotides were used to PCR amplify the chloramphenicol resistance gene (CAT) flanked by FRT sites from pKD3:

S-mdh-Kan
(SEQ ID NO: 31)
5′- TAT TGT GCA TAC AGA TGA ATT TTT ATG CAA
ACA GTC AGC CCT GAA GAA GGG TGT AGG CTG GAG
CTG CTT C -3′
AS-mdh-Kan
(SEQ ID NO: 32)
5′- CAA AAA ACC GGA GTC TGT GCT CCG GTT TTT
TAT TAT CCG CTA ATC AAT TAC ATA TGA ATA TCC
TCC TTA G -3′.

Underlined regions indicate homology to pKD3 plasmid and bold sequence refers to sequence homology upstream and downstream of the mdh ORF. After purification, the PCR product was electroporated into ECKh-138 electrocompetent cells that had been transformed with pRedET (tet) and prepared according to the manufacturer's instructions (genebridges.com/gb/pdf/K001%20Q %20E %20BAC%20Modification%20Kit-version2.6-2007-screen.pdf). The PCR product was designed so that it integrated into the ECKh-138 genome at a region upstream of the mdh gene, as shown in FIG. 41.

Recombinants were selected for chloramphenicol resistance and streak purified. Loss of the mdh gene and insertion of CAT was verified by diagnostic PCR. To remove the CAT gene, a temperature sensitive plasmid pCP20 containing a FLP recombinase (Datsenko and Wanner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6640-6645 (2000)) was transformed into the cell at 30° C. and selected for ampicillin resistance (AMP). Transformants were grown nonselectively at 42° C. overnight to thermally induce FLP synthesis and to cause lose of the plasmid. The culture was then streak purified, and individual colonies were tested for loss of all antibiotic resistances. The majority lost the FRT-flanked resistance gene and the FLP helper plasmid simultaneously. There was also a “FRT” scar leftover. The resulting strain was named ECKh-172.

CS and ACONT are not highly active or highly expressed under anaerobic conditions. To this end, the arcA gene, which encodes for a global regulator of the TCA cycle, was deleted. ArcA works during microaerobic conditions to induce the expression of gene products that allow the activity of central metabolism enzymes that are sensitive to low oxygen levels, aceE, pflB and adhE. It was shown that microaerobically, a deletion in arcA/arcB increases the specific activities of ldh, icd, gltA, mdh, and gdh genes (Salmon et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:15084-15096 (2005); Shalel-Levanon et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 92(2):147-159 (2005). The upstream and downstream regions of the arcA gene of E. coli MG1655 were amplified by PCR using primers ArcA-up-EcoRI (5′-ataataatagaattcgtttgctacctaaattgccaactaaatcgaaacagg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:33) with ArcA-up-KpnI (5′-tattattatggtaccaatatcatgcagcaaacggtgcaacattgccg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:34) and ArcA-down-EcoRI (5′-tgatctggaagaattcatcggctttaccaccgtcaaaaaaaacggcg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:35) with ArcA-down-PstI (5′-ataaaaccctgcagcggaaacgaagttttatccatttttggttacctg-3′) (SEQ ID NO:36), respectively. These fragments were subsequently digested with the restriction enzymes EcoRI and KpnI (upstream fragment) and EcoRI and PstI (downstream). They were then ligated into the pRE118-V2 plasmid digested with PstI and KpnI, leading to plasmid pRE118-ΔarcA. The sequence of plasmid pRE118-ΔarcA was verified. pRE118-ΔarcA was introduced into electro-competent cells of E. coli strain ECKh-172 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh). After integration and resolution on LB-no salt-sucrose plates as described above, the deletion of the arcA gene in the chromosome of the resulting strain ECKh-401 was verified by sequencing and is shown in FIG. 42.

The gltA gene of E. coli encodes for a citrate synthase. It was previously shown that this gene is inhibited allosterically by NADH, and the amino acids involved in this inhibition have been identified (Pereira et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269(1):412-417 (1994); Stokell et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278(37):35435-35443 (2003)). The gltA gene of E. coli MG1655 was amplified by PCR using primers gltA-up (5′-ggaagagaggctggtacccagaagccacagcagga-3′) (SEQ ID NO:37) and gltA-PstI (5′-gtaatcactgcgtaagcgccatgccccggcgttaattc-3′) (SEQ ID NO:38). The amplified fragment was cloned into pRE118-V2 after digestion with KpnI and PstI. The resulting plasmid was called pRE118-gltA. This plasmid was then subjected to site directed mutagensis (SDM) using primers R163L-f (5′-attgccgcgttcctcctgctgtcga-3′) (SEQ ID NO:39) and R163L-r (5′-cgacagcaggaggaacgcggcaat-3′) (SEQ ID NO:40) to change the residue Arg 163 to a Lys residue. The sequence of the entire fragment was verified by sequencing. A variation of the λ red homologeous recombination method (Datsenko and Wanner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6640-6645 (2000)) was used to replace the native gltA gene with the R163L mutant allele without leaving a Frt scar. The general recombination procedure is the same as used to make the mdh deletion described above. First, the strain ECKh-172 was made streptomycin resistant by introducing an rpsL null mutation using the λ red homologeous recombination method. Next, a recombination was done to replace the entire wild-type gltA coding region in this strain with a cassette comprised of a kanamycin resistance gene (kanR) and a wild-type copy of the E. coli rpsL gene. When introduced into an E. coli strain harboring an rpsL null mutation, the cassette causes the cells to change from resistance to the drug streptomycin to streptomycin sensitivity. DNA fragments were then introduced that included each of the mutant versions of the gltA gene along with appropriate homologous ends, and resulting colony growth was tested in the presence of streptomycin. This selected for strains in which the kanR/rpsL cassette had been replaced by the mutant gltA gene. Insertion of the mutant gene in the correct locus was confirmed by PCR and DNA sequencing analyses. The resulting strain was called ECKh-422, and has the genotype ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L. The region encompassing the mutated gltA gene of strain ECKh-422 was verified by sequencing, as shown in FIG. 43.

Crude extracts of the strains ECKh-401 and the gltAR163L mutant ECKh-422 were then evaluated for citrate synthase activity. Cells were harvested by centrifugation at 4,500 rpm (Beckman-Coulter, Allegera X-15R; Fullerton Calif.) for 10 min. The pellets were resuspended in 0.3 mL BugBuster (Novagen/EMD; San Diego Calif.) reagent with benzonase and lysozyme, and lysis proceeded for 15 minutes at room temperature with gentle shaking Cell-free lysate was obtained by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm (Eppendorf centrifuge 5402; Hamburg Germany) for 30 min at 4° C. Cell protein in the sample was determined using the method of Bradford (Bradford, Anal. Biochem. 72:248-254 (1976)).

Citrate synthase activity was determined by following the formation of free coenzyme A (HS-CoA), which is released from the reaction of acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate. The free thiol group of HS-CoA reacts with 5,5′-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) to form 5-thio-2-nitrobenzoic acid (TNB). The concentration of TNB is then monitored spectrophotometrically by measuring the absorbance at 410 nm (maximum at 412 nm). The assay mixture contained 100 mM Tris/HCl buffer (pH 7.5), 20 mM acetyl-CoA, 10 mM DTNB, and 20 mM oxaloacetate. For the evaluation of NADH inhibition, 0.4 mM NADH was also added to the reaction. The assay was started by adding 5 microliters of the cell extract, and the rate of reaction was measured by following the absorbance change over time. A unit of specific activity is defined as the μmol of product converted per minute per mg protein.

FIG. 44 shows the citrate synthase activity of wild type gltA gene product and the R163L mutant. The assay was performed in the absence or presence of 0.4 mM NADH.

Strains ECKh-401 and ECKh-422 were transformed with plasmids expressing the entire BDO pathway. E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, and M. bovis sucA were expressed on the low copy plasmid pZS*13, and P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. acetobutylicum AdhE2 were expressed on the medium copy plasmid pZE23. Cultures of these strains were grown microaerobically in M9 minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose and the appropriate antibiotics as described above. The 4HB and BDO concentrations at 48 hours post-induction averaged from duplicate cultures are shown in FIG. 45. Both are higher in ECKh-422 than in ECKh-401, demonstrating that the enhanced citrate synthase activity due to the gltA mutation results in increased flux to the BDO pathway.

The host strain modifications described in this section were intended to redirect carbon flux through the oxidative TCA cycle, which is consistent with the OptKnock strain design described in WO 2009/023493 and U.S. publication 2009/0047719. To demonstrate that flux was indeed routed through this pathway, ¹³C flux analysis was performed using the strain ECKh-432, which is a version of ECKh-422 in which the upstream pathway is integrated into the chromosome (as described in Example XVII). To complete the BDO pathway, P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald were expressed from pZS*13. Four parallel cultures were grown in M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na₂HPO₄, 3.0 g/L KH₂PO₄, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH₄C1, 1 mM MgSO₄, 0.1 mM CaCl₂) containing 4 g/L total glucose of four different labeling ratios (^1-13C, only the first carbon atom in the glucose molecule is labeled with ¹³C; uniform-¹³C, all carbon atoms are ¹³C):

1. 80 mol % unlabeled, 20 mol % uniform-¹³C

2. 10 mol % unlabeled, 90 mol % uniform-¹³C

3. 90 mol % ^1-13C, 10 mol % uniform-¹³C

4. 40 mol % ^1-13C, 60 mol % uniform-¹³C

Parallel unlabeled cultures were grown in duplicate, from which frequent samples were taken to evaluate growth rate, glucose uptake rate, and product formation rates. In late exponential phase, the labeled cultures were harvested, the protein isolated and hydrolyzed to amino acids, and the label distribution of the amino acids analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) as described previously (Fischer and Sauer, Eur. J. Biochem. 270:880-891 (2003)). In addition, the label distribution of the secreted 4HB and BDO in the broth from the labeled cultures was analyzed by GCMS as described in WO2008115840. This data was collectively used to calculate the intracellular flux distribution using established methods (Suthers et al., Metab. Eng. 9:387-405 (2007)). The resulting central metabolic fluxes and associated 95% confidence intervals are shown in FIG. 46. Values are molar fluxes normalized to a glucose uptake rate of 1 mmol/hr. The result indicates that carbon flux is routed through citrate synthase in the oxidative direction, and that most of the carbon enters the BDO pathway rather than completing the TCA cycle. Furthermore, it confirms there is essentially no flux between malate and oxaloacetate due to the mdh deletion in this strain.

The advantage of using a knockout strain such as strains designed using OptKnock for BDO production (see WO 2009/023493 and U.S. publication 2009/0047719) can be observed by comparing typical fermentation profiles of ECKh-422 with that of the original strain ECKh-138, in which BDO is produced from succinate via the reductive TCA cycle (see FIG. 47). Fermentations were performed with 1 L initial culture volume in 2 L Biostat B+ bioreactors (Sartorius; Cedex France) using M9 minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose. The temperature was controlled at 37° C., and the pH was controlled at 7.0 using 2 M NH₄OH or Na₂CO₃. Cells were grown aerobically to an OD600 of approximately 10, at which time the cultures were induced with 0.2 mM IPTG. One hour following induction, the air flow rate was reduced to 0.02 standard liters per minute for microaerobic conditions. The agitation rate was set at 700 rpm. Concentrated glucose was fed to maintain glucose concentration in the vessel between 0.5 and 10 g/L. Both strains were transformed with plasmids bearing the entire BDO pathway, as in the examples above. In ECKh-138, acetate, pyruvate, and 4HB dominate the fermentation, while with ECKh-422 BDO is the major product.

Example XVI

BDO Strains Expression Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase

This example describes the utilization of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) to enhance BDO production. The Haemophilus influenza PEPCK gene was used for heterologous expression.

Computationally, it was demonstrated that the ATP-generating conversion of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate is required to reach the maximum theoretical yield of 1,4-butanediol (see also WO2008/115840, WO 2009/023493, U.S. publication 2009/0047719, U.S. publication 2009/0075351). Lack of PEPCK activity was shown to reduce the maximum theoretical yield of BDO by 12% assuming anaerobic conditions and by 3% assuming an external electron acceptor such as nitrate or oxygen is present.

In organisms such as E. coli, PEPCK operates in the gluconeogenic and ATP-consuming direction from oxaloacetate towards phosphoenolpyruvate. It has been hypothesized that kinetic limitations of PEPCK of E. coli prevent it from effectively catalyzing the formation of oxaloacetate from PEP. PEP carboxylase (PPC), which does not generate ATP but is required for efficient growth, is naturally utilized by E. coli to form oxaloacetate from phosphoenolpyruvate. Therefore, three non native PEPCK enzymes (Table 25) were tested for their ability to complement growth of a PPC mutant strain of E. coli in glucose minimal media.

TABLE 25
Sources of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase sequences.
                              Accession Number,
PEPCK Source Strain           GenBank Reference Sequence
Haemophilus influenza         NC_000907.1
Actinobacillus succinogenes   YP_001343536.1
Mannheimia succiniciproducens YP_089485.1

Growth complementation studies involved plasmid based expression of the candidate genes in Δppc mutant E. coli JW3978 obtained from the Keio collection (Baba et al., Molecular Systems Biology 2:2006.0008 (2006)). The genes were cloned behind the PA1lacO-1 promoter in the expression vectors pZA23 (medium copy) and pZE13 (high copy). These plasmids have been described previously (Lutz and Bujard, Nucleic Acids Res. 25:1203-1210 (1997)), and their use in expression BDO pathway genes has been described previously in WO2008115840.

Pre-cultures were grown aerobically in M9 minimal media with 4 g/L glucose. All pre-cultures were supplemented with aspartate (2 mM) to provide the Δppc mutants with a source for generating TCA cycle intermediates independent of PEPCK expression. M9 minimal media was also used in the test conditions with 4 g/L glucose, but no aspartate was added and IPTG was added to 0.5 mM. Table 26 shows the results of the growth complementation studies.

TABLE 26
Complementation of Δppc mutants with PEPCK from
H. influenzae, A. succinogenes and M. succinoproducens
when expressed from vectors pZA23 or pZE13.
	PEPCK Source Strain	Vector	Time (h)	OD600
	H. influenzae	pZA23BB	40	0.950
	Δppc Control	pZA23BB	40	0.038
	A. succinogenes	pZA23BB	40	0.055
	M. succinoproducens	pZA23BB	40	0.214
	A. succinogenes	pZE13BB	40	0.041
	M. succinoproducens	pZE13BB	40	0.024
	Δppc Control	pZE13BB	40	0.042

Haemophilus influenza PEPCK was found to complement growth in Δppc mutant E. coli best among the genes that were tested in the plasmid based screening. This gene was then integrated into the PPC locus of wild-type E. coli (MG1655) using the SacB counter selection method with pRE118-V2 discussed above (Gay et al., J. Bacteriol. 153:1424-1431 (1983)). PEPCK was integrated retaining the E. coli native PPC promoter, but utilizing the non-native PEPCK terminator. The sequence of this region following replacement of ppc by H. influenzae pepck is shown in FIG. 48. The pepck coding region is underlined.

Techniques for adaptive evolution were applied to improve the growth rate of the E. coli mutant (Δppc::H. inf pepCK). M9 minimal media with 4 g/L glucose and 50 mM sodium bicarbonate was used to culture and evolve this strain in an anaerobic environment. The high sodium bicarbonate concentration was used to drive the equilibrium of the PEPCK reaction toward oxaloacetate formation. To maintain exponential growth, the culture was diluted 2-fold whenever an OD600 of 0.5 was achieved. After about 100 generations over 3 weeks of adaptive evolution, anaerobic growth rates improved from about 8 h to that of wild type, about 2 h. Following evolution, individual colonies were isolated, and growth in anaerobic bottles was compared to that of the initial mutant and wild-type strain (see FIG. 49). M9 medium with 4 g/L glucose and 50 mM sodium bicarbonate was used.

The ppc/pepck gene replacement procedure described above was then repeated, this time using the BDO-producing strains ECKh-432 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L ΔackA fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd) and ECKh-439 as the hosts. These strains contain the TCA cycle enhancements discussed above as well as the upstream pathway integrated in the chromosome. ECKh-439 is a derivative of ECKh-432 that has the ackA gene deleted, which encodes acetate kinase. This deletion was performed using the sacB counterselection method described above.

The Δppc::H. inf pepCK derivative of ECKh-439, called ECKh-453, was run in a fermentation. The downstream BDO pathway was supplied by pZS*13 containing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald. This was performed with 1 L initial culture volume in 2 L Biostat B+ bioreactors (Sartorius) using M9 minimal medium supplemented with 20 g/L glucose and 50 mM NaHCO₃. The temperature was controlled at 37° C., and the pH was controlled at 7.0 using 2 M NH₄OH or Na₂CO₃. Cells were grown aerobically to an OD600 of approximately 2, at which time the cultures were induced with 0.2 mM IPTG. One hour following induction, the air flow rate was reduced to 0.01 standard liters per minute for microaerobic conditions. The agitation rate was initially set at 700 rpm. The aeration rate was gradually increased throughout the fermentation as the culture density increased. Concentrated glucose solution was fed to maintain glucose concentration in the vessel between 0.5 and 10 g/L. The product profile is shown in FIG. 50. The observed phenotype, in which BDO and acetate are produced in approximately a one-to-one molar ratio, is highly similar to that predicted in WO 2009/023493 for design #439 (ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi). The deletion targeting the ASPT reaction was deemed unnecessary as the natural flux through aspartate ammonia-lyase is low.

A key feature of OptKnock strains is that production of the metabolite of interest is generally coupled to growth, and further, that, production should occur during exponential growth as well as in stationary phase. The growth coupling potential of ECKh-432 and ECKh-453 was evaluated by growth in microaerobic bottles with frequent sampling during the exponential phase. M9 medium containing 4 g/L glucose and either 10 mM NaHCO₃ (for ECKh-432) or 50 mM NaHCO₃ (for ECKh-453) was used, and 0.2 mM IPTG was included from inoculation. 18 G needles were used for microaerobic growth of ECKh-432, while both 18 G and 27 G needles were tested for ECKh-453. The higher gauge needles result in less aeration. As shown in FIG. 51, ECKh-432 does not begin producing BDO until 5 g/L glucose has been consumed, corresponding to the onset of stationary phase. ECKh-453 produces BDO more evenly throughout the experiment. In addition, growth coupling improves as the aeration of the culture is reduced.

Example XVII

Integration of BDO Pathway Encoding Genes at Specific Integration Sites

This example describes integration of various BDO pathway genes into the fimD locus to provide more efficient expression and stability.

The entire upstream BDO pathway, leading to 4HB, has been integrated into the E. coli chromosome at the fimD locus. The succinate branch of the upstream pathway was integrated into the E. coli chromosome using the λ red homologeous recombination method (Datsenko and Wanner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6640-6645 (2000)). The recipient E. coli strain was ECKh-422 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L). A polycistronic DNA fragment containing a promoter, the sucCD gene, the sucD gene and the 4hbd gene and a terminator sequence was inserted into the AflIII site of the pKD3 plasmid. The following primers were used to amplify the operon together with the chloramphenicol marker from the plasmid. The underlined sequences are homologeous to the target insertion site.

(SEQ ID NO: 41)
5′-GTTTGCACGCTATAGCTGAGGTTGTTGTCTTCCAGCAACGTACCGTA
TACAATAGGCGTATCACGAGGCCCTTTC-3′
(SEQ ID NO: 42)
5′-GCTACAGCATGTCACACGATCTCAACGGTCGGATGACCAATCTGGCT
GGTATGGGAATTAGCCATGGTCC-3′

Following DpnI treatment and DNA electrophoresis, the purified PCR product was used to transform E. coli strain harboring plasmid pKD46. The candidate strain was selected on plates containing chloramphenicol. Genomic DNA of the candidate strain was purified. The insertion sequence was amplified and confirmed by DNA sequencing. The chloramphenicol-resistant marker was removed from chromosome by flipase. The nucleotide sequence of the region after insertion and marker removal is shown in FIG. 52.

The alpha-ketoglutarate branch of the upstream pathway was integrated into the chromosome by homologeous recombination. The plasmid used in this modification was derived from vector pRE118-V2, as referenced in Example XIV, which contains a kanamycin-resistant gene, a gene encoding the levansucrase (sacB) and a R6K conditional replication ori. The integration plasmid also contained a polycistronic sequence with a promoter, the sucA gene, the C. kluyveri 4hbd gene, and a terminator being inserted between two 1.5-kb DNA fragments that are homologeous to the flanking regions of the target insertion site. The resulting plasmid was used to transform E. coli strain. The integration candidate was selected on plates containing kanamycin. The correct integration site was verified by PCR. To resolve the antibiotic marker from the chromosome, the cells were selected for growth on medium containing sucrose. The final strain was verified by PCR and DNA sequencing. The nucleotide sequence of the chromosomal region after insertion and marker removal is shown in FIG. 53.

The resulting upstream pathway integration strain ECKh-432 was transformed with a plasmid harboring the downstream pathway genes. The construct was able to produce BDO from glucose in minimal medium (see FIG. 54).

Example XVIII

Use of a Non-Phosphotransferase Sucrose Uptake System to Reduce Pyruvate Byproduct Formation

This example describes the utilization of a non-phosphotransferase (PTS) sucrose uptake system to reduce pyruvate as a byproduct in the conversion of sucrose to BDO.

Strains engineered for the utilization of sucrose via a phosphotransferase (PTS) system produce significant amounts of pyruvate as a byproduct. Therefore, the use of a non-PTS sucrose system can be used to decrease pyruvate formation because the import of sucrose would not be accompanied by the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate. This will increase the PEP pool and the flux to oxaloacetate through PPC or PEPCK.

Insertion of a non-PTS sucrose operon into the rrnC region was performed. To generate a PCR product containing the non-PTS sucrose genes flanked by regions of homology to the rrnC region, two oligos were used to PCR amplify the csc genes from Mach1™ (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). This strain is a descendent of W strain which is an E. coli strain known to be able to catabolize sucrose (Orencio-Trejo et al., Biotechnology Biofuels 1:8 (2008)). The sequence was derived from E. coli W strain KO11 (accession AY314757) (Shukla et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 26:689-693 (2004)) and includes genes encoding a sucrose permease (cscB), D-fructokinase (cscK), sucrose hydrolase (cscA), and a LacI-related sucrose-specific repressor (cscR). The first 53 amino acids of cscR was effectively removed by the placement of the AS primer. The sequences of the oligos were: rrnC 23S del S-CSC 5′-TGT GAG TGA AAG TCA CCT GCC TTA ATA TCT CAA AAC TCA TCT TCG GGT GAC GAA ATA TGG CGT GAC TCG ATA C-3′ (SEQ ID NO:43) and rrnC 23S del AS-CSC 5′-TCT GTA TCA GGC TGA AAA TCT TCT CTC ATC CGC CAA AAC AGC TTC GGC GTT AAG ATG CGC GCT CAA GGA C-3′ (SEQ ID NO:44). Underlined regions indicate homology to the csc operon, and bold sequence refers to sequence homology upstream and downstream of the rrnC region. The sequence of the entire PCR product is shown in FIG. 55.

After purification, the PCR product was electroporated into MG1655 electrocompetent cells which had been transformed with pRedET (tet) and prepared according to manufacturer's instructions (genebridges.com/gb/pdf/K001%20Q%20E%20BAC%20Modification%20Kit-version2.6-2007-screen.pdf). The PCR product was designed so that it integrated into genome into the rrnC region of the chromosome. It effectively deleted 191 nucleotides upstream of rrlC (23S rRNA), all of the rrlC rRNA gene and 3 nucleotides downstream of rrlC and replaced it with the sucrose operon, as shown in FIG. 56.

Transformants were grown on M9 minimal salts medium with 0.4% sucrose and individual colonies tested for presence of the sucrose operon by diagnostic PCR. The entire rrnC::crcAKB region was transferred into the BDO host strain ECKh-432 by P1 transduction (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Third Ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York (2001), resulting in ECKh-463 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd rrnC::cscAKB). Recombinants were selected by growth on sucrose and verified by diagnostic PCR.

ECKh-463 was transformed with pZS*13 containing P. gingivalis Cat2 and C. beijerinckii Ald to provide a complete BDO pathway. Cells were cultured in M9 minimal medium (6.78 g/L Na₂HPO₄, 3.0 g/L KH₂PO₄, 0.5 g/L NaCl, 1.0 g/L NH₄Cl, 1 mM MgSO₄, 0.1 mM CaCl₂) supplemented with 10 g/L sucrose. 0.2 mM IPTG was present in the culture from the start. Anaerobic conditions were maintained using a bottle with 23 G needle. As a control, ECKh-432 containing the same plasmid was cultured on the same medium, except with 10 g/L glucose instead of sucrose. FIG. 57 shows average product concentration, normalized to culture OD600, after 48 hours of growth. The data is for 6 replicate cultures of each strain. This demonstrates that BDO production from ECKh-463 on sucrose is similar to that of the parent strain on sucrose.

Example XIX

Summary of BDO Producing Strains

This example describes various BDO producing strains.

Table 27 summarizes various BDO producing strains disclosed above in Examples XII-XVIII.

TABLE 27
Summary of various BDO production strains.
Strain #	Host Strain #	Host chromosome	Host Description	Plasmid-based
1		ΔldhA	Single deletion	E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
			derivative of E. coli	sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
			MG1655	P. gingivalis Cat2,
				C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
2	AB3	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Succinate producing	E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
			strain; derivative of	sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
			E. coli MG1655	P. gingivalis Cat2,
				C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
3	ECKh-138	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Improvement of	E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322	lpdA to increase	sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
			pyruvate	P. gingivalis Cat2,
			dehydrogenase flux	C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
4	ECKh-138	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322		sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
				C. acetobutylicum buk1,
				C. acetobutylicum ptb,
				C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
5	ECKh-401	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Deletions in mdh and	E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	arcA to direct flux	sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
			through oxidative	P. gingivalis Cat2,
			TCA cycle	C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
6	ECKh-401	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA		P. gingivalis sucD,
				P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis
				Cat2, C. acetobutylicum
				AdhE2
7	ECKh-422	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Mutation in citrate	E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	synthase to improve	sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd,
		gltAR163L	anaerobic activity	P. gingivalis Cat2,
				C. acetobutylicum AdhE2
8	ECKh-422	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA		P. gingivalis sucD,
		gltAR163L		P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis
				Cat2, C. acetobutylicum
				AdhE2
9	ECKh-422	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA		P. gingivalis sucD,
		gltAR163L		P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis
				Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald
10	ECKh-426	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Succinate branch of	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	upstream pathway	C. beijerinckii Ald
		gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli sucCD,	integrated into
		P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd	ECKh-422
11	ECKh-432	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Succinate and alpha-	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	ketoglutarate	C. beijerinckii Ald
		gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli sucCD,	upstream pathway
		P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd	branches integrated
		fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri	into ECKh-422
		4hbd
12	ECKh-432	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		C. acetobutylicum buk1,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA		C. acetobutylicum ptb,
		gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli sucCD,		C. beijerinckii Ald
		P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd
		fimD:: M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri
		4hbd
13	ECKh-439	ΔadhE ΔvldhA ΔpflB	Acetate kinase	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	deletion of ECKh-	C. beijerinckii Ald
		gltAR163L ΔackA fimD:: E. coli	432
		sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD,
		P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA,
		C. kluyveri 4hbd
14	ECKh-453	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Acetate kinase	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA	deletion and	C. beijerinckii Ald
		gltAR163L ΔackA Δppc::H.i.ppck	PPC/PEPCK
		fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis	replacement of
		sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD::	ECKh-432
		M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd
15	ECKh-456	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::fnr-pflB6-	Replacement of lpdA	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L	promoter with	C. beijerinckii Ald
		fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis	anaerobic promoter
		sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD::	in ECKh-432
		M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd
16	ECKh-455	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::	Replacement of	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		K.p.lpdA322 ΔpdhR:: fnr-pflB6 Δmdh	pdhR and aceEF	C. beijerinckii Ald
		ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli	promoter with
		sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD,	anaerobic promoter
		P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis sucA,	in ECKh-432
		C. kluyveri 4hbd
17	ECKh-459	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::	Integration of	C. beijerinckii Ald
		K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L	BK/PTB into ECKh-
		fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis	432
		sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD::
		M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd fimD::
		C. acetobutylicum buk1,
		C. acetobutylicum ptb
18	ECKh-459	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::		C. beijerinckii Ald,
		K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L		G. thermoglucosidasius adh1
		fimD:: E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis
		sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD::
		M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd fimD::
		C. acetobutylicum buk1,
		C. acetobutylicum ptb
19	ECKh-463	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB	Non-PTS sucrose	P. gingivalis Cat2,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh	genes inserted into	C. beijerinckii Ald
		ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli	ECKh-432
		sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD,
		P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis
		sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd
		rrnC::cscAKB
20	ECKh-463	ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB		C. acetobutylicum buk1,
		ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh		C. acetobutylicum ptb,
		ΔarcA gltAR163L fimD:: E. coli		C. beijerinckii Ald
		sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD,
		P. gingivalis 4hbd fimD:: M. bovis
		sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd
		rrnC::cscAKB

The strains summarized in Table 27 are as follows. Strain 1: Single deletion derivative of E. coli MG1655, with deletion of endogenous ldhA; plasmid expression of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2. Strain 2: Host strain AB3, a succinate producing strain, derivative of E. coli MG1655, with deletions of endogenous adhE ldhA pflB; plasmid expression of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2.

Strain 3: Host strain ECKh-138, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus; plasmid expression of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2; strain provides improvement of lpdA to increase pyruvate dehydrogenase flux. Strain 4: Host strain ECKh-138, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, and lpdA, chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation; plasmid expression E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2.

Strain 5: Host strain ECKh-401, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA; plasmid expression of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2; strain has deletions in mdh and arcA to direct flux through oxidative TCA cycle. Strain 6: host strain ECKh-401, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA; plasmid expression of M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2.

Strain 7: Host strain ECKh-422, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant; plasmid expression of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2; strain has mutation in citrate synthase to improve anaerobic activity. Strain 8: strain ECKh-422, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant; plasmid expression of M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. acetobutylicum AdhE2. Strain 9: host strain ECKh-422, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant; plasmid expression of M. bovis sucA, E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald.

Strain 10: host strain ECKh-426, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has succinate branch of upstream pathway integrated into strain ECKh-422 at the fimD locus. Strain 11: host strain ECKh-432, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has succinate and alpha-ketoglutarate upstream pathway branches integrated into ECKh-422. Strain 12: host strain ECKh-432, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd; plasmid expression of C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb, C. beijerinckii Ald.

Strain 13: host strain ECKh-439, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, deletion of endogenous ackA, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has acetate kinase deletion in strain ECKh-432. Strain 14: host strain ECKh-453, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, deletion of endogenous ackA, deletion of endogenous ppc and insertion of Haemophilus influenza ppck at the ppc locus, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has acetate kinase deletion and PPC/PEPCK replacement in strain ECKh-432.

Strain 15: host strain ECKh-456, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd, replacement of lpdA promoter with fnr binding site, pflB-p6 promoter and RBS of pflB; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has replacement of lpdA promoter with anaerobic promoter in strain ECKh-432. Strain 16: host strain ECKh-455, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbdI, replacement of pdhR and aceEF promoter with fnr binding site, pflB-p6 promoter and RBS of pflB; plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has replacement of pdhR and aceEF promoter with anaerobic promoter in ECKh-432.

Strain 17: host strain ECKh-459, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb; plasmid expression of C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has integration of BK/PTB into strain ECKh-432. Strain 18: host strain ECKh-459, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb; plasmid expression of C. beijerinckii Ald, G. thermoglucosidasius adh1.

Strain 19: host strain ECKh-463, deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd, insertion at the rrnC locus of non-PTS sucrose operon genes sucrose permease (cscB), D-fructokinase (cscK), sucrose hydrolase (cscA), and a LacI-related sucrose-specific repressor (cscR); plasmid expression of P. gingivalis Cat2, C. beijerinckii Ald; strain has non-PTS sucrose genes inserted into strain ECKh-432. Strain 20: host strain ECKh-463 deletion of endogenous adhE, ldhA, pflB, deletion of endogenous lpdA and chromosomal insertion of Klebsiella pneumoniae lpdA with a Glu354Lys mutation at the lpdA locus, deletion of endogenous mdh and arcA, chromosomal replacement of gltA with gltA Arg163Leu mutant, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of E. coli sucCD, P. gingivalis sucD, P. gingivalis 4hbd, chromosomal insertion at the fimD locus of M. bovis sucA, C. kluyveri 4hbd, insertion at the rrnC locus of non-PTS sucrose operon; plasmid expression of C. acetobutylicum buk1, C. acetobutylicum ptb, C. beijerinckii Ald.

In addition to the BDO producing strains disclosed herein, including those disclosed in Table 27, it is understood that additional modifications can be incorporated that further increase production of BDO and/or decrease undesirable byproducts. For example, a BDO producing strain, or a strain of Table 27, can incorporate additional knockouts to further increase the production of BDO or decrease an undesirable byproduct. Exemplary knockouts have been described previously (see U.S. publication 2009/0047719). Such knockout strains include, but are not limited to, ADHEr, NADH6; ADHEr, PPCK; ADHEr, SUCD4; ADHEr, ATPS4r; ADHEr, FUM; ADHEr, MDH; ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK; ADHEr, PFLi, SUCD4; ADHEr, ACKr, NADH6; ADHEr, NADH6, PFLi; ADHEr, ASPT, MDH; ADHEr, NADH6, PPCK; ADHEr, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, PPCK; ADHEr, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, FUM, PFLi; ADHEr, PPCK, SUCD4; ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK; ADHEr, GLUDy, MDH; ADHEr, GLUDy, PPCK; ADHEr, FUM, PPCK; ADHEr, MDH, PPCK; ADHEr, FUM, GLUDy; ADHEr, FUM, HEX1; ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi; ADHEr, HEX1, THD2; ADHEr, FRD2, LDH_D, MDH; ADHEr, FRD2, LDH_D, ME2; ADHEr, MDH, PGL, THD2; ADHEr, G6PDHy, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, PFLi, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, ACKr, AKGD, ATPS4r; ADHEr, GLCpts, PFLi, PPCK; ADHEr, ACKr, ATPS4r, SUCOAS; ADHEr, GLUDy, PFLi, PPCK; ADHEr, ME2, PFLi, SUCD4; ADHEr, GLUDy, PFLi, SUCD4; ADHEr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, SUCD4; ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, PFLi; ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, NADH6; ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, NADH6; ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, SUCD4; ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLUDy, MDH; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PPCK; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, PPCK; ADHEr, ASPT, GLCpts, MDH; ADHEr, ASPT, GLUDy, MDH; ADHEr, ME2, SUCD4, THD2; ADHEr, FUM, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, MDH, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, GLUDy, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, HEX1, PFLi, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, G6PDHy, MDH; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL; ADHEr, ACKr, FRD2, LDH_D; ADHEr, ACKr, LDH_D, SUCD4; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, GLUDy; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FUM, HEX1; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD2, LDH_D; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGDH; ADHEr, GLCpts, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, GLUDy, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, FUM, HEX1, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, ME2, THD2; ADHEr, FUM, ME2, THD2; ADHEr, GLCpts, GLUDy, PPCK; ADHEr, ME2, PGL, THD2; ADHEr, G6PDHy, ME2, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD2, LDH_D, ME2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, FRD2, LDH_D, MDH; ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, PFLi; ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, NADH6, PFLi; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, NADH6, PGL; ADHEr, ATPS4r, G6PDHy, MDH, NADH6; ADHEr, ACKr, FUM, GLUDy, LDH_D; ADHEr, ACKr, GLUDy, LDH_D, SUCD4; ADHEr, ATPS4r, G6PDHy, MDH, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, MDH, PGL, THD2; ADHEr, ASPT, G6PDHy, MDH, PYK; ADHEr, ASPT, MDH, PGL, PYK; ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MDH, SUCOAS; ADHEr, ASPT, FUM, LDH_D, MDH; ADHEr, ASPT, LDH_D, MALS, MDH; ADHEr, ASPT, ICL, LDH_D, MDH; ADHEr, FRD2, GLUDy, LDH_D, PPCK; ADHEr, FRD2, LDH_D, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, ACKr, ATPS4r, LDH_D, SUCD4; ADHEr, ACKr, ACS, PPC, PPCK; ADHEr, GLUDy, LDH_D, PPC, PPCK; ADHEr, LDH_D, PPC, PPCK, THD2; ADHEr, ASPT, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH; ADHEr, G6PDHy, MDH, NADH6, THD2; ADHEr, MDH, NADH6, PGL, THD2; ADHEr, ATPS4r, G6PDHy, GLCpts, MDH; ADHEr, ATPS4r, GLCpts, MDH, PGL; ADHEr, ACKr, LDH_D, MDH, SUCD4.

Table 28 shows the reactions of corresponding genes to be knocked out of a host organism such as E. coli. The corresponding metabolite corresponding to abbreviations in Table 28 are shown in Table 29.

TABLE 28
Corresponding genes to be knocked out to prevent a particular reaction from occurring in E. coli.
Reaction		Genes Encoding the Enzyme(s)
Abbreviation	Reaction Stoichiometry*	Catalyzing Each Reaction&
ACKr	[c]: ac + atp <==> actp + adp	(b3115 or b2296 or
		b1849)
ACS	[c]: ac + atp + coa --> accoa + amp + ppi	b4069
ACt6	ac[p] + h[p] <==> ac[c] + h[c]	Non-gene associated
ADHEr	[c]: etoh + nad <==> acald + h + nadh	(b0356 or b1478 or
	[c]: acald + coa + nad <==> accoa + h + nadh	b1241)
		(b1241 or b0351)
AKGD	[c]: akg + coa + nad --> co2 + nadh + succoa	(b0116 and b0726
		and b0727)
ASNS2	[c]: asp-L + atp + nh4 --> amp + asn-L + h + ppi	b3744
ASPT	[c]: asp-L --> fum + nh4	b4139
ATPS4r	adp[c] + (4) h[p] + pi[c] <==> atp[c] + (3) h[c] + h2o[c]	(((b3736 and b3737
		and b3738) and
		(b3731 and b3732
		and b3733 and b3734
		and b3735)) or
		((b3736 and b3737
		and b3738) and
		(b3731 and b3732
		and b3733 and
		b3734 and b3735)
		and b3739))
CBMK2	[c]: atp + co2 + nh4 <==> adp + cbp + (2) h	(b0521 or b0323 or
		b2874)
EDA	[c]: 2ddg6p --> g3p + pyr	b1850
ENO	[c]: 2pg <==> h2o + pep	b2779
FBA	[c]: fdp <==> dhap + g3p	(b2097 or b2925 or
		b1773)
FBP	[c]: fdp + h2o --> f6p + pi	(b4232 or b3925)
FDH2	for[p] + (2) h[c] + q8[c] --> co2[c] + h[p] + q8h2[c]	((b3892 and b3893
	for[p] + (2) h[c] + mqn8[c] --> co2[c] + h[p] + mql8[c]	and b3894) or (b1474
		and b1475 and b1476))
FRD2	[c]: fum + mql8 --> mqn8 + succ	(b4151 and b4152
	[c]: 2dmmql8 + fum --> 2dmmq8 + succ	and b4153 and
		b4154)
FTHFD	[c]: 10fthf + h2o --> for + h + thf	b1232
FUM	[c]: fum + h2o <==> mal-L	(b1612 or b4122 or
		b1611)
G5SD	[c]: glu5p + h + nadph --> glu5sa + nadp + pi	b0243
G6PDHy	[c]: g6p + nadp <==> 6pgl + h + nadph	b1852
GLCpts	glc-D[p] + pep[c] --> g6p[c] + pyr[c]	((b2417 and b1101
		and b2415 and
		b2416) or (b1817 and
		b1818 and b1819 and
		b2415 and b2416) or
		(b2417 and b1621
		and b2415 and
		b2416))
GLU5K	[c]: atp + glu-L --> adp + glu5p	b0242
GLUDy	[c]: glu-L + h2o + nadp <==> akg + h + nadph + nh4	b1761
GLYCL	[c]: gly + nad + thf --> co2 + mlthf + nadh + nh4	(b2904 and b2903
		and b2905 and
		b0116)
HEX1	[c]: atp + glc-D --> adp + g6p + h	b2388
ICL	[c]: icit --> glx + succ	b4015
LDH_D	[c]: lac-D + nad <==> h + nadh + pyr	(b2133 or b1380)
MALS	[c]: accoa + glx + h2o --> coa + h + mal-L	(b4014 or b2976)
MDH	[c]: mal-L + nad <==> h + nadh + oaa	b3236
ME2	[c]: mal-L + nadp --> co2 + nadph + pyr	b2463
MTHFC	[c]: h2o + methf <==> 10fthf + h	b0529
NADH12	[c]: h + mqn8 + nadh --> mql8 + nad	b1109
	[c]: h + nadh + q8 --> nad + q8h2
	[c]: 2dmmq8 + h + nadh --> 2dmmql8 + nad
NADH6	(4) h[c] + nadh[c] + q8[c] --> (3) h[p] + nad[c] + q8h2[c]	(b2276 and b2277
	(4) h[c] + mqn8[c] + nadh[c] --> (3) h[p] + mql8[c] +	and b2278 and b2279
	nad[c]	and b2280 and b2281
	2dmmq8[c] + (4) h[c] + nadh[c] --> 2dmmql8[c] + (3)	and b2282 and b2283
	h[p] + nad[c]	and b2284 and b2285
		and b2286 and b2287
		and b2288)
PFK	[c]: atp + f6p --> adp + fdp + h	(b3916 or b1723)
PFLi	[c]: coa + pyr --> accoa + for	(((b0902 and b0903)
		and b2579) or (b0902
		and b0903) or (b0902
		and b3114) or (b3951
		and b3952))
PGDH	[c]: 6pgc + nadp --> co2 + nadph + ru5p-D	b2029
PGI	[c]: g6p <==> f6p	b4025
PGL	[c]: 6pgl + h2o --> 6pgc + h	b0767
PGM	[c]: 2pg <==> 3pg	(b3612 or b4395 or
		b0755)
PPC	[c]: co2 + h2o + pep --> h + oaa + pi	b3956
PPCK	[c]: atp + oaa --> adp + co2 + pep	b3403
PRO1z	[c]: fad + pro-L --> 1pyr5c + fadh2 + h	b1014
PYK	[c]: adp + h + pep --> atp + pyr	b1854 or b1676)
PYRt2	h[p] + pyr[p] <==> h[c] + pyr[c]	Non-gene associated
RPE	[c]: ru5p-D <==> xu5p-D	(b4301 or b3386)
SO4t2	so4[e] <==> so4[p]	(b0241 or b0929 or
		b1377 or b2215)
SUCD4	[c]: q8 + succ --> fum + q8h2	(b0721 and b0722
		and b0723 and
		b0724)
SUCOAS	[c]: atp + coa + succ <==> adp + pi + succoa	(b0728 and b0729)
SULabc	atp[c] + h2o[c] + so4[p] --> adp[c] + h[c] + pi[c] +	((b2422 and b2425
	so4[c]	and b2424 and
		b2423) or (b0763 and
		b0764 and b0765) or
		(b2422 and b2424
		and b2423 and
		b3917))
TAL	[c]: g3p + s7p <==> e4p + f6p	(b2464 or b0008)
THD2	(2) h[p] + nadh[c] + nadp[c] --> (2) h[c] + nad[c] +	(b1602 and b1603)
	nadph[c]
THD5	[c]: nad + nadph --> nadh + nadp	(b3962 or (b1602 and
		b1603))
TPI	[c]: dhap <==> g3p	b3919

TABLE 29
Metabolite names corresponding to abbreviations used in Table 28.
Metabolite
Abbreviation Metabolite Name
10fthf       10-Formyltetrahydrofolate
1pyr5c       1-Pyrroline-5-carboxylate
2ddg6p       2-Dehydro-3-deoxy-D-gluconate 6-phosphate
2dmmq8       2-Demethylmenaquinone 8
2dmmql8      2-Demethylmenaquinol 8
2pg          D-Glycerate 2-phosphate
3pg          3-Phospho-D-glycerate
6pgc         6-Phospho-D-gluconate
6pgl         6-phospho-D-glucono-1,5-lactone
ac           Acetate
acald        Acetaldehyde
accoa        Acetyl-CoA
actp         Acetyl phosphate
adp          ADP
akg          2-Oxoglutarate
amp          AMP
asn-L        L-Asparagine
asp-L        L-Aspartate
atp          ATP
cbp          Carbamoyl phosphate
co2          CO2
coa          Coenzyme A
dhap         Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
e4p          D-Erythrose 4-phosphate
etoh         Ethanol
f6p          D-Fructose 6-phosphate
fad          Flavin adenine dinucleotide oxidized
fadh2        Flavin adenine dinucleotide reduced
fdp          D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
for          Formate
fum          Fumarate
g3p          Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
g6p          D-Glucose 6-phosphate
glc-D        D-Glucose
glu5p        L-Glutamate 5-phosphate
glu5sa       L-Glutamate 5-semialdehyde
glu-L        L-Glutamate
glx          Glyoxylate
gly          Glycine
h            H+
h2o          H2O
icit         Isocitrate
lac-D        D-Lactate
mal-L        L-Malate
methf        5,10-Methenyltetrahydrofolate
mlthf        5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate
mql8         Menaquinol 8
mqn8         Menaquinone 8
nad          Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
nadh         Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide - reduced
nadp         Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
nadph        Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate - reduced
nh4          Ammonium
oaa          Oxaloacetate
pep          Phosphoenolpyruvate
pi           Phosphate
ppi          Diphosphate
pro-L        L-Proline
pyr          Pyruvate
q8           Ubiquinone-8
q8h2         Ubiquinol-8
ru5p-D       D-Ribulose 5-phosphate
s7p          Sedoheptulose 7 -phosphate
so4          Sulfate
succ         Succinate
succoa       Succinyl-CoA
thf          5,6,7,8-Tetrahydrofolate
xu5p-D       D-Xylulose 5-phosphate

Example XX

Exemplary Pathways for Producing BDO

This example describes exemplary pathways to produce 4-hydroxybutanal (4-HBal) and/or BDO using a carboxylic acid reductase as a BDO pathway enzyme.

An exemplary pathway for production of BDO includes use of an NAD+ or NADP+ aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenase (E.C.: 1.2.1.29 and 1.2.1.30) to convert 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal and an alcohol dehydrogenase to convert 4-hydroxybutanal to 1,4-butanediol. 4-Hydroxybutyrate can be derived from the tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates succinyl-CoA and/or alpha-ketoglutarate as shown in FIG. 58.

Aryl-Aldehyde Dehydrogenase (or Carboxylic Acid Reductase).

An aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenase, or equivalently a carboxylic acid reductase, can be found in Nocardia iowensis. Carboxylic acid reductase catalyzes the magnesium, ATP and NADPH-dependent reduction of carboxylic acids to their corresponding aldehydes (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)) and is capable of catalyzing the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal. This enzyme, encoded by car, was cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). Expression of the npt gene product improved activity of the enzyme via post-transcriptional modification. The npt gene encodes a specific phosphopantetheine transferase (PPTase) that converts the inactive apo-enzyme to the active holo-enzyme. The natural substrate of this enzyme is vanillic acid, and the enzyme exhibits broad acceptance of aromatic and aliphatic substrates (Venkitasubramanian et al., in Biocatalysis in the Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Industires, ed. R. N. Patel, Chapter 15, pp. 425-440, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Fla. (2006)).

	Gene		GenBank
	name	GI No.	Accession No.	Organism
	car	40796035	AAR91681.1	Nocardia iowensis
				(sp. NRRL 5646)
	npt	114848891	ABI83656.1	Nocardia iowensis
				(sp. NRRL 5646)

Additional car and npt genes can be identified based on sequence homology.

Gene		GenBank
name	GI No.	Accession No.	Organism
fadD9	121638475	YP_978699.1	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
BCG_2812c	121638674	YP_978898.1	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
nfa20150	54023983	YP_118225.1	Nocardia farcinica IFM 10152
nfa40540	54026024	YP_120266.1	Nocardia farcinica IFM 10152
SGR_6790	182440583	YP_001828302.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp.
			griseus NBRC 13350
SGR_665	182434458	YP_001822177.1	Streptomyces griseuss subsp.
			griseus NBRC 13350
MSMEG_2956	YP_887275.1	YP_887275.1	Mycobacterium smegmatis
			MC2 155
MSMEG_5739	YP_889972.1	118469671	Mycobacterium smegmatis
			MC2 155
MSMEG_2648	YP_886985.1	118471293	Mycobacterium smegmatis
			MC2 155
MAP1040c	NP_959974.1	41407138	Mycobacterium avium subsp.
			paratuberculosis K-10
MAP2899c	NP_961833.1	41408997	Mycobacterium avium subsp.
			paratuberculosis K-10
MMAR_2117	YP_001850422.1	183982131	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_2936	YP_001851230.1	183982939	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_1916	YP_001850220.1	183981929	Mycobacterium marinum M
TpauDRAFT_33060	ZP_04027864.1	227980601	Tsukamurella paurometabola
			DSM 20162
TpauDRAFT_20920	ZP_04026660.1	ZP_04026660.1	Tsukamurella paurometabola
			DSM 20162
CPCC7001_1320	ZP_05045132.1	254431429	Cyanobium PCC7001
DDBDRAFT_0187729	XP_636931.1	66806417	Dictyostelium discoideum AX4

An additional enzyme candidate found in Streptomyces griseus is encoded by the griC and griD genes. This enzyme is believed to convert 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid to 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde as deletion of either griC or griD led to accumulation of extracellular 3-acetylamino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, a shunt product of 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid metabolism (Suzuki, et al., J. Antibiot. 60(6):380-387 (2007)). Co-expression of griC and griD with SGR_—665, an enzyme similar in sequence to the Nocardia iowensis npt, can be beneficial.

Gene		GenBank
name	GI No.	Accession No.	Organism
griC	182438036	YP_001825755.1	Streptomyces griseus
			subsp. griseus NBRC 13350
griD	182438037	YP_001825756.1	Streptomyces griseus
			subsp. griseus NBRC 13350

An enzyme with similar characteristics, alpha-aminoadipate reductase (AAR, EC 1.2.1.31), participates in lysine biosynthesis pathways in some fungal species. This enzyme naturally reduces alpha-aminoadipate to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde. The carboxyl group is first activated through the ATP-dependent formation of an adenylate that is then reduced by NAD(P)H to yield the aldehyde and AMP. Like CAR, this enzyme utilizes magnesium and requires activation by a PPTase. Enzyme candidates for AAR and its corresponding PPTase are found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Morris et al., Gene 98:141-145 (1991)), Candida albicans (Guo et al., Mol. Genet. Genomics 269:271-279 (2003)), and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Ford et al., Curr. Genet. 28:131-137 (1995)). The AAR from S. pombe exhibited significant activity when expressed in E. coli (Guo et al., Yeast 21:1279-1288 (2004)). The AAR from Penicillium chrysogenum accepts S-carboxymethyl-L-cysteine as an alternate substrate, but did not react with adipate, L-glutamate or diaminopimelate (Hijarrubia et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8250-8256 (2003)). The gene encoding the P. chrysogenum PPTase has not been identified to date.

Gene		GenBank
name	GI No.	Accession No.	Organism
LYS2	171867	AAA34747.1	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS5	1708896	P50113.1	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS2	2853226	AAC02241.1	Candida albicans
LYS5	28136195	AAO26020.1	Candida albicans
Lys1p	13124791	P40976.3	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys7p	1723561	Q10474.1	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys2	3282044	CAA74300.1	Penicillium chrysogenum

There are several advantages of using carboxylic acid reductase for BDO production. There are at least two advantages of forming 4-hydroxybutanal from 4-hydroxybutyrate via a carboxylic acid reductase compared to forming 4-hydroxybutanal from an activated version of 4-hydroxybutyrate (for example, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-Pi) via an acyl-CoA or acyl-phosphate reductase. First, the formation of gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) as a byproduct is greatly reduced. It is believed that the activated versions of 4-hydroxybutyrate cyclize to GBL more readily than unactivated 4-hydroxybutyrate. The use of carboxylic acid reductase eliminates the need to pass through a free activated 4-hydroxybutyrate intermediate, thus reducing the formation of GBL as a byproduct accompanying BDO production. Second, the formation of ethanol as a byproduct is greatly reduced. Ethanol is often formed in varying amounts when an aldehyde- or an alcohol-forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase is used to convert 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutanal or 1,4-butanediol, respectively. This is because most, if not all, aldehyde- or alcohol-forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductases can accept acetyl-CoA as a substrate in addition to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Aldehyde-forming enzymes, for example, often catalyze the conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetaldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to ethanol by native or non-native alcohol dehydrogenases. Alcohol-forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductases that accept acetyl-CoA as a substrate will convert acetyl-CoA directly to ethanol. It appears that carboxylic acid reductase enzymes have far less activity on acetyl-CoA than aldehyde- or alcohol-forming acyl-CoA reductase enzymes, and thus their application for BDO production results in minimal ethanol byproduct formation (see below).

Example XXI

Biosynthesis of 1,4-Butanediol Using a Carboxylic Acid Reductase Enzyme

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism that produces 1,4-butanediol using a carboxylic acid reductase enzyme.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the pathway for 1,4-butanediol synthesis described in FIG. 58. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 1,4-butanediol. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under various oxygenation conditions.

Integration of 4-Hydroxybutyrate Pathway Genes into Chromosome: Construction of ECKh-432.

The carboxylic acid reductase enzyme was expressed in a strain of E. coli designated ECKh-432 whose construction is described in Example XVII. This strain contained the components of the BDO pathway, leading to 4HB, integrated into the chromosome of E. coli at the fimD locus.

As described in Example XVII, the succinate branch of the upstream pathway was integrated into the E. coli chromosome using the λ red homologeous recombination method (Datsenko and Wanner, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97:6640-6645 (2000)). A polycistronic DNA fragment containing a promoter, the sucCD gene of Escherichia coli encoding succinyl-CoA ligase, the sucD gene of Porphyromonas gingivalis encoding succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming) (step A of FIG. 58), the 4hbd gene of Porphyromonas gingivalis encoding 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (step C of FIG. 58), and a terminator sequence was inserted into the AflIII site of the pKD3 plasmid.

As described in Example XVII, the alpha-ketoglutarate branch of the upstream pathway was integrated into the chromosome by homologeous recombination. The plasmid used in this modification was pRE118-V2 (pRE118 (ATCC87693) deleted of the oriT and IS sequences), which contains a kanamycin-resistant gene, a gene encoding the levansucrase (sacB) and a R6K conditional replication ori. The integration plasmid also contained a polycistronic sequence with a promoter, the sucA gene from Mycobacterium bovis encoding alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (step B of FIG. 58), the Clostridium kluyveri 4hbd gene encoding 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (step C of FIG. 58), and a terminator being inserted between two 1.5-kb DNA fragments that are homologous to the flanking regions of the target insertion site. The resulting plasmid was used to transform E. coli strain. The integration candidate was selected on plates containing kanamycin. The correct integration site was verified by PCR. To resolve the antibiotic marker from the chromosome, the cells were selected for growth on medium containing sucrose. The final strain was verified by PCR and DNA sequencing.

The recipient E. coli strain was ECKh-422 (ΔadhE ΔldhA ΔpflB ΔlpdA::K.p.lpdA322 Δmdh ΔarcA gltAR163L) whose construction is described in Example XV. ECKh-422 contains a mutation gltAR163L leading to NADH-insensitivity of citrate synthase encoded by gltA. It further contains an NADH-insensitive version of the lpdA gene from Klebsiella pneumonia integrated into the chromosome as described below.

Replacement of the native lpdA was replaced with a NADH-insensitive lpdA from Klebsiella pneumonie, as described in Example XIV. The resulting vector was designated pRE118-V2 (see FIG. 34).

Cloning and Expression of Carboxylic Acid Reductase and PPTase.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 1,4-butanediol, nucleic acids encoding a carboxylic acid reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, the car (AAR91681.1) and npt (ABI83656.1) genes were cloned into the pZS*13 vector (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under the PA1/lacO promoter. The car gene (GNM_—720) was cloned by PCR from Nocardia genomic DNA. Its nucleic acid and protein sequences are shown in FIGS. 59A and 59B, respectively.

A codon-optimized version of the npt gene (GNM_—721) was synthesized by GeneArt (Regensburg, Germany). Its nucleic acid and protein sequences are shown in FIGS. 60A and 60B, respectively. The resulting vector from cloning GNM_—720 and GNM_—721 into pZS*13 is shown in FIG. 61.

The plasmid was transformed into ECKh-432 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 1,4-butanediol production. Alternate versions of the plasmid containing only GNM_—720 and only GNM_—721 were also constructed.

Demonstration of 1,4-BDO Production using Carboxylic Acid Reductase.

Functional expression of the 1,4-butanediol pathway was demonstrated using E. coli whole-cell culture. A single colony of E. coli ECKh-432 transformed with the pZS*13 plasmid containing both GNM_—720 and GNM_—721 was inoculated into 5 mL of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Similarly, single colonies of E. coli ECKh-432 transformed with the pZS*13 plasmids containing either GNM_—720 or GNM_—721 were inoculated into additional 5 mL aliquots of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Ten mL micro-aerobic cultures were started by inoculating fresh minimal in vivo conversion medium (see below) containing the appropriate antibiotics with 1% of the first cultures.

Recipe of the minimal in vivo conversion medium (for 1000 mL) is as follows:

final concentration
1M MOPS/KOH buffer     40 mM
Glucose (40%)          1%
10XM9 salts solution   1X
MgSO4 (1M)             1 mM
trace minerals (x1000) 1X
1M NaHCO3              10 mM

Microaerobic conditions were established by initially flushing capped anaerobic bottles with nitrogen for 5 minutes, then piercing the septum with an 18 G needle following inoculation. The needle was kept in the bottle during growth to allow a small amount of air to enter the bottles. Protein expression was induced with 0.2 mM IPTG when the culture reached mid-log growth phase. This is considered: time=0 hr. The culture supernatants were analyzed for BDO, 4HB, and other by-products as described above and in WO2008115840 (see Table 30).

TABLE 30
Production of BDO, 4-HB and other products in various strains.
	mM
Strain	pZS*13S	OD600	OD600	PA	SA	LA	4HB	BDO	GBL	ETOHEnz
ECKh-432	720	0.420	2.221	6.36	0.00	0.10	7.71	3.03	0.07	>LLOQ
ECKh-432	721	0.323	2.574	1.69	0.00	0.00	12.60	0.00	0.00	>LLOQ
ECKh-432	720/721	0.378	2.469	1.70	0.00	0.01	4.23	9.16	0.24	1.52
PA = pyruvate, SA = succinate, LA = lactate, 4HB = 4-hydroxybutyrate, BDO = 1,4-butanediol, GBL = gamma-butyrolactone, Etoh = ethanol, LLOQ = lower limit of quantification

These results demonstrate that the carboxylic acid reductase gene, GNM_—720, is required for BDO formation in ECKh-432 and its effectiveness is increased when co-expressed with the PPTase, GNM_—721. GBL and ethanol were produced in far smaller quantities than BDO in the strains expressing GNM_—720 by itself or in combination with GNM_—721.

Additional Pathways to BDO Employing Carboxylic Acid Reductase.

It is expected that carboxylic acid reductase can function as a component of many pathways to 1,4-butanediol from the TCA cycle metabolites: succinate, succinyl-CoA, and alpha-ketoglutarate. Several of these pathways are disclosed in FIG. 62. All routes can lead to theoretical BDO yields greater than or equal to 1 mol/mol assuming glucose as the carbon source. Similar high theoretical yields can be obtained from additional substrates including sucrose, xylose, arabinose, synthesis gas, among many others. It is expected that the expression of carboxylic acid reductase alone or in combination with PPTase (that is, to catalyze steps F and D of FIG. 62) is sufficient for 1,4-butanediol production from succinate provided that sufficient endogenous alcohol dehydrogenase activity is present to catalyze steps C and E of FIG. 62. Candidate enzymes for steps A through Z of FIG. 62 are described in section XXIII.

Example XXII

Pathways to Putrescine that Employ Carboxylic Acid Reductase

This example describes exemplary putrescine pathways utilizing carboxylic acid reductase.

Putrescine, also known as 1,4-diaminobutane or butanediamine, is an organic chemical compound of the formula NH₂(CH₂)₄NH₂. It can be reacted with adipic acid to yield the polyamide Nylon-4,6, which is marketed by DSM (Heerlen, Netherlands) under the trade name Stanyl™. Putrescine is naturally produced, for example, by the natural breakdown of amino acids in living and dead organisms. E. coli has been engineered to produce putrescine by overexpressing the native ornithine biosynthetic machinery as well as an ornithine decarboxylase (Qian, et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 104(4):651-662 (2009)).

FIG. 63 describes a number of additional biosynthetic pathways leading to the production of putrescine from succinate, succinyl-CoA, or alpha-ketoglutarate and employing a carboxylic acid reductase. Note that none of these pathways require formation of an activated version of 4-aminobutyrate such as 4-aminobutyryl-CoA, which can be reduced by an acyl-CoA reductase to 4-aminobutanal but also can readily cyclize to its lactam, 2-pyrrolidinone (Ohsugi, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 256:7642-7651 (1981)). All routes can lead to theoretical putrescine yields greater than or equal to 1 mol/mol assuming glucose as the carbon source. Similar high theoretical yields can be obtained from additional substrates including sucrose, xylose, arabinose, synthesis gas, among many others. Candidate enzymes for steps A through U of FIG. 63 are described in Example XXIII.

Example XXIII

Exemplary Enzymes for Production of C4 Compounds

This example describes exemplary enzymes for production of C4 compounds such as 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutanal and putrescine.

Enzyme Classes.

All transformations depicted in FIGS. 58, 62 and 63 fall into the general categories of transformations shown in Table 31. This example describes a number of biochemically characterized genes in each category. Specifically listed are genes that can be applied to catalyze the appropriate transformations in FIGS. 58, 62 and 63 when cloned and expressed. The first three digits of each label correspond to the first three Enzyme Commission number digits which denote the general type of transformation independent of substrate specificity.

TABLE 31
Classes of Enzyme Transformations
Depicted in FIGS. 58, 62 and 63.
LABEL   FUNCTION
1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (oxo to alcohol)
1.1.1.c Oxidoreductase (2 step, acyl-CoA to alcohol)
1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (acyl-CoA to aldehyde)
1.2.1.c Oxidoreductase (2-oxo acid to acyl-CoA, decarboxylation)
1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (phosphonate reductase)
1.2.1.e Acid reductase
1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (aminating)
2.3.1.a Acyltransferase (transferring phosphate group to CoA)
2.6.1.a Aminotransferase
2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (carboxy acceptor)
2.8.3.a CoA transferase
3.1.2.a CoA hydrolase
4.1.1.a Carboxy-lyase
6.2.1.a CoA synthetase

1.1.1.a Oxidoreductase (Oxo to Alcohol)

Aldehyde to Alcohol.

Three transformations described in FIGS. 58, 62 and 63 involve the conversion of an aldehyde to alcohol. These are 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (step C, FIGS. 58 and 62), 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase (step E, FIGS. 58 and 62), and 5-hydroxy-2-pentanoic acid (step Y, FIG. 62). Exemplary genes encoding enzymes that catalyze the conversion of an aldehyde to alcohol, that is, alcohol dehydrogenase or equivalently aldehyde reductase, include alrA encoding a medium-chain alcohol dehydrogenase for C2-C14 (Tani et al. Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 66:5231-5235 (2000)), ADH2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Atsumi et al. Nature 451:86-89 (2008)), yqhD from E. coli, which has preference for molecules longer than C(3) (Sulzenbacher et al. J. Mol. Biol. 342:489-502 (2004)), and bdh I and bdh II from C. acetobutylicum, which converts butyryaldehyde into butanol (Walter et al. J. Bacteriol. 174:7149-7158 (1992)). The protein sequences for each of exemplary gene products can be found using the following GenBank accession numbers:

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
alrA	BAB12273.1	9967138	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
ADH2	NP_014032.1	6323961	Saccharymyces cerevisiae
yqhD	NP_417484.1	16130909	Escherichia coli
bdh I	NP_349892.1	15896543	Clostridium acetobutylicum
bdh II	NP_349891.1	15896542	Clostridium acetobutylicum

Enzymes exhibiting 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.61) also fall into this category. Such enzymes have been characterized in Ralstonia eutropha (Bravo et al. J. Forensic Sci. 49:379-387 (2004)), Clostridium kluyveri (Wolff et al., Protein Expr. Pur 6:206-212 (1995)) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Breitkreuz et al. J. Biol. Chem. 278:41552-41556 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
4hbd	YP_726053.1	113867564	Ralstonia eutropha H16
4hbd	EDK35022.1	146348486	Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555
4hbd	Q94B07	75249805	Arabidopsis thaliana

The adh1 gene from Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius M10EXG (Jeon et al., J. Biotechnol. 135:127-133 (2008)) was shown to exhibit high activity on both 4-hydroxybutanal and butanal (see above). Thus this enzyme exhibits 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase activity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
adh1	AAR91477.1	40795502	Geobacillus thermoglucosidasius
			M10EXG

Another exemplary enzyme is 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the reversible oxidation of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate to methylmalonate semialdehyde. This enzyme participates in valine, leucine and isoleucine degradation and has been identified in bacteria, eukaryotes, and mammals. The enzyme encoded by P84067 from Thermus thermophilus HB8 has been structurally characterized (Lokanath et al. J. Mol. Biol. 352:905-17 (2005)). The reversibility of the human 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase was demonstrated using isotopically-labeled substrate (Manning et al., Biochem. J. 231:481-484 (1985)). Additional genes encoding this enzyme include 3hidh in Homo sapiens (Hawes et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)) and Oryctolagus cuniculus (Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996); Hawes et al. Methods Enzymol. 324:218-228 (2000)), mmsb in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and dhat in Pseudomonas putida (Aberhart et al., J. Chem. Soc. [Perkin 1] 6:1404-1406 (1979); Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 67:438-441 (2003); Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
P84067	P84067	75345323	Thermus thermophilus
mmsb	P28811.1	127211	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
dhat	Q59477.1	2842618	Pseudomonas putida
3hidh	P31937.2	12643395	Homo sapiens
3hidh	P32185.1	416872	Oryctolagus cuniculus

Several 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase enzymes have also been shown to convert malonic semialdehyde to 3-hydroxyproprionic acid (3-HP). Three gene candidates exhibiting this activity are mmsB from Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1(62), mmsB from Pseudomonas putida KT2440 (Liao et al., US Publication 2005/0221466) and mmsB from Pseudomonas putida E23 (Chowdhury et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 60:2043-2047 (1996)). An enzyme with 3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase activity in Alcaligenes faecalis M3A has also been identified (Gokam et al., U.S. Pat. No. 7,393,676; Liao et al., US Publication No. 2005/0221466). Additional gene candidates from other organisms including Rhodobacter spaeroides can be inferred by sequence similarity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mmsB	AAA25892.1	151363	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
mmsB	NP_252259.1	15598765	Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1
mmsB	NP_746775.1	26991350	Pseudomonas putida KT2440
mmsB	JC7926	60729613	Pseudomonas putida E23
orfB1	AAL26884	16588720	Rhodobacter spaeroides

The conversion of malonic semialdehyde to 3-HP can also be accomplished by two other enzymes, NADH-dependent 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase and NADPH-dependent malonate semialdehyde reductase. An NADH-dependent 3-hydroxypropionate dehydrogenase is thought to participate in beta-alanine biosynthesis pathways from propionate in bacteria and plants (Rathinasabapathi, J. Plant Pathol. 159:671-674 (2002); Stadtman, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 77:5765-5766 (1955)). This enzyme has not been associated with a gene in any organism to date. NADPH-dependent malonate semialdehyde reductase catalyzes the reverse reaction in autotrophic CO₂-fixing bacteria. Although the enzyme activity has been detected in Metallosphaera sedula, the identity of the gene is not known (Alber et al. J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)).

1.1.1.c Oxidoreductase (2 Step, Acyl-CoA to Alcohol).

Steps S and W of FIG. 62 depict bifunctional reductase enzymes that can form 4-hydroxybutyrate and 1,4-butanediol, respectively. Exemplary 2-step oxidoreductases that convert an acyl-CoA to alcohol include those that transform substrates such as acetyl-CoA to ethanol (for example, adhE from E. coli (Kessler et al., FEBS. Lett. 281:59-63 (1991)) and butyryl-CoA to butanol (for example, adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum (Fontaine et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:821-830 (2002)). The C. acetobutylicum adhE2 gene was shown to convert 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 1,4-butanediol (see above). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972); Koo et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
adhE	NP_415757.1	16129202	Escherichia coli
adhE2	AAK09379.1	12958626	Clostridium acetobutylicum
adhE	AAV66076.1	55818563	Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Another exemplary enzyme can convert malonyl-CoA to 3-HP. An NADPH-dependent enzyme with this activity has characterized in Chloroflexus aurantiacus, where it participates in the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002); Strauss and Fuchs, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:633-643 (1993)). This enzyme, with a mass of 300 kDa, is highly substrate-specific and shows little sequence similarity to other known oxidoreductases (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). No enzymes in other organisms have been shown to catalyze this specific reaction; however there is bioinformatic evidence that other organisms may have similar pathways (Klatt et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:2067-2078 (2007)). Enzyme candidates in other organisms including Roseiflexus castenholzii, Erythrobacter sp. NAP1 and marine gamma proteobacterium HTCC2080 can be inferred by sequence similarity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mcr	AAS20429.1	42561982	Chloroflexus aurantiacus
Rcas_2929	YP_001433009.1	156742880	Roseiflexus castenholzii
NAP1_02720	ZP_01039179.1	85708113	Erythrobacter sp. NAP1
MGP2080_00535	ZP_01626393.1	119504313	marine gamma
			proteobacterium
			HTCC2080

Longer chain acyl-CoA molecules can be reduced by enzymes such as the jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis) FAR, which encodes an alcohol-forming fatty acyl-CoA reductase. Its overexpression in E. coli resulted in FAR activity and the accumulation of fatty alcohol (Metz et al., Plant Physiol. 122:635-644 2000)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	FAR	AAD38039.1	5020215	Simmondsia chinensis

1.2.1.b Oxidoreductase (Acyl-CoA to Aldehyde).

Step A of FIGS. 58, 62 and 63 involves the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate semialdehyde by an aldehyde forming succinyl-CoA reductase. Step Q of FIG. 62 depicts the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutanal by an aldehyde-forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase. Several acyl-CoA dehydrogenases are capable of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville, J. Bacteriol. 179:2969-2975 (1997)), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002)), and a CoA- and NADP-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-80 (1996); Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another aldehyde-forming succinyl-CoA reductase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)). In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxidize the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Koo et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)). Butyraldehyde dehydrogenase catalyzes a similar reaction, conversion of butyryl-CoA to butyraldehyde, in solventogenic organisms such as Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
acr1	YP_047869.1	50086359	Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
acr1	AAC45217	1684886	Acinetobacter baylyi
acr1	BAB85476.1	18857901	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
sucD	P38947.1	730847	Clostridium kluyveri
sucD	NP_904963.1	34540484	Porphyromonas gingivalis
bphG	BAA03892.1	425213	Pseudomonas sp
adhE	AAV66076.1	55818563	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
bld	AAP42563.1	31075383	Clostridium
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum

An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase, which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archael bacteria (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007); Thauer, Science 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed_—0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Yet another candidate for CoA-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999)). This enzyme has been reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to their corresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to eutE that encodes acetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Toth et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	146303492	Metallosphaera sedula
mcr	NP_378167.1	15922498	Sulfolobus tokodaii
asd-2	NP_343563.1	15898958	Sulfolobus solfataricus
Saci_2370	YP_256941.1	70608071	Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
Ald	AAT66436	49473535	Clostridium beijerinckii
eutE	AAA80209	687645	Salmonella typhimurium
eutE	P77445	2498347	Escherichia coli

1.2.1.c Oxidoreductase (2-Oxo Acid to Acyl-CoA, Decarboxylation).

Step AA in FIG. 62 depicts the conversion of 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid to 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Candidate enzymes for this transformation include 1) branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase, 2) alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and 3) the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex (PDHC). These enzymes are multi-enzyme complexes that catalyze a series of partial reactions which result in acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Each of the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes occupies key positions in intermediary metabolism, and enzyme activity is typically tightly regulated (Fries et al. Biochemistry 42:6996-7002 (2003)). The enzymes share a complex but common structure composed of multiple copies of three catalytic components: alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (E1), dihydrolipoamide acyltransferase (E2) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). The E3 component is shared among all 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes in an organism, while the E1 and E2 components are encoded by different genes. The enzyme components are present in numerous copies in the complex and utilize multiple cofactors to catalyze a directed sequence of reactions via substrate channeling. The overall size of these dehydrogenase complexes is very large, with molecular masses between 4 and 10 million Da (that is, larger than a ribosome).

Activity of enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase family is normally low or limited under anaerobic conditions in E. coli. Increased production of NADH (or NADPH) could lead to a redox-imbalance, and NADH itself serves as an inhibitor to enzyme function. Engineering efforts have increased the anaerobic activity of the E. coli pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (Kim et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim et al. J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858) 2008); Zhou et al. Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). For example, the inhibitory effect of NADH can be overcome by engineering an H322Y mutation in the E3 component (Kim et al. J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008)). Structural studies of individual components and how they work together in complex provide insight into the catalytic mechanisms and architecture of enzymes in this family (Aevarsson et al. Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); Zhou et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:14802-14807 (2001)). The substrate specificity of the dehydrogenase complexes varies in different organisms, but generally branched-chain keto-acid dehydrogenases have the broadest substrate range.

Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (AKGD) converts alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA and is the primary site of control of metabolic flux through the TCA cycle (Hansford, R. G. Curr. Top. Bioenerg. 10:217-278 (1980)). Encoded by genes sucA, sucB and lpd in E. coli, AKGD gene expression is downregulated under anaerobic conditions and during growth on glucose (Park et al. Mol. Microbiol. 15:473-482 (1995)). Although the substrate range of AKGD is narrow, structural studies of the catalytic core of the E2 component pinpoint specific residues responsible for substrate specificity (Knapp et al. J. Mol. Biol. 280:655-668 (1998)). The Bacillus subtilis AKGD, encoded by odhAB (E1 and E2) and pdhD (E3, shared domain), is regulated at the transcriptional level and is dependent on the carbon source and growth phase of the organism (Resnekov et al. Mol. Gen. Genet. 234:285-296 (1992)). In yeast, the LPD1 gene encoding the E3 component is regulated at the transcriptional level by glucose (Roy and Dawes J. Gen. Microbiol. 133:925-933 (1987)). The E1 component, encoded by KGD1, is also regulated by glucose and activated by the products of HAP2 and HAP3 (Repetto and Tzagoloff Mol. Cell. Biol. 9:2695-2705 (1989)). The AKGD enzyme complex, inhibited by products NADH and succinyl-CoA, is well-studied in mammalian systems, as impaired function of has been linked to several neurological diseases (Tretter and dam-Vizi Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 360:2335-2345 (2005)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
sucA	NP_415254.1	16128701	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
sucB	NP_415255.1	16128702	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
1pd	NP_414658.1	16128109	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
odhA	P23129.2	51704265	Bacillus subtilis
odhB	P16263.1	129041	Bacillus subtilis
pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
KGD1	NP_012141.1	6322066	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
KGD2	NP_010432.1	6320352	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LPD1	NP_116635.1	14318501	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Branched-chain 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex (BCKAD), also known as 2-oxoisovalerate dehydrogenase, participates in branched-chain amino acid degradation pathways, converting 2-keto acids derivatives of valine, leucine and isoleucine to their acyl-CoA derivatives and CO₂. The complex has been studied in many organisms including Bacillus subtilis (Wang et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)), Rattus norvegicus (Namba et al. J. Biol. Chem. 244:4437-4447 (1969)) and Pseudomonas putida (Sokatch J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). In Bacillus subtilis the enzyme is encoded by genes pdhD (E3 component), bfmBB (E2 component), bfmBAA and bfmBAB (E1 component) (Wang et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 213:1091-1099 (1993)). In mammals, the complex is regulated by phosphorylation by specific phosphatases and protein kinases. The complex has been studied in rat hepatocites (Chicco et al. J. Biol. Chem. 269:19427-19434 (1994)) and is encoded by genes Bckdha (E1 alpha), Bckdhb (E1 beta), Dbt (E2), and Dld (E3). The E1 and E3 components of the Pseudomonas putida BCKAD complex have been crystallized (Aevarsson et al. Nat. Struct. Biol. 6:785-792 (1999); Mattevi Science 255:1544-1550 (1992)) and the enzyme complex has been studied (Sokatch et al. J. Bacteriol. 148:647-652 (1981)). Transcription of the P. putida BCKAD genes is activated by the gene product of bkdR (Hester et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 233:828-836 (1995)). In some organisms including Rattus norvegicus (Paxton et al. Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Sinclair et al. Biochem. Mol. Biol. Int. 31:911-922 (1993)), this complex has been shown to have a broad substrate range that includes linear oxo-acids such as 2-oxobutanoate and alpha-ketoglutarate, in addition to the branched-chain amino acid precursors. The active site of the bovine BCKAD was engineered to favor alternate substrate acetyl-CoA (Meng and Chuang, Biochemistry 33:12879-12885 (1994)).

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	bfmBB	NP_390283.1	16079459	Bacillus subtilis
	bfmBAA	NP_390285.1	16079461	Bacillus subtilis
	bfmBAB	NP_390284.1	16079460	Bacillus subtilis
	pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
	lpdV	P09063.1	118677	Pseudomonas putida
	bkdB	P09062.1	129044	Pseudomonas putida
	bkdA1	NP_746515.1	26991090	Pseudomonas putida
	bkdA2	NP_746516.1	26991091	Pseudomonas putida
	Bckdha	NP_036914.1	77736548	Rattus norvegicus
	Bckdhb	NP_062140.1	158749538	Rattus norvegicus
	Dbt	NP_445764.1	158749632	Rattus norvegicus
	Dld	NP_955417.1	40786469	Rattus norvegicus

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, catalyzing the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, has also been extensively studied. In the E. coli enzyme, specific residues in the E1 component are responsible for substrate specificity (Bisswanger, H. J Biol. Chem. 256:815-822 (1981); Bremer, J. Eur. J Biochem. 8:535-540 (1969); Gong et al. J Biol. Chem. 275:13645-13653 (2000)). As mentioned previously, enzyme engineering efforts have improved the E. coli PDH enzyme activity under anaerobic conditions (Kim et al. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Kim J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008); Zhou et al. Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). In contrast to the E. coli PDH, the B. subtilis complex is active and required for growth under anaerobic conditions (Nakano J. Bacteriol. 179:6749-6755 (1997)). The Klebsiella pneumoniae PDH, characterized during growth on glycerol, is also active under anaerobic conditions (Menzel et al. J. Biotechnol. 56:135-142 (1997)). Crystal structures of the enzyme complex from bovine kidney (Zhou et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:14802-14807 (2001)) and the E2 catalytic domain from Azotobacter vinelandii are available (Mattevi et al. Science 255:1544-1550 (1992)). Some mammalian PDH enzymes complexes can react on alternate substrates such as 2-oxobutanoate, although comparative kinetics of Rattus norvegicus PDH and BCKAD indicate that BCKAD has higher activity on 2-oxobutanoate as a substrate (Paxton et al. Biochem. J. 234:295-303 (1986)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aceE	NP_414656.1	16128107	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
aceF	NP_414657.1	16128108	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
lpd	NP_414658.1	16128109	Escherichia coli str. K12 substr.
			MG1655
pdhA	P21881.1	3123238	Bacillus subtilis
pdhB	P21882.1	129068	Bacillus subtilis
pdhC	P21883.2	129054	Bacillus subtilis
pdhD	P21880.1	118672	Bacillus subtilis
aceE	YP_001333808.1	152968699	Klebsiella pneumonia
			MGH78578
aceF	YP_001333809.1	152968700	Klebsiella pneumonia
			MGH78578
lpdA	YP_001333810.1	152968701	Klebsiella pneumonia
			MGH78578
Pdhal	NP_001004072.2	124430510	Rattus norvegicus
Pdha2	NP_446446.1	16758900	Rattus norvegicus
Dlat	NP_112287.1	78365255	Rattus norvegicus
Dld	NP_955417.1	40786469	Rattus norvegicus

As an alternative to the large multienzyme 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complexes described above, some anaerobic organisms utilize enzymes in the 2-ketoacid oxidoreductase family (OFOR) to catalyze acylating oxidative decarboxylation of 2-keto-acids. Unlike the dehydrogenase complexes, these enzymes contain iron-sulfur clusters, utilize different cofactors, and use ferredoxin or flavodixin as electron acceptors in lieu of NAD(P)H. While most enzymes in this family are specific to pyruvate as a substrate (POR) some 2-keto-acid:ferredoxin oxidoreductases have been shown to accept a broad range of 2-ketoacids as substrates including alpha-ketoglutarate and 2-oxobutanoate (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); Zhang et al. J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). One such enzyme is the OFOR from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus tokodaii 7, which contains an alpha and beta subunit encoded by gene ST2300 (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002); Zhang et al. J. Biochem. 120:587-599 (1996)). A plasmid-based expression system has been developed for efficiently expressing this protein in E. coli (Fukuda et al. Eur. J. Biochem. 268:5639-5646 (2001)) and residues involved in substrate specificity were determined (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002)). Two OFORs from Aeropyrum pernix str. K1 have also been recently cloned into E. coli, characterized, and found to react with a broad range of 2-oxoacids (Nishizawa et al. FEBS Lett. 579:2319-2322 (2005)). The gene sequences of these OFOR candidates are available, although they do not have GenBank identifiers assigned to date. There is bioinformatic evidence that similar enzymes are present in all archaea, some anaerobic bacteria and amitochondrial eukarya (Fukuda and Wakagi Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2005)). This class of enzyme is also interesting from an energetic standpoint, as reduced ferredoxin could be used to generate NADH by ferredoxin-NAD reductase (Petitdemange et al. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 421:334-337 (1976)). Also, since most of the enzymes are designed to operate under anaerobic conditions, less enzyme engineering may be required relative to enzymes in the 2-keto-acid dehydrogenase complex family for activity in an anaerobic environment.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	ST2300	NP_378302.1	15922633	Sulfolobus tokodaii 7

1.2.1.d Oxidoreductase (Phosphonate Reductase).

The conversion of 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate to 4-hydroxybutanal can be catalyzed by an oxidoreductase in the EC class 1.2.1. Aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ASD, EC 1.2.1.11) catalyzes the NADPH-dependent reduction of 4-aspartyl phosphate to aspartate-4-semialdehyde. ASD participates in amino acid biosynthesis and recently has been studied as an antimicrobial target (Hadfield et al., Biochemistry 40:14475-14483 (2001). The E. coli ASD structure has been solved (Hadfield et al., J. Mol. Biol. 289:991-1002 (1999)) and the enzyme has been shown to accept the alternate substrate beta-3-methylaspartyl phosphate (Shames et al., J. Biol. Chem. 259:15331-15339 (1984)). The Haemophilus influenzae enzyme has been the subject of enzyme engineering studies to alter substrate binding affinities at the active site (Blanco et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 60:1388-1395 (2004); Blanco et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 60:1808-1815 (2004)). Other ASD candidates are found in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Shafiani et al., J. Appl. Microbiol. 98:832-838 (2005), Methanococcus jannaschii (Faehnle et al., J. Mol. Biol. 353:1055-1068 (2005)), and the infectious microorganisms Vibrio cholera and Heliobacter pylori (Moore et al., Protein Expr. Pur 25:189-194 (2002)). A related enzyme candidate is acetylglutamylphosphate reductase (EC 1.2.1.38), an enzyme that naturally reduces acetylglutamylphosphate to acetylglutamate-5-semialdehyde, found in S. cerevisiae (Pauwels et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:1014-1024 (2003), B. subtilis (O'Reilly and Devine, Microbiology 140 (Pt 5):1023-1025 (1994)), and other organisms.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
asd	NP_417891.1	16131307	Escherichia coli
asd	YP_248335.1	68249223	Haemophilus influenzae
asd	AAB49996	1899206	Mycobacterium tuberculosis
VC2036	NP_231670	15642038	Vibrio cholera
asd	YP_002301787.1	210135348	Heliobacter pylori
ARG5,6	NP_010992.1	6320913	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
argC	NP_389001.1	16078184	Bacillus subtilis

Other exemplary enzymes in this class include glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase which converts glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into D-glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate (for example, E. coli gapA (Branlant and Branlant, Eur. J. Biochem. 150:61-66 (1985)), N-acetyl-gamma-glutamyl-phosphate reductase which converts N-acetyl-L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into N-acetyl-L-glutamyl-5-phosphate (for example, E. coli argC (Parsot et al., Gene 68:275-283 (1988)), and glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, which converts L-glutamate-5-semialdehyde into L-glutamyl-5-phospate (for example, E. coli proA (Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)). Genes encoding glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase enzymes from Salmonella typhimurium (Mahan and Csonka, J. Bacteriol. 156:1249-1262 (1983)) and Campylobacter jejuni (Louie and Chan, Mol. Gen. Genet. 240:29-35 (1993)) were cloned and expressed in E. coli.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gapA	P0A9B2.2	71159358	Escherichia coli
argC	NP_418393.1	16131796	Escherichia coli
proA	NP_414778.1	16128229	Escherichia coli
proA	NP_459319.1	16763704	Salmonella typhimurium
proA	P53000.2	9087222	Campylobacter jejuni

1.2.1.e Acid Reductase.

Several steps in FIGS. 58, 62 and 63 depict the conversion of unactivated acids to aldehydes by an acid reductase. These include the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyrate, succinate, alpha-ketoglutarate, and 4-aminobutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal, succinate semialdehyde, 2,5-dioxopentanoate, and 4-aminobutanal, respectively. One notable carboxylic acid reductase can be found in Nocardia iowensis which catalyzes the magnesium, ATP and NADPH-dependent reduction of carboxylic acids to their corresponding aldehydes (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). This enzyme is encoded by the car gene and was cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). Expression of the npt gene product improved activity of the enzyme via post-transcriptional modification. The npt gene encodes a specific phosphopantetheine transferase (PPTase) that converts the inactive apo-enzyme to the active holo-enzyme. The natural substrate of this enzyme is vanillic acid, and the enzyme exhibits broad acceptance of aromatic and aliphatic substrates (Venkitasubramanian et al., in Biocatalysis in the Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Industires, ed. R. N. Patel, Chapter 15, pp. 425-440, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Fla. (2006)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
car	AAR91681.1	40796035	Nocardia iowensis
			(sp. NRRL 5646)
npt	ABI83656.1	114848891	Nocardia iowensis
			(sp. NRRL 5646)

Additional car and npt genes can be identified based on sequence homology.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
fadD9	YP_978699.1	121638475	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
BCG_2812c	YP_978898.1	121638674	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
nfa20150	YP_118225.1	54023983	Nocardia farcinica
			IFM 10152
nfa40540	YP_120266.1	54026024	Nocardia farcinica
			IFM 10152
			Streptomyces griseus subsp.
SGR_6790	YP_001828302.1	182440583	griseus NBRC 13350
			Streptomyces griseus subsp.
SGR_665	YP_001822177.1	182434458	griseus NBRC 13350

An additional enzyme candidate found in Streptomyces griseus is encoded by the griC and griD genes. This enzyme is believed to convert 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid to 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde as deletion of either griC or griD led to accumulation of extracellular 3-acetylamino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, a shunt product of 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid metabolism (Suzuki, et al., J. Antibiot. 60(6):380-387 (2007)). Co-expression of griC and griD with SGR_—665, an enzyme similar in sequence to the Nocardia iowensis npt, can be beneficial.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
griC	182438036	YP 001825755.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus
			NBRC 13350
griD	182438037	YP 001825756.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus
			NBRC 13350
MSMEG_2956	YP_887275.1	YP 887275.1	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2
			155
MSMEG_5739	YP_889972.1	118469671	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2
			155
MSMEG_2648	YP_886985.1	118471293	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2
			155
			Mycobacterium avium subsp.
MAP_1040c	NP_959974.1	41407138	paratuberculosis K-10
			Mycobacterium avium subsp.
MAP_2899c	NP_961833.1	41408997	paratuberculosis K-10
MMAR_2117	YP_001850422.1	183982131	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_2936	YP_001851230.1	183982939	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_1916	YP_001850220.1	183981929	Mycobacterium marinum M
TpauDRAFT_33060	ZP_04027864.1	227980601	Tsukamurella paurometabola DSM
			20162
TpauDRAFT_20920	ZP_04026660.1	227979396	Tsukamurella paurometabola DSM
			20162
CPCC7001_1320	ZP_05045132.1	254431429	Cyanobium PCC7001
DDBDRAFT_0187729	XP_636931.1	66806417	Dictyostelium discoideum AX4

An enzyme with similar characteristics, alpha-aminoadipate reductase (AAR, EC 1.2.1.31), participates in lysine biosynthesis pathways in some fungal species. This enzyme naturally reduces alpha-aminoadipate to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde. The carboxyl group is first activated through the ATP-dependent formation of an adenylate that is then reduced by NAD(P)H to yield the aldehyde and AMP. Like CAR, this enzyme utilizes magnesium and requires activation by a PPTase. Enzyme candidates for AAR and its corresponding PPTase are found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Morris et al., Gene 98:141-145 (1991)), Candida albicans (Guo et al., Mol. Genet. Genomics 269:271-279 (2003)), and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Ford et al., Curr. Genet. 28:131-137 (1995)). The AAR from S. pombe exhibited significant activity when expressed in E. coli (Guo et al., Yeast 21:1279-1288 (2004)). The AAR from Penicillium chrysogenum accepts S-carboxymethyl-L-cysteine as an alternate substrate, but did not react with adipate, L-glutamate or diaminopimelate (Hijarrubia et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8250-8256 (2003)). The gene encoding the P. chrysogenum PPTase has not been identified to date.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
LYS2	AAA34747.1	171867	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS5	P50113.1	1708896	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS2	AACO2241.1	2853226	Candida albicans
LYS5	AA026020.1	28136195	Candida albicans
Lys1p	P40976.3	13124791	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys7p	Q10474.1	1723561	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys2	CAA74300.1	3282044	Penicillium chrysogenum

1.4.1.a Oxidoreductase (Aminating).

Glutamate dehydrogenase (Step J, FIGS. 62 and 63), 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase (Step M, FIGS. 62 and 63), putrescine dehydrogenase (Step D, FIG. 63), 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (Step P, FIG. 63), and ornithine dehydrogenase (Step S, FIG. 63) can be catalyzed by aminating oxidoreductases. Enzymes in this EC class catalyze the oxidative deamination of alpha-amino acids with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor, and the reactions are typically reversible. Exemplary oxidoreductases operating on amino acids include glutamate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by gdhA, leucine dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by ldh, and aspartate dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by nadX. The gdhA gene product from Escherichia coli (Korber et al., J. Mol. Biol. 234:1270-1273 (1993); McPherson and Wootton, Nucleic Acids Res. 11:5257-5266 (1983)), gdh from Thermotoga maritima (Kort et al., Extremophiles 1:52-60 (1997); Lebbink, et al. J. Mol. Biol. 280:287-296 (1998); Lebbink et al. J. Mol. Biol. 289:357-369 (1999)), and gdhA1 from Halobacterium salinarum (Ingoldsby et al., Gene 349:237-244 (2005)) catalyze the reversible interconversion of glutamate to 2-oxoglutarate and ammonia, while favoring NADP(H), NAD(H), or both, respectively. The ldh gene of Bacillus cereus encodes the LeuDH protein that has a wide of range of substrates including leucine, isoleucine, valine, and 2-aminobutanoate (Ansorge and Kula, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 68:557-562 (2000); Stoyan et al. J. Biotechnol. 54:77-80 (1997)). The nadX gene from Thermotoga maritime encoding for the aspartate dehydrogenase is involved in the biosynthesis of NAD (Yang et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8804-8808 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gdhA	P00370	118547	Escherichia coli
gdh	P96110.4	6226595	Thermotoga maritima
gdhA1	NP_279651.1	15789827	Halobacterium salinarum
ldh	P0A393	61222614	Bacillus cereus
nadX	NP_229443.1	15644391	Thermotoga maritima

Additional glutamate dehydrogenase gene candidates are found in Bacillus subtilis (Khan et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 69:1861-1870 (2005)), Nicotiana tabacum (Purnell et al., Planta 222:167-180 (2005)), Oryza sativa (Abiko et al., Plant Cell Physiol. 46:1724-1734 (2005)), Haloferax mediterranei (Diaz et al., Extremophiles 10:105-115 (2006)) and Halobactreium salinarum (Hayden et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 211:37-41 (2002)). The Nicotiana tabacum enzyme is composed of alpha and beta subunits encoded by gdh1 and gdh2 (Purnell et al., Planta 222:167-180 (2005)). Overexpression of the NADH-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase was found to improve ethanol production in engineered strains of S. cerevisiae (Roca et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69:4732-4736 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
rocG	NP_391659.1	16080831	Bacillus subtilis
gdh1	AAR11534.1	38146335	Nicotiana tabacum
gdh2	AAR11535.1	38146337	Nicotiana tabacum
GDH	Q852M0	75243660	Oryza sativa
GDH	Q977U6	74499858	Haloferax mediterranei
GDH	P29051	118549	Halobactreium salinarum
GDH2	NP_010066.1	6319986	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

An exemplary enzyme for catalyzing the conversion of aldehydes to their corresponding primary amines is lysine 6-dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.18), encoded by the lysDH genes. The lysine 6-dehydrogenase (deaminating), encoded by lysDH gene, catalyze the oxidative deamination of the ε-amino group of L-lysine to form 2-aminoadipate-6-semialdehyde, which in turn nonenzymatically cyclizes to form Δ1-piperideine-6-carboxylate (Misono and Nagasaki, J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)). The lysDH gene from Geobacillus stearothermophilus encodes a thermophilic NAD-dependent lysine 6-dehydrogenase (Heydari et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:937-942 (2004)). The lysDH gene from Aeropyrum pernix K1 is identified through homology from genome projects. Additional enzymes can be found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Hashimoto et al., J. Biochem. 106:76-80 (1989); Misono and Nagasaki, J. Bacteriol. 150:398-401 (1982)) and Achromobacter denitrificans (Ruldeekulthamrong et al., BMB. Rep. 41:790-795 (2008)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
lysDH	BAB39707	13429872	Geobacillus stearothermophilus
lysDH	NP_147035.1	14602185	Aeropyrum pernix K1
lysDH	NP_353966	15888285	Agrobacterium tumefaciens
lysDH	AAZ94428	74026644	Achromobacter denitrificans

An enzyme that converts 3-oxoacids to 3-amino acids is 3,5-diaminohexanoate dehydrogenase (EC 1.4.1.11), an enzyme found in organisms that ferment lysine. The gene encoding this enzyme, kdd, was recently identified in Fusobacterium nucleatum (Kreimeyer et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:7191-7197 (2007)). The enzyme has been purified and characterized in other organisms (Baker et al., J. Biol. Chem. 247:7724-7734 (1972); Baker and van der Drift, Biochemistry 13:292-299 (1974)), but the genes associated with these enzymes are not known. Candidates in Myxococcus xanthus, Porphyromonas gingivalis W83 and other sequenced organisms can be inferred by sequence homology.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
kdd	AAL93966.1	19713113	Fusobacterium nucleatum
mxan_4391	ABF87267.1	108462082	Myxococcus xanthus
pg_1069	AAQ66183.1	34397119	Porphyromonas gingivalis

2.3.1.a Acyltransferase (Transferring Phosphate Group to CoA).

Step P of FIG. 62 depicts the transformation of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutyryl-Pi. Exemplary phosphate transferring acyltransferases include phosphotransacetylase, encoded by pta, and phosphotransbutyrylase, encoded by ptb. The pta gene from E. coli encodes an enzyme that can convert acetyl-CoA into acetyl-phosphate, and vice versa (Suzuki, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191:559-569 (1969)). This enzyme can also utilize propionyl-CoA instead of acetyl-CoA forming propionate in the process (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). Similarly, the ptb gene from C. acetobutylicum encodes an enzyme that can convert butyryl-CoA into butyryl-phosphate (Walter et al., Gene 134:107-111 (1993)); Huang et al., J Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:33-38 (2000). Additional ptb genes can be found in butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 (Louis et al., J. Bacteriol. 186:2099-2106 (2004)) and Bacillus megaterium (Vazquez et al., Curr. Microbiol. 42:345-349 (2001)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
pta	NP_416800.1	16130232	Escherichia coli
ptb	NP_349676	15896327	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ptb	AAR19757.1	38425288	butyrate-producing bacterium
			L2-50
ptb	CAC07932.1	10046659	Bacillus megaterium

2.6.1. Aminotransferase.

Aminotransferases reversibly convert an aldehyde or ketone to an amino group. Common amino donor/acceptor combinations include glutamate/alpha-ketoglutarate, alanine/pyruvate, and aspartate/oxaloacetate. Several enzymes have been shown to convert aldehydes to primary amines, and vice versa, such as 4-aminobutyrate, putrescine, and 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate. These enzymes are particularly well suited to carry out the following transformations: Step N in FIGS. 62 and 63, Steps E and Q in FIG. 63. Lysine-6-aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.36) is one exemplary enzyme capable of forming a primary amine. This enzyme function, converting lysine to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde, has been demonstrated in yeast and bacteria. Candidates from Candida utilis (Hammer and Bode, J. Basic Microbiol. 32:21-27 (1992)), Flavobacterium lutescens (Fujii et al., J. Biochem. 128:391-397 (2000)) and Streptomyces clavuligenus (Romero et al., J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 18:241-246 (1997)) have been characterized. A recombinant lysine-6-aminotransferase from S. clavuligenus was functionally expressed in E. coli (Tobin et al., J. Bacteriol. 173:6223-6229 (1991)). The F. lutescens enzyme is specific to alpha-ketoglutarate as the amino acceptor (Soda and Misono, Biochemistry 7:4110-4119 (1968)). Other enzymes which convert aldehydes to terminal amines include the dat gene product in Acinetobacter baumanii encoding 2,4-diaminobutanoate:2-ketoglutarate 4-transaminase (Ikai and Yamamoto, J. Bacteriol. 179:5118-5125 (1997)). In addition to its natural substrate, 2,4-diaminobutyrate, DAT transaminates the terminal amines of lysine, 4-aminobutyrate and ornithine.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
lat	BAB13756.1	10336502	Flavobacterium lutescens
lat	AAA26777.1	153343	Streptomyces clavuligenus
dat	P56744.1	6685373	Acinetobacter baumanii

The conversion of an aldehyde to a terminal amine can also be catalyzed by gamma-aminobutyrate transaminase (GABA transaminase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase). This enzyme naturally interconverts succinic semialdehyde and glutamate to 4-aminobutyrate and alpha-ketoglutarate and is known to have a broad substrate range (Liu et al., Biochemistry 43:10896-10905 2004); Schulz et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1-6 (1990)). The two GABA transaminases in E. coli are encoded by gabT (Bartsch et al., J. Bacteriol. 172:7035-7042 (1990)) and puuE (Kurihara et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:4602-4608. (2005)). GABA transaminases in Mus musculus, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Sus scrofa have been shown to react with a range of alternate substrates including 6-aminocaproic acid (Cooper, Methods Enzymol. 113:80-82 (1985); Scott and Jakoby, J. Biol. Chem. 234:932-936 (1959)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gabT	NP_417148.1	16130576	Escherichia coli
puuE	NP_415818.1	16129263	Escherichia coli
abat	NP_766549.2	37202121	Mus musculus
gabT	YP_257332.1	70733692	Pseudomonas fluorescens
abat	NP_999428.1	47523600	Sus scrofa

Additional enzyme candidates for interconverting aldehydes and primary amines are putrescine transminases or other diamine aminotransferases. The E. coli putrescine aminotransferase is encoded by the ygjG gene, and the purified enzyme also was able to transaminate cadaverine and spermidine (Samsonova et al., BMC Microbiol. 3:2 (2003)). In addition, activity of this enzyme on 1,7-diaminoheptane and with amino acceptors other than 2-oxoglutarate (for example, pyruvate, 2-oxobutanoate) has been reported (Kim, J. Biol. Chem. 239:783-786 (1964); Samsonova et al., BMC Microbiol. 3:2 (2003)). A putrescine aminotransferase with higher activity with pyruvate as the amino acceptor than alpha-ketoglutarate is the spuC gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Lu et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:3765-3773 (2002)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
ygjG	NP_417544	145698310	Escherichia coli
spuC	AAG03688	9946143	Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Enzymes that transaminate 3-oxoacids include GABA aminotransferase (described above), beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase and 3-amino-2-methylpropionate aminotransferase. Beta-alanine/alpha-ketoglutarate aminotransferase (WO08027742) reacts with beta-alanine to form malonic semialdehyde, a 3-oxoacid. The gene product of SkPYD4 in Saccharomyces kluyveri was shown to preferentially use beta-alanine as the amino group donor (Andersen and Hansen, Gene 124:105-109 (1993)). SkUGA1 encodes a homologue of Saccharomyces cerevisiae GABA aminotransferase, UGA1 (Ramos et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 149:401-404 (1985)), whereas SkPYD4 encodes an enzyme involved in both beta-alanine and GABA transamination (Andersen and Hansen, Gene 124:105-109 (1993)). 3-Amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase catalyzes the transformation from methylmalonate semialdehyde to 3-amino-2-methylpropionate. The enzyme has been characterized in Rattus norvegicus and Sus scrofa and is encoded by Abat (Kakimoto et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 156:374-380 (1968); Tamaki et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:376-389 (2000)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
SkyPYD4	ABF58893.1	98626772	Lachancea kluyveri
SkUGA1	ABF58894.1	98626792	Lachancea kluyveri
UGA1	NP_011533.1	6321456	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Abat	P50554.3	122065191	Rattus norvegicus
Abat	P80147.2	120968	Sus scrofa

Several aminotransferases transaminate the amino groups of amino acids to form 2-oxoacids. Aspartate aminotransferase is an enzyme that naturally transfers an oxo group from oxaloacetate to glutamate, forming alpha-ketoglutarate and aspartate. Aspartate is similar in structure to OHED and 2-AHD. Aspartate aminotransferase activity is catalyzed by, for example, the gene products of aspC from Escherichia coli (Yagi et al., FEBS Lett. 100:81-84 (1979); Yagi et al., Methods Enzymol. 113:83-89 (1985)), AAT2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Yagi et al., J. Biochem. 92:35-43 (1982)) and ASPS from Arabidopsis thaliana (de la Torre et al., Plant J. 46:414-425 (2006); Kwok and Hanson. J. Exp. Bot. 55:595-604 (2004); Wilkie and Warren, Protein Expr. Pur 12:381-389 (1998)). The enzyme from Rattus norvegicus has been shown to transaminate alternate substrates such as 2-aminohexanedioic acid and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (Recasens et al., Biochemistry 19:4583-4589 (1980)). Aminotransferases that work on other amino-acid substrates can also be able to catalyze this transformation. Valine aminotransferase catalyzes the conversion of valine and pyruvate to 2-ketoisovalerate and alanine The E. coli gene, avtA, encodes one such enzyme (Whalen and Berg, J. Bacteriol. 150:739-746 (1982)). This gene product also catalyzes the transamination of α-ketobutyrate to generate α-aminobutyrate, although the amine donor in this reaction has not been identified (Whalen and Berg, J. Bacteriol. 158:571-574 1984)). The gene product of the E. coli serC catalyzes two reactions, phosphoserine aminotransferase and phosphohydroxythreonine aminotransferase (Lam and Winkler, J. Bacteriol. 172:6518-6528 (1990)), and activity on non-phosphorylated substrates could not be detected (Drewke et al., FEBS Lett. 390:179-182 (1996)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
aspC	NP_415448.1	16128895	Escherichia coli
AAT2	P23542.3	1703040	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
ASP5	P46248.2	20532373	Arabidopsis thaliana
Got2	P00507	112987	Rattus norvegicus
avtA	YP_026231.1	49176374	Escherichia coli
serC	NP_415427.1	16128874	Escherichia coli

Another enzyme candidate is alpha-aminoadipate aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.39), an enzyme that participates in lysine biosynthesis and degradation in some organisms. This enzyme interconverts 2-aminoadipate and 2-oxoadipate, using alpha-ketoglutarate as the amino acceptor. Gene candidates are found in Homo sapiens (Okuno et al., Enzyme Protein 47:136-148 (1993)) and Thermus thermophilus (Miyazaki et al., Microbiology 150:2327-2334 (2004)). The Thermus thermophilus enzyme, encoded by lysN, is active with several alternate substrates including oxaloacetate, 2-oxoisocaproate, 2-oxoisovalerate, and 2-oxo-3-methylvalerate.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
lysN	BAC76939.1	31096548	Thermus thermophilus
AadAT-	Q8N5Z0.2	46395904	Homo sapiens
II

2.7.2.a Phosphotransferase (Carboxy Acceptor).

Phosphotransferase enzymes in the EC class 2.7.2 transform carboxylic acids to phosphonic acids with concurrent hydrolysis of one ATP. Step O of FIG. 62 involves the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate by such an enzyme. Butyrate kinase (EC 2.7.2.7) carries out the reversible conversion of butyryl-phosphate to butyrate during acidogenesis in C. acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990)). This enzyme is encoded by either of the two buk gene products (Huang et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:33-38 (2000)). Other butyrate kinase enzymes are found in C. butyricum and C. tetanomorphum (Twarog and Wolfe, J. Bacteriol. 86:112-117 (1963)). Related enzyme isobutyrate kinase from Thermotoga maritima has also been expressed in E. coli and crystallized (Diao et al., Acta Crystallogr. D. Biol. Crystallogr. 59:1100-1102 (2003); Diao and Hasson, J. Bacteriol. 191:2521-2529 (2009)). Aspartokinase catalyzes the ATP-dependent phosphorylation of aspartate and participates in the synthesis of several amino acids. The aspartokinase III enzyme in E. coli, encoded by lysC, has a broad substrate range, and the catalytic residues involved in substrate specificity have been elucidated (Keng and Viola, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 335:73-81 (1996)). Two additional kinases in E. coli are also good candidates: acetate kinase and gamma-glutamyl kinase. The E. coli acetate kinase, encoded by ackA (Skarstedt and Silverstein, J. Biol. Chem. 251:6775-6783 (1976)), phosphorylates propionate in addition to acetate (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). The E. coli gamma-glutamyl kinase, encoded by proB (Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)), phosphorylates the gamma carbonic acid group of glutamate.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
bukl	NP_349675	15896326	Clostridium acetobutylicum
buk2	Q97II1	20137415	Clostridium acetobutylicum
buk2	Q9X278.1	6685256	Thermotoga maritima
lysC	NP_418448.1	16131850	Escherichia coli
ackA	NP_416799.1	16130231	Escherichia coli
proB	NP_414777.1	16128228	Escherichia coli

Acetylglutamate kinase phosphorylates acetylated glutamate during arginine biosynthesis. This enzyme is not known to accept alternate substrates; however, several residues of the E. coli enzyme involved in substrate binding and phosphorylation have been elucidated by site-directed mutagenesis (Marco-Marin et al., J. Mol. Biol. 334:459-476 (2003); Ramon-Maiques et al., Structure 10:329-342 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by argB in Bacillus subtilis and E. coli (Parsot et al., Gene 68:275-283 (1988)), and ARG5,6 in S. cerevisiae (Pauwels et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 270:1014-1024 (2003)). The ARG5,6 gene of S. cerevisiae encodes a polyprotein precursor that is matured in the mitochondrial matrix to become acetylglutamate kinase and acetylglutamylphosphate reductase.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
argB	NP_418394.3	145698337	Escherichia coli
argB	NP_389003.1	16078186	Bacillus subtilis
ARG5,6	NP_010992.1	6320913	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

2.8.3.a CoA Transferase.

The gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA (Step G, FIGS. 62 and 63), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA (Step T, FIG. 62), and butyryl-CoA acetyltransferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:2128-2133 (2008); Sohling and Gottschalk, J Bacteriol 178:871-880 (1996)). Similar CoA transferase activities are also present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., J. Biol. Chem. 283:1411-1418 (2008)) and Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., J. Biol. Chem. 279:45337-45346 (2004)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
cat1	P38946.1	729048	Clostridium kluyveri
cat2	P38942.2	1705614	Clostridium kluyveri
cat3	EDK35586.1	146349050	Clostridium kluyveri
TVAG_395550	XP_001330176	123975034	Trichomonas vaginalis G3
Tb11.02.0290	XP_828352	71754875	Trypanosoma brucei

An additionally useful enzyme for this type of transformation is acyl-CoA:acetate-CoA transferase, also known as acetate-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.8), which has been shown to transfer the CoA moiety to acetate from a variety of branched and linear acyl-CoA substrates, including isobutyrate (Matthies and Schink, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:1435-1439 (1992)), valerate (Vanderwinkel et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 33:902-908 (1968)) and butanoate (Vanderwinkel, supra (1968)). This enzyme is encoded by atoA (alpha subunit) and atoD (beta subunit) in E. coli sp. K12 (Korolev et al., Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 58:2116-2121 (2002); Vanderwinkel, supra (1968)). Similar enzymes exist in Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC 13032 (Duncan et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:5186-5190 (2002)), Clostridium acetobutylicum (Cary et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1576-1583 (1990); Wiesenborn et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55:323-329 (1989)), and Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
atoA	P76459.1	2492994	Escherichia coli K12
atoD	P76458.1	2492990	Escherichia coli K12
actA	YP_226809.1	62391407	Corynebacterium
			glutamicum
cg0592	YP_224801.1	62389399	Corynebacterium
			glutamicum
ctfA	NP_149326.1	15004866	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ctfB	NP_149327.1	15004867	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ctfA	AAP42564.1	31075384	Clostridium
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum
ctfB	AAP42565.1	31075385	Clostridium
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum

The glutaconate-CoA-transferase (EC 2.8.3.12) enzyme from anaerobic bacterium Acidaminococcus fermentans reacts with diacid glutaconyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack and Buckel, FEBS Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). The genes encoding this enzyme are gctA and gctB. This enzyme has reduced but detectable activity with other CoA derivatives including glutaryl-CoA, 2-hydroxyglutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA and acrylyl-CoA (Buckel et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 118:315-321 (1981)). The enzyme has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Mac et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 226:41-51 (1994)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gctA	CAA57199.1	559392	Acidaminococcus fermentans
gctB	CAA57200.1	559393	Acidaminococcus fermentans

3.1.2.a CoA Hydrolase.

Enzymes in the 3.1.2 family hydrolyze acyl-CoA molecules to their corresponding acids. However, such enzymes can be modified to empart CoA-ligase or synthetase functionality if coupled to an energy source such as a proton pump or direct ATP hydrolysis. Several eukaryotic acetyl-CoA hydrolases (EC 3.1.2.1) have broad substrate specificity. For example, the enzyme from Rattus norvegicus brain (Robinson et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 71:959-965 (1976)) can react with butyryl-CoA, hexanoyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA. Though its sequence has not been reported, the enzyme from the mitochondrion of the pea leaf also has a broad substrate specificity, with demonstrated activity on acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, butyryl-CoA, palmitoyl-CoA, oleoyl-CoA, succinyl-CoA, and crotonyl-CoA (Zeiher and Randall, Plant. Physiol. 94:20-27 (1990)). The acetyl-CoA hydrolase, ACH1, from S. cerevisiae represents another candidate hydrolase (Buu et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:17203-17209 (2003)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
acot12	NP_570103.1	18543355	Rattus norvegicus
ACH1	NP_009538	6319456	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Another candidate hydrolase is the human dicarboxylic acid thioesterase, acot8, which exhibits activity on glutaryl-CoA, adipyl-CoA, suberyl-CoA, sebacyl-CoA, and dodecanedioyl-CoA (Westin et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:38125-38132 (2005)) and the closest E. coli homolog, tesB, which can also hydrolyze a broad range of CoA thioesters (Naggert et al., J. Biol. Chem. 266:11044-11050 (1991)). A similar enzyme has also been characterized in the rat liver (Deana, Biochem. Int. 26:767-773 (1992)). Other potential E. coli thioester hydrolases include the gene products of tesA (Bonner and Bloch, J. Biol. Chem. 247:3123-3133 (1972)), ybgC (Kuznetsova et al., FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 29:263-279 (2005); Zhuang et al., FEBS Lett. 516:161-163 (2002)), paaI (Song et al., J. Biol. Chem. 281:11028-11038 (2006)), and ybdB (Leduc et al., J. Bacteriol. 189:7112-7126 (2007)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
acot8	CAA15502	3191970	Homo sapiens
tesB	NP_414986	16128437	Escherichia coli
acot8	NP_570112	51036669	Rattus norvegicus
tesA	NP_415027	16128478	Escherichia coli
ybgC	NP_415264	16128711	Escherichia coli
paaI	NP_415914	16129357	Escherichia coli
ybdB	NP_415129	16128580	Escherichia coli

Yet another candidate hydrolase is the glutaconate CoA-transferase from Acidaminococcus fermentans. This enzyme was transformed by site-directed mutagenesis into an acyl-CoA hydrolase with activity on glutaryl-CoA, acetyl-CoA and 3-butenoyl-CoA (Mack and Buckel, FEBS Lett. 405:209-212 (1997)). This indicates that the enzymes encoding succinyl-CoA:3-ketoacid-CoA transferases and acetoacetyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferases can also serve as candidates for this reaction step but would likely require certain mutations to change their function.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
gctA	CAA57199.1	559392	Acidaminococcus fermentans
gctB	CAA57200.1	559393	Acidaminococcus fermentans

Additional hydrolase enzymes include 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA hydrolase which has been described to efficiently catalyze the conversion of 3-hydroxyisobutyryl-CoA to 3-hydroxyisobutyrate during valine degradation (Shimomura et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:14248-14253 (1994)). Genes encoding this enzyme include hibch of Rattus norvegicus (Shimomura et al., supra (1994); Shimomura et al., Methods Enzymol. 324:229-240 (2000)) and Homo sapiens (Shimomura et al., supra (1994). Candidate genes by sequence homology include hibch of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and BC_—2292 of Bacillus cereus.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
hibch	Q5XIE6.2	146324906	Rattus norvegicus
hibch	Q6NVY1.2	146324905	Homo sapiens
hibch	P28817.2	2506374	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
BC_2292	AP09256	29895975	Bacillus cereus

4.1.1.a Carboxy-Lyase.

Decarboxylation of Alpha-Keto Acids.

Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (Step B, FIGS. 58, 62 and 63), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase (Step Z, FIG. 62), and 5-amino-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase (Step R, FIG. 63) all involve the decarboxylation of an alpha-ketoacid. The decarboxylation of keto-acids is catalyzed by a variety of enzymes with varied substrate specificities, including pyruvate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.1), benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7), alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase and branched-chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase.

Pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), also termed keto-acid decarboxylase, is a key enzyme in alcoholic fermentation, catalyzing the decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetaldehyde. The enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has a broad substrate range for aliphatic 2-keto acids including 2-ketobutyrate, 2-ketovalerate, 3-hydroxypyruvate and 2-phenylpyruvate (Davie et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:16601-16606 (1992)). This enzyme has been extensively studied, engineered for altered activity, and functionally expressed in E. coli (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001); Li and Jordan, Biochemistry 38:10004-10012 (1999); ter Schure et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:1303-1307 (1998)). The PDC from Zymomonas mobilus, encoded by pdc, also has a broad substrate range and has been a subject of directed engineering studies to alter the affinity for different substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng. Des. SeL 18:345-357 (2005)). The crystal structure of this enzyme is available (Killenberg-Jabs et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:1698-1704 (2001)). Other well-characterized PDC candidates include the enzymes from Acetobacter pasteurians (Chandra et al., Arch. Microbiol. 176:443-451 (2001)) and Kluyveromyces lactis (Krieger et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 269:3256-3263 (2002)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
pdc	P06672.1	118391	Zymomonas mobilus
pdc1	P06169	30923172	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
pdc	AM21208	20385191	Acetobacter pasteurians
pdc1	Q12629	52788279	Kluyveromyces lactis

Like PDC, benzoylformate decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.7) has a broad substrate range and has been the target of enzyme engineering studies. The enzyme from Pseudomonas putida has been extensively studied and crystal structures of this enzyme are available (Hasson et al., Biochemistry 37:9918-9930 (1998); Polovnikova et al., Biochemistry 42:1820-1830 (2003). Site-directed mutagenesis of two residues in the active site of the Pseudomonas putida enzyme altered the affinity (Km) of naturally and non-naturally occurring substrates (Siegert et al., Protein Eng. Des. Sel. 18:345-357 (2005)). The properties of this enzyme have been further modified by directed engineering (Lingen et al., Protein Eng. 15:585-593 (2002); Lingen et al., Chembiochem. 4:721-726 (2003)). The enzyme from Pseudomonas aeruginosa, encoded by mdlC, has also been characterized experimentally (Barrowman et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 34:57-60 (1986)). Additional gene candidates from Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas fluorescens and other organisms can be inferred by sequence homology or identified using a growth selection system developed in Pseudomonas putida (Henning et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72:7510-7517 (2006)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
mdlC	P20906.2	3915757	Pseudomonas putida
mdlC	Q9HUR2.1	81539678	Pseudomonas aeruginosa
dpgB	ABN80423.1	126202187	Pseudomonas stutzeri
ilvB-1	YP_260581.1	70730840	Pseudomonas fluorescens

A third enzyme capable of decarboxylating 2-oxoacids is alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase (KGD). The substrate range of this class of enzymes has not been studied to date. The KDC from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Tian et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:10670-10675 (2005)) has been cloned and functionally expressed. However, it is not an ideal candidate for strain engineering because it is large (˜130 kD) and GC-rich. KDC enzyme activity has been detected in several species of rhizobia including Bradyrhizobium japonicum and Mesorhizobium loti (Green et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:2838-2844 (2000). Although the KDC-encoding gene(s) have not been isolated in these organisms, the genome sequences are available, and several genes in each genome are annotated as putative KDCs. A KDC from Euglena gracilis has also been characterized, but the gene associated with this activity has not been identified to date (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The first twenty amino acids starting from the N-terminus were sequenced (MTYKAPVKDVKFLLDKVFKV; SEQ ID NO:45) (Shigeoka and Nakano, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 288:22-28 (1991)). The gene can be identified by testing candidate genes containing this N-terminal sequence for KDC activity.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
kgd	O50463.4	160395583	Mycobacterium tuberculosis
kgd	NP_767092.1	27375563	Bradyrhizobium japonicum
kgd	NP_105204.1	13473636	Mesorhizobium loti

A fourth candidate enzyme for catalyzing this reaction is branched chain alpha-ketoacid decarboxylase (BCKA). This class of enzyme has been shown to act on a variety of compounds varying in chain length from 3 to 6 carbons (Oku and Kaneda, J. Biol. Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988); Smit et al., B. A., J. E. Hylckama Vlieg, W. J. Engels, L. Meijer, J. T. Wouters, and G. Smit. Identification, cloning, and characterization of a Lactococcus lactis branched-chain alpha-keto acid decarboxylase involved in flavor formation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme in Lactococcus lactis has been characterized on a variety of branched and linear substrates including 2-oxobutanoate, 2-oxohexanoate, 2-oxopentanoate, 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate, 4-methyl-2-oxobutanoate and isocaproate (Smit et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:303-311 (2005)). The enzyme has been structurally characterized (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). Sequence alignments between the Lactococcus lactis enzyme and the pyruvate decarboxylase of Zymomonas mobilus indicate that the catalytic and substrate recognition residues are nearly identical (Siegert et al., Protein Eng. Des. Sel. 18:345-357 (2005)), so this enzyme would be a promising candidate for directed engineering. Decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate by a BCKA was detected in Bacillus subtilis; however, this activity was low (5%) relative to activity on other branched-chain substrates (Oku and Kaneda. Biosynthesis of branched-chain fatty acids in Bacillus subtilis. A decarboxylase is essential for branched-chain fatty acid synthetase. J. Biol. Chem. 263:18386-18396 (1988)), and the gene encoding this enzyme has not been identified to date. Additional BCKA gene candidates can be identified by homology to the Lactococcus lactis protein sequence. Many of the high-scoring BLASTp hits to this enzyme are annotated as indolepyruvate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.74). Indolepyruvate decarboxylase (IPDA) is an enzyme that catalyzes the decarboxylation of indolepyruvate to indoleacetaldehyde in plants and plant bacteria.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
kdcA	AAS49166.1	44921617	Lactococcus lactis

Recombinant branched chain alpha-keto acid decarboxylase enzymes derived from the E1 subunits of the mitochondrial branched-chain keto acid dehydrogenase complex from Homo sapiens and Bos taurus have been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Davie et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:16601-16606 1992); Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:1881-1887 (1992); Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). In these studies, the authors found that co-expression of chaperonins GroEL and GroES enhanced the specific activity of the decarboxylase by 500-fold (Wynn et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267:12400-12403 (1992)). These enzymes are composed of two alpha and two beta subunits.

	Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
	BCKDHB	NP_898871.1	34101272	Homo sapiens
	BCKDHA	NP_000700.1	11386135	Homo sapiens
	BCKDHB	P21839	115502434	Bos taurus
	BCKDHA	P11178	129030	Bos taurus

Decarboxylation of Alpha-Keto Acids.

Several ornithine decarboxylase (Step U, FIG. 63) enzymes also exhibit activity on lysine and other similar compounds. Such enzymes are found in Nicotiana glutinosa (Lee and Cho, Biochem. J. 360:657-665 (2001)), Lactobacillus sp. 30a (Guirard and Snell, J. Biol. Chem. 255:5960-5964 (1980)) and Vibrio vulnificus (Lee et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:27115-27125 (2007)). The enzymes from Lactobacillus sp. 30a (Momany et al., J. Mol. Biol. 252:643-655 (1995)) and V. vulnificus have been crystallized. The V. vulnificus enzyme efficiently catalyzes lysine decarboxylation, and the residues involved in substrate specificity have been elucidated (Lee et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:27115-27125 (2007)). A similar enzyme has been characterized in Trichomonas vaginalis, but the gene encoding this enzyme is not known (Yarlett et al., Biochem. J. 293 (Pt 2):487-493 (1993)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
AF323910.1:1 . . 1299	AAG45222.1	12007488	Nicotiana glutinosa
odc1	P43099.2	1169251	Lactobacillus sp. 30a
VV2_1235	NP_763142.1	27367615	Vibrio vulnificus

Glutamate decarboxylase enzymes (Step L, FIGS. 62 and 63) are also well-characterized. Exemplary glutamate decarboxylases can be found in E. coli (De Biase et al., Protein Expr. Pur 8:430-438 (1996)), S. cerevisiae (Coleman et al., J. Biol. Chem. 276:244-250 (2001)), and Homo sapiens (Bu et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2115-2119 (1992); Bu and Tobin, Genomics 21:222-228 (1994)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
GAD1	NP_000808	58331246	Homo sapiens
GAD2	NP_001127838	197276620	Homo sapiens
gadA	NP_417974	16131389	Escherichia coli
gadB	NP_416010	16129452	Escherichia coli
GAD1	NP_013976	6323905	Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Lysine decarboxylase (EC 4.1.1.18) catalyzes the decarboxylation of lysine to cadaverine. Two isozymes of this enzyme are encoded in the E. coli genome by genes cadA and ldcC. CadA is involved in acid resistance and is subject to positive regulation by the cadC gene product (Lemonnier and Lane, Microbiology 144 (Pt 3):751-760 (1998)). CadC accepts hydroxylysine and S-aminoethylcysteine as alternate substrates, and 2-Aminopimelate and 6-ACA act as competitive inhibitors to this enzyme (Sabo et al., Biochemistry 13:662-670 (1974)). Directed evolution or other enzyme engineering methods can be utilized to increase the activity for this enzyme to decarboxylate 2-aminopimelate. The constitutively expressed ldc gene product is less active than CadA (Lemonnier and Lane, Microbiology 144 (Pt 3):751-760 (1998)). A lysine decarboxylase analogous to CadA was recently identified in Vibrio parahaemolyticus (Tanaka et al., J. Appl. Microbiol. 104:1283-1293 (2008)). The lysine decarboxylase from Selenomonas ruminantium, encoded by ldc, bears sequence similarity to eukaryotic ornithine decarboxylases, and accepts both L-lysine and L-ornithine as substrates (Takatsuka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 63:1843-1846 (1999)). Active site residues were identified and engineered to alter the substrate specificity of the enzyme (Takatsuka et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:6732-6741 (2000)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
cadA	AAA23536.1	145458	Escherichia coli
ldcC	AAC73297.1	1786384	Escherichia coli
ldc	O50657.1	13124043	Selenomonas ruminantium
cadA	AB124819.1	44886078	Vibrio parahaemolyticus

6.2.1.a CoA Synthetase.

CoA synthetase or ligase reactions are required by Step I of FIGS. 62 and 63, and Step V of FIG. 62. Succinate or 4-hydroxybutyrate are the required substrates. Exemplary genes encoding enzymes likely to carry out these transformations include the sucCD genes of E. coli, which naturally form a succinyl-CoA synthetase complex. This enzyme complex naturally catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concomitant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochem. 24:6245-6252 (1985)).

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
sucC	NP_415256.1	16128703	Escherichia coli
sucD	AAC73823.1	1786949	Escherichia coli

Additional exemplary CoA-ligases include the rat dicarboxylate-CoA ligase for which the sequence is yet uncharacterized (Vamecq et al., Biochemical J. 230:683-693 (1985)), either of the two characterized phenylacetate-CoA ligases from P. chrysogenum (Lamas-Maceiras et al., Biochem. J. 395:147-155 (2005); Wang et al., Biochem Biophy Res Commun 360(2):453-458 (2007)), the phenylacetate-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Martinez-Blanco et al., J. Biol. Chem. 265:7084-7090 (1990)), and the 6-carboxyhexanoate-CoA ligase from Bacilis subtilis (Bower et al., J. Bacteriol. 178(14):4122-4130 (1996)). Additional candidate enzymes are acetoacetyl-CoA synthetases from Mus musculus (Hasegawa et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1779:414-419 (2008)) and Homo sapiens (Ohgami et al., Biochem. Pharmacol. 65:989-994 (2003)), which naturally catalyze the ATP-dependant conversion of acetoacetate into acetoacetyl-CoA. 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase activity has been demonstrated in Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). This function has been tentatively assigned to the Msed_—1422 gene.

Gene	Accession No.	GI No.	Organism
phl	CAJ15517.1	77019264	Penicillium chrysogenum
phlB	ABS19624.1	152002983	Penicillium chrysogenum
paaF	AAC24333.2	22711873	Pseudomonas putida
bioW	NP_390902.2	50812281	Bacillus subtilis
AACS	NP_084486.1	21313520	Mus musculus
AACS	NP_076417.2	31982927	Homo sapiens
Msed_1422	YP_001191504	146304188	Metallosphaera sedula

ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD, EC 6.2.1.13) is another candidate enzyme that couples the conversion of acyl-CoA esters to their corresponding acids with the concurrent synthesis of ATP. Several enzymes with broad substrate specificities have been described in the literature. ACD I from Archaeoglobus fulgidus, encoded by AF1211, was shown to operate on a variety of linear and branched-chain substrates including acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, butyryl-CoA, acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyryate, isovalerate, succinate, fumarate, phenylacetate, indoleacetate (Musfeldt et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) accepts propionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isovalerate and isobutyrate) as substrates, and was shown to operate in the forward and reverse directions (Brasen et al., Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen et al., supra (2004)). The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Musfeldt et al., supra; Brasen et al., supra (2004)).

	Accession
Gene	No.	GI No.	Organism
AF1211	NP_070039.1	11498810	Archaeoglobus fulgidus DSM 4304
scs	YP_135572.1	55377722	Haloarcula marismortui ATCC
			43049
PAE3250	NP_560604.1	18313937	Pyrobaculum aerophilum str. IM2

Example XXIII

Production of BDO Utilizing Carboxylic Acid Reductase

This example describes the generation of a microbial organism that produces 1,4-butanediol using carboxylic acid reductase enzymes.

Escherichia coli is used as a target organism to engineer the pathway for 1,4-butanediol synthesis described in FIG. 58. E. coli provides a good host for generating a non-naturally occurring microorganism capable of producing 1,4-butanediol. E. coli is amenable to genetic manipulation and is known to be capable of producing various products, like ethanol, acetic acid, formic acid, lactic acid, and succinic acid, effectively under various oxygenation conditions.

Integration of 4-Hydroxybutyrate Pathway Genes into Chromosome: Construction of ECKh-432.

The carboxylic acid reductase enzymes were expressed in a strain of E. coli designated ECKh-761 which is a descendent of ECKh-432 with additional deletions of the sad and gabD genes encoding succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase enzymes. This strain contained the components of the BDO pathway, leading to 4HB, integrated into the chromosome of E. coli at the fimD locus as described in Example XXI.

Cloning and Expression of Carboxylic Acid Reductase and PPTase.

To generate an E. coli strain engineered to produce 1,4-butanediol, nucleic acids encoding a carboxylic acid reductase and phosphopantetheine transferase are expressed in E. coli using well known molecular biology techniques (see, for example, Sambrook, supra, 2001; Ausubel supra, 1999). In particular, car genes from Nocardia iowensis (designated 720), Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 (designated 890), Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis K-10 (designated 891) and Mycobacterium marinum M (designated 892) were cloned into pZS*13 vectors (Expressys, Ruelzheim, Germany) under control of PA1/lacO promoters. The npt (ABI83656.1) gene (i.e., 721) was cloned into the pKJL33S vector, a derivative of the original mini-F plasmid vector PML31 under control of promoters and ribosomal binding sites similar to those used in pZS*13.

The car gene (GNM_—720) was cloned by PCR from Nocardia genomic DNA. Its nucleic acid and protein sequences are shown in FIGS. 59A and 59B, respectively. A codon-optimized version of the npt gene (GNM_—721) was synthesized by GeneArt (Regensburg, Germany). Its nucleic acid and protein sequences are shown in FIGS. 60A and 60B, respectively. The nucleic acid and protein sequences for the Mycobacterium smegmatis mc(2)155 (designated 890), Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis K-10 (designated 891) and Mycobacterium marinum M (designated 892) genes and enzymes can be found in FIGS. 64, 65, and 66, respectively. The plasmids were transformed into ECKh-761 to express the proteins and enzymes required for 1,4-butanediol production.

Additional CAR variants were generated. A codon optimized version of CAR 891 was generated and designated 891 GA. The nucleic acid and amino acid sequences of CAR 891GA are shown in FIGS. 67A and 67B, respectively. Over 2000 CAR variants were generated. In particular, all 20 amino acid combinations were made at positions V295, M296, G297, G391, G421, D413, G414, Y415, G416, and 5417 of the CAR sequence, and additional variants were tested as well (amino acid positions corresponding to amino acid positions of sequence of FIG. 67B). Exemplary CAR variants include: E16K; Q95L; L100M; A1011T; K823E; T941S; H15Q; D198E; G446C; S392N; F699L; V883I; F467S; T987S; R12H; V295G; V295A; V295S; V295T; V295C; V295V; V295L; V295I; V295M; V295P; V295F; V295Y; V295W; V295D; V295E; V295N; V295Q; V295H; V295K; V295R; M296G; M296A; M296S; M296T; M296C; M296V; M296L; M296I; M296M; M296P; M296F; M296Y; M296W; M296D; M296E; M296N; M296Q; M296H; M296K; M296R; G297G; G297A; G297S; G297T; G297C; G297V; G297L; G297I; G297M; G297P; G297F; G297Y; G297W; G297D; G297E; G297N; G297Q; G297H; G297K; G297R; G391G; G391A; G391S; G391T; G391C; G391V; G391L; G391I; G391M; G391P; G391F; G391Y; G391W; G391D; G391E; G391N; G391Q; G391H; G391K; G391R; G421G; G421A; G421S; G421T; G421C; G421V; G421L; G421I; G421M; G421P; G421F; G421Y; G421W; G421D; G421E; G421N; G421Q; G421H; G421K; G421R; D413G; D413A; D413S; D413T; D413C; D413V; D413L; D413I; D413M; D413P; D413F; D413Y; D413W; D413D; D413E; D413N; D413Q; D413H; D413K; D413R; G414G; G414A; G414S; G414T; G414C; G414V; G414L; G414I; G414M; G414P; G414F; G414Y; G414W; G414D; G414E; G414N; G414Q; G414H; G414K; G414R; Y415G; Y415A; Y415S; Y415T; Y415C; Y415V; Y415L; Y415I; Y415M; Y415P; Y415F; Y415Y; Y415W; Y415D; Y415E; Y415N; Y415Q; Y415H; Y415K; Y415R; G416G; G416A; G416S; G416T; G416C; G416V; G416L; G416I; G416M; G416P; G416F; G416Y; G416W; G416D; G416E; G416N; G416Q; G416H; G416K; G416R; S417G; S417A; S417S; S417T; S417C; S417V S417L; S417I; S417M; S417P; S417F; S417Y; S417W; S417D; S417E; S417N; S417Q; S417H; S417K; and S417R.

The CAR variants were screened for activity, and numerous CAR variants were found to exhibit CAR activity.

Demonstration of 1,4-BDO Production Using Carboxylic Acid Reductase.

Functional expression of the 1,4-butanediol pathway was demonstrated using E. coli whole-cell culture. Single colonies of E. coli ECKh-761 transformed with the pZS*13 and pKJL33S plasmids containing a car gene and GNM_—721, respectively, were inoculated into 5 mL of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Similarly, single colonies of E. coli ECKh-761 transformed with car-containing pZS*13 plasmids and pKJL33S plasmids with no insert were inoculated into additional 5 mL aliquots of LB medium containing appropriate antibiotics. Ten mL micro-aerobic cultures were started by inoculating fresh minimal in vivo conversion medium (see below) containing the appropriate antibiotics with 1.5% of the first cultures.

Recipe of the minimal in vivo conversion medium (for 1000 mL) is as follows:

Final concentration
1M MOPS/KOH buffer     100 mM
Glucose (40%)          1%
10XM9 salts solution   1X
MgSO4 (1 M)            1 mM
trace minerals (x1000) 1X
1M NaHCO3              10 mM

Microaerobic conditions were established by initially flushing capped anaerobic bottles with nitrogen for 5 minutes, then piercing the septum with an 18 G needle following inoculation. The needle was kept in the bottle during growth to allow a small amount of air to enter the bottles. Protein expression was induced with 0.2 mM IPTG when the culture reached mid-log growth phase. This is considered: time=0 hr. The culture supernatants were analyzed for BDO, 4HB, and other by-products as described above and in WO2008115840 (see Table 30).

Table 32 shows the production of various products in the strains expressing various carboxylic acid reductases, including production of BDO.

TABLE 32
Production of various products in strains expressing
various carboxylic acid reductases.
		Cm10	Carb100	Carb100	0 h
	Strain	pKLJ33S	pZS*13S	pZShc13S	OD600	OD600
1	761	034rbs55	no insert		0.54	2.13
5	761	721	720		0.48	1.88
7	761	721	890		0.45	1.63
8	761	721	891		0.48	1.65
9	761	721	892		0.45	1.31
12	761	no insert	720		0.50	1.72
14	761	no insert	890		0.51	1.96
15	761	no insert	891		0.19	2.36
16	761	no insert	892		0.05	1.40
48 h
	PA	Su	La	4HB	BDO	GBL	EtOHEnz
48 h, mM
1	10.60	0.00	0.20	8.08	2.40	2.97	0.65
5	3.41	0.00	0.02	6.93	8.53	0.24	1.82
7	0.00	0.00	0.00	6.26	12.30	0.47	5.85
8	2.16	0.00	0.00	7.61	9.08	0.46	2.84
9	0.36	0.00	0.00	5.89	7.83	0.15	2.89
12	8.30	0.00	0.13	9.91	1.99	0.14	0.64
14	2.57	0.00	0.01	9.77	3.53	0.14	1.44
15	1.73	0.00	0.00	9.71	2.68	0.10	0.79
16	0.02	0.00	0.00	10.80	1.30	0.07	0.55
48 h, mM/OD
1	4.98	0.00	0.09	3.80	1.13	1.40	0.31
5	1.81	0.00	0.01	3.69	4.54	0.13	0.97
7	0.00	0.00	0.00	3.84	7.55	0.29	3.59
8	1.31	0.00	0.00	4.61	5.50	0.28	1.72
9	0.27	0.00	0.00	4.50	5.99	0.12	2.21
12	4.83	0.00	0.07	5.76	1.16	0.08	0.37
14	1.31	0.00	0.01	4.99	1.80	0.07	0.74
15	0.73	0.00	0.00	4.11	1.13	0.04	0.33
16	0.01	0.00	0.00	7.71	0.93	0.05	0.39
PA = pyruvate, SA = succinate, LA = lactate, 4HB = 4-hydroxybutyrate, BDO = 1,4-butanediol, GBL = gamma-butyrolactone, Etoh = ethanol, LLOQ = lower limit of quantification

These results show that various carboxylic acid reductases can function in a BDO pathway to produce BDO.

Example XXIV

4-Hydroxybutyrate and 1,4-Butanediol Synthesis Pathways

This example describes exemplary 4-hydroxybutyrate and 1,4-butanediol synthesis pathways, which have also been described herein above.

Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase converts two molecules of acetyl-CoA into one molecule each of acetoacetyl-CoA and CoA. Exemplary acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase enzymes include the gene products of atoB from E. coli (Martin et al., Nat. Biotechnol. 21:796-802 (2003), thlA and thlB from C. acetobutylicum (Hanai et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:7814-7818 (2007); Winzer et al., J. Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2:531-541 (2000), and ERG10 from S. cerevisiae (Hiser et al., J. Biol. Chem. 269:31383-31389 (1994). The acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase from Zoogloea ramigera is irreversible in the biosynthetic direction and a crystal structure is available (Merilainen et al., Biochem. 48: 11011-11025 (2009)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI number	Organism
AtoB	NP_416728	16130161	Escherichia coli
ThlA	NP_349476.1	15896127	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ThlB	NP_149242.1	15004782	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ERG10	NP_015297	6325229	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
phbA	P07097.4	135759	Zoogloea ramigera

Acetoacetyl-CoA can also be synthesized from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA by acetoacetyl-CoA synthase (EC 2.3.1.194). This enzyme (FhsA) has been characterized in the soil bacterium Streptomyces sp. CL 190 where it participates in mevalonate biosynthesis (Okamura et al, PNAS USA 107:11265-11270 (2010)). As this enzyme catalyzes an essentially irreversible reaction, it is particularly useful for metabolic engineering applications for overproducing metabolites, fuels or chemicals derived from acetoacetyl-CoA. For example, the enzyme has been heterologously expressed in organisms that biosynthesize butanol (Lan et al, PNAS USA (2012)) and poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) (Matsumoto et al, Biosci Biotech Biochem, 75:364-366 (2011). Other acetoacetyl-CoA synthase genes can be identified by sequence homology to fhsA.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
fhsA	BAJ83474.1	325302227	Streptomyces sp CL190
AB183750.1:11991 . . . 12971	BAD86806.1	57753876	Streptomyces sp. KO-3988
epzT	ADQ43379.1	312190954	Streptomyces cinnamonensis
ppzT	CAX48662.1	238623523	Streptomyces anulatus
O3I_22085	ZP_09840373.1	378817444	Nocardia brasiliensis

Acetoacetyl-CoA can first be reduced to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA by acetoacetyl-CoA reductase (ketone reducing). Acetoacetyl-CoA reductase catalyzing the reduction of acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA participates in the acetyl-CoA fermentation pathway to butyrate in several species of Clostridia and has been studied in detail (Jones and Woods, Microbiol. Rev. 50:484-524 (1986)). The enzyme from Clostridium acetobutylicum, encoded by hbd, has been cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Youngleson et al., J. Bacteriol. 171:6800-6807 (1989)). Additionally, subunits of two fatty acid oxidation complexes in E. coli, encoded by fadB and fadJ, function as 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenases (Binstock and Schulz, Methods Enzymol. 71 Pt C:403-411 (1981)). Yet other gene candidates demonstrated to reduce acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA are phbB from Zoogloea ramigera (Ploux et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 174:177-182 (1988) and phaB from Rhodobacter sphaeroides (Alber et al., Mol. Microbiol. 61:297-309 (2006). The former gene candidate is NADPH-dependent, its nucleotide sequence has been determined (Peoples and Sinskey, Mol. Microbiol. 3:349-357 (1989) and the gene has been expressed in E. coli. Substrate specificity studies on the gene led to the conclusion that it could accept 3-oxopropionyl-CoA as a substrate besides acetoacetyl-CoA (Ploux et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 174:177-182 (1988)). Additional gene candidates include Hbd1 (C-terminal domain) and Hbd2 (N-terminal domain) in Clostridium kluyveri (Hillmer and Gottschalk, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 3334:12-23 (1974)) and HSD17B10 in Bos taurus (Wakil et al., J. Biol. Chem. 207:631-638 (1954)).

Protein	Genbank ID	GI number	Organism
fadB	P21177.2	119811	Escherichia coli
fadJ	P77399.1	3334437	Escherichia coli
Hbd2	EDK34807.1	146348271	Clostridium kluyveri
Hbd1	EDK32512.1	146345976	Clostridium kluyveri
hbd	P52041.2		Clostridium acetobutylicum
HSD17B10	O02691.3	3183024	Bos taurus
phbB	P23238.1	130017	Zoogloea ramigera
phaB	YP_353825.1	77464321	Rhodobacter sphaeroides

A number of similar enzymes have been found in other species of Clostridia and in Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI number	Organism
hbd	NP_349314.1	NP_349314.1	Clostridium
			acetobutylicum
hbd	AAM14586.1	AAM14586.1	Clostridium beijerinckii
Msed_1423	YP_001191505	YP_001191505	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0399	YP_001190500	YP_001190500	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0389	YP_001190490	YP_001190490	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_1993	YP_001192057	YP_001192057	Metallosphaera sedula

This Example shows further enzymes that can be used in a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway. The genes for the first enzyme, acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase are described herein above.

Exemplary 3-hydroxyacyl dehydrogenases which convert acetoacetyl-CoA to 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA include hbd from C. acetobutylicum (Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996), hbd from C. beijerinckii (Colby and Chen, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3297-3302 (1992), and a number of similar enzymes from Metallosphaera sedula (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
hbd	NP_349314.1	15895965	Clostridium acetobutylicum
hbd	AAM14586.1	20162442	Clostridium beijerinckii
Msed_1423	YP_001191505	146304189	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0399	YP_001190500	146303184	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_0389	YP_001190490	146303174	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_1993	YP_001192057	146304741	Metallosphaera sedula

The gene product of crt from C. acetobutylicum catalyzes the dehydration of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA (Boynton et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:3015-3024 (1996); Atsumi et al., Metab. Eng. (2007)). Further, enoyl-CoA hydratases are reversible enzymes and thus suitable candidates for catalyzing the dehydration of 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonyl-CoA. The enoyl-CoA hydratases, phaA and phaB, of P. putida are believed to carry out the hydroxylation of double bonds during phenylacetate catabolism (Olivera et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 95:6419-6424 (1998)). The paaA and paaB from P. fluorescens catalyze analogous transformations (Olivera et al., supra). Lastly, a number of Escherichia coli genes have been shown to demonstrate enoyl-CoA hydratase functionality including maoC, paaF, and paaG (Park and Lee, J. Bacteriol. 185:5391-5397 (2003); Park and Lee, Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 113-116:335-346 (2004); Park and Yup, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:681-686 (2004); Ismail et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:5097-5105 (2003)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
crt	NP_349318.1	15895969	Clostridium acetobutylicum
paaA	NP_745427.1	26990002	Pseudomonas putida
paaB	NP_745426.1	26990001	Pseudomonas putida
phaA	ABF82233.1	106636093	Pseudomonas fluorescens
phaB	ABF82234.1	106636094	Pseudomonas fluorescens
maoC	NP_415905.1	16129348	Escherichia coli
paaF	NP_415911.1	16129354	Escherichia coli
paaG	NP_415912.1	16129355	Escherichia coli

Several enzymes that naturally catalyze the reverse reaction (i.e., the dehydration of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to crotonoyl-CoA) in vivo have been identified in numerous species. This transformation is required for 4-aminobutyrate fermentation by Clostridium aminobutyricum (Scherf and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:421-429 (1993) and succinate-ethanol fermentation by Clostridium kluyveri (Scherf et al., Arch. Microbiol. 161:239-245 (1994)). The transformation is also a key step in Archaea, for example, Metallosphaera sedula, as part of the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate autotrophic carbon dioxide assimilation pathway (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). This pathway requires the hydration of crotonoyl-CoA to form 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. The reversibility of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase is well-documented (Muh et al., Biochemistry 35:11710-11718 (1996); Friedrich et al., Agnew Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 47:3254-3257 (2008); Muh et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 248:380-384 (1997) and the equilibrium constant has been reported to be about 4 on the side of crotonoyl-CoA (Scherf and Buckel, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:421-429 (1993). This implies that the downstream 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase must keep the 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA concentration low so as to not create a thermodynamic bottleneck at crotonyl-CoA. The reverse reaction of 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase is crotonyl-CoA hydratase.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
AbfD	CAB60035	70910046	Clostridium
			aminobutyricum
AbfD	YP_001396399	153955634	Clostridium kluyveri
Msed_1321	YP_001191403	146304087	Metallosphaera sedula
Msed_1220	YP_001191305	146303989	Metallosphaera sedula

Suitable acetoacetyl-CoA and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferases are encoded by the gene products of cat1, cat2, and cat3 of Clostridium kluyveri. These enzymes have been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and butyryl-CoA transferase activity, respectively (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:2128-2133 (2008); Sohling and Gottschalk, J Bacteriol 178:871-880 (1996)). Similar CoA transferase activities are also present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., J. Biol. Chem. 283:1411-1418 (2008)) and Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., J. Biol. Chem. 279:45337-45346 (2004)). Yet another transferase capable of the desired conversions is butyryl-CoA:acetoacetate CoA-transferase. Exemplary enzymes can be found in Fusobacterium nucleatum (Barker et al., J. Bacteriol. 152(1):201-7 (1982)), Clostridium SB4 (Barker et al., J. Biol. Chem. 253(4):1219-25 (1978)), and Clostridium acetobutylicum (Wiesenborn et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(2):323-9 (1989)). Although specific gene sequences were not provided for butyryl-CoA:acetoacetate CoA-transferase in these references, the genes FN0272 and FN0273 have been annotated as a butyrate-acetoacetate CoA-transferase (Kapatral et al., J. Bact. 184(7) 2005-2018 (2002)). Homologs in Fusobacterium nucleatum such as FN1857 and FN1856 also likely have the desired acetoacetyl-CoA transferase activity. FN1857 and FN1856 are located adjacent to many other genes involved in lysine fermentation and are thus very likely to encode an acetoacetate:butyrate CoA transferase (Kreimeyer, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282 (10) 7191-7197 (2007)). Additional candidates from Porphyrmonas gingivalis and Thermoanaerobacter tengcongensis can be identified in a similar fashion (Kreimeyer, et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282 (10) 7191-7197 (2007)). Information related to these proteins and genes is shown below.

Protein	GENBANK ID	GI NUMBER	ORGANISM
Cat1	P38946.1	729048	Clostridium kluyveri
Cat2	P38942.2	1705614	Clostridium kluyveri
Cat3	EDK35586.1	146349050	Clostridium kluyveri
TVAG_395550	XP_001330176	123975034	Trichomonas vaginalis G3
Tb11.02.0290	XP_828352	71754875	Trypanosoma brucei
FN0272	NP_603179.1	19703617	Fusobacterium nucleatum
FN0273	NP_603180.1	19703618	Fusobacterium nucleatum
FN1857	NP_602657.1	19705162	Fusobacterium nucleatum
FN1856	NP_602656.1	19705161	Fusobacterium nucleatum
PG1066	NP_905281.1	34540802	Porphyromonas gingivalis
			W83
PG1075	NP_905290.1	34540811	Porphyromonas gingivalis
			W83
TTE0720	NP_622378.1	20807207	Thermoanaerobacter
			tengcongensis MB4
TTE0721	NP_622379.1	20807208	Thermoanaerobacter
			tengcongensis MB4

An alternative method for removing the CoA moiety from acetoacetyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA is to apply a pair of enzymes such as a phosphate-transferring acyltransferase and a kinase to impart acetoacetyl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase activity. Exemplary names for these enzymes include phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, which can remove the CoA moiety from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, and phosphotransacetoacetylase/acetoacetate kinase which can remove the CoA moiety from acetoacetyl-CoA. This general activity enables the net hydrolysis of the CoA-ester of either molecule with the simultaneous generation of ATP. For example, the butyrate kinase (buk)/phosphotransbutyrylase (ptb) system from Clostridium acetobutylicum has been successfully applied to remove the CoA group from 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA when functioning as part of a pathway for 3-hydroxybutyrate synthesis (Tseng et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 75(10):3137-3145 (2009)). Specifically, the ptb gene from C. acetobutylicum encodes an enzyme that can convert an acyl-CoA into an acyl-phosphate (Walter et al. Gene 134(1): p. 107-11 (1993)); Huang et al. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2(1): p. 33-38 (2000). Additional ptb genes can be found in butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 (Louis et al. J. Bacteriol. 186:2099-2106 (2004)) and Bacillus megaterium (Vazquez et al. Curr. Microbiol 42:345-349 (2001)). Additional exemplary phosphate-transferring acyltransferases include phosphotransacetylase, encoded by pta. The pta gene from E. coli encodes an enzyme that can convert acetyl-CoA into acetyl-phosphate, and vice versa (Suzuki, T. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191:559-569 (1969)). This enzyme can also utilize propionyl-CoA instead of acetyl-CoA forming propionate in the process (Hesslinger et al. Mol. Microbiol 27:477-492 (1998)). Information related to these proteins and genes is shown below.

Protein	GENBANK ID	GI NUMBER	ORGANISM
Pta	NP_416800.1	16130232	Escherichia coli
Ptb	NP_349676	15896327	Clostridium acetobutylicum
Ptb	AAR19757.1	38425288	butyrate-producing bacterium
			L2-50
Ptb	CAC07932.1	10046659	Bacillus megaterium

Exemplary kinases include the E. coli acetate kinase, encoded by ackA (Skarstedt and Silverstein J. Biol. Chem. 251:6775-6783 (1976)), the C. acetobutylicum butyrate kinases, encoded by buk1 and buk2 ((Walter et al. Gene 134(1):107-111 (1993); Huang et al. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2(1):33-38 (2000)), and the E. coli gamma-glutamyl kinase, encoded by proB (Smith et al. J. Bacteriol. 157:545-551 (1984)). These enzymes phosphorylate acetate, butyrate, and glutamate, respectively. The ackA gene product from E. coli also phosphorylates propionate (Hesslinger et al. Mol. Microbiol 27:477-492 (1998)). Information related to these proteins and genes is shown below:

Protein	GENBANK ID	GI NUMBER	ORGANISM
AckA	NP_416799.1	16130231	Escherichia coli
Buk1	NP_349675	15896326	Clostridium acetobutylicum
Buk2	Q97II1	20137415	Clostridium acetobutylicum
ProB	NP_414777.1	16128228	Escherichia coli

Further enzymes that can be used in a 1,4-butanediol pathway. The genes for acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase, 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase (Hbd), Crotonase (Crt), and Crotonyl-CoA hydratase (4-Budh) are described herein above. Alcohol-forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase enzymes catalyze the 2 reduction steps required to form 1,4-butanediol from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. Exemplary 2-step oxidoreductases that convert an acyl-CoA to alcohol include those that transform substrates such as acetyl-CoA to ethanol (e.g., adhE from E. coli (Kessler et al., FEBS Lett. 281:59-63 (1991)) and butyryl-CoA to butanol (e.g. adhE2 from C. acetobutylicum (Fontaine et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:821-830 (2002)). The adhE2 enzyme from C. acetobutylicum was specifically shown in ref. (WO/2008/115840 (2008)) to produce BDO from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA. In addition to reducing acetyl-CoA to ethanol, the enzyme encoded by adhE in Leuconostoc mesenteroides has been shown to oxide the branched chain compound isobutyraldehyde to isobutyryl-CoA (Kazahaya et al., J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 18:43-55 (1972; Koo et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 27:505-510 (2005)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
adhE	NP_415757.1	16129202	Escherichia coli
adhE2	AAK09379.1	12958626	Clostridium acetobutylicum
adhE	AAV66076.1	55818563	Leuconostoc mesenteroides

Another exemplary enzyme can convert malonyl-CoA to 3-HP. An NADPH-dependent enzyme with this activity has characterized in Chloroflexus aurantiacus where it participates in the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002); Strauss and Fuchs, Eur. J. Biochem. 215:633-643 (1993)). This enzyme, with a mass of 300 kDa, is highly substrate-specific and shows little sequence similarity to other known oxidoreductases (Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). No enzymes in other organisms have been shown to catalyze this specific reaction; however there is bioinformatic evidence that other organisms may have similar pathways (Klatt et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:2067-2078 (2007)). Enzyme candidates in other organisms including Roseiflexus castenholzii, Erythrobacter sp. NAP1 and marine gamma proteobacterium HTCC2080 can be inferred by sequence similarity.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
mcr	AAS20429.1	42561982	Chloroflexus
			aurantiacus
Rcas_2929	YP_001433009.1	156742880	Roseiflexus castenholzii
NAP1_02720	ZP_01039179.1	85708113	Erythrobacter sp. NAP1
MGP2080_00535	ZP_01626393.1	119504313	marine gamma
			proteobacterium
			HTCC2080

An alternative route to BDO from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA involves first reducing this compound to 4-hydroxybutanal. Several acyl-CoA dehydrogenases are capable of reducing an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde. Exemplary genes that encode such enzymes include the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus acr1 encoding a fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Reiser and Somerville, J. Bacteriol. 179:2969-2975 (1997), the Acinetobacter sp. M-1 fatty acyl-CoA reductase (Ishige et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 68:1192-1195 (2002), and a CoA- and NADP— dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase encoded by the sucD gene in Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996); Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:8710880 (1996)). SucD of P. gingivalis is another succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase (Takahashi et al., J. Bacteriol. 182:4704-4710 (2000)). These succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenases were specifically shown in ref. (WO/2008/115840 (2008)) to convert 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA to 4-hydroxybutanal as part of a pathway to produce 1,4-butanediol. The enzyme acylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase in Pseudomonas sp, encoded by bphG, is yet another capable enzyme as it has been demonstrated to oxidize and acylate acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, isobutyraldehyde and formaldehyde (Powlowski et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:377-385 (1993)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
acr1	YP_047869.1	50086359	Acinetobacter calcoaceticus
acr1	AAC45217	1684886	Acinetobacter baylyi
acr1	BAB85476.1	18857901	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
sucD	P38947.1	172046062	Clostridium kluyveri
sucD	NP_904963.1	34540484	Porphyromonas gingivalis
bphG	BAA03892.1	425213	Pseudomonas sp

These results show that various carboxylic acid reductases can function in a BDO pathway to produce BDO. An additional enzyme type that converts an acyl-CoA to its corresponding aldehyde is malonyl-CoA reductase which transforms malonyl-CoA to malonic semialdehyde. Malonyl-CoA reductase is a key enzyme in autotrophic carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate cycle in thermoacidophilic archael bacteria (Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007); Thauer, Science 318:1732-1733 (2007)). The enzyme utilizes NADPH as a cofactor and has been characterized in Metallosphaera and Sulfolobus spp (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006); Hugler et al., J. Bacteriol. 184:2404-2410 (2002)). The enzyme is encoded by Msed_—0709 in Metallosphaera sedula (Alber et al. Mol. Microbiol. 61:297-309 (2006); Berg et al., Science 318:1782-1786 (2007)). A gene encoding a malonyl-CoA reductase from Sulfolobus tokodaii was cloned and heterologously expressed in E. coli (Alber et al., J. Bacteriol. 188:8551-8559 (2006)). Although the aldehyde dehydrogenase functionality of these enzymes is similar to the bifunctional dehydrogenase from Chloroflexus aurantiacus, there is little sequence similarity. Both malonyl-CoA reductase enzyme candidates have high sequence similarity to aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme catalyzing the reduction and concurrent dephosphorylation of aspartyl-4-phosphate to aspartate semialdehyde. Additional gene candidates can be found by sequence homology to proteins in other organisms including Sulfolobus solfataricus and Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Yet another candidate for CoA-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase is the ald gene from Clostridium beijerinckii (Toth, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999). This enzyme has been reported to reduce acetyl-CoA and butyryl-CoA to their corresponding aldehydes. This gene is very similar to cutE that encodes acetaldehyde dehydrogenase of Salmonella typhimurium and E. coli (Toth, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4973-4980 (1999). These proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Msed_0709	YP_001190808.1	146303492	Metallosphaera sedula
Mcr	NP_378167.1	15922498	Sulfolobus tokodaii
asd-2	NP_343563.1	15898958	Sulfolobus solfataricus
Saci_2370	YP_256941.1	70608071	Sulfolobus acidocaldarius
Ald	AAT66436	49473535	Clostridium beijerinckii
eutE	AAA80209	687645	Salmonella typhimurium
eutE	P77445	2498347	Escherichia coli

4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA can also be converted to 4-hydroxybutanal in several enzymatic steps, though the intermediate 4-hydroxybutyrate. First, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate by a CoA transferase, hydrolase or synthetase. Alternately, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA can be converted to 4-hydroxybutyrate via a phosphonated intermediate by enzymes with phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase and 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase. Exemplary candidates for these enzymes are described above.

Subsequent conversion of 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal is catalyzed by an aryl-aldehyde dehydrogenase, or equivalently a carboxylic acid reductase. Such an enzyme is found in Nocardia iowensis. Carboxylic acid reductase catalyzes the magnesium, ATP and NADPH-dependent reduction of carboxylic acids to their corresponding aldehydes (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)) and is capable of catalyzing the conversion of 4-hydroxybutyrate to 4-hydroxybutanal. This enzyme, encoded by car, was cloned and functionally expressed in E. coli (Venkitasubramanian et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:478-485 (2007)). Expression of the npt gene product improved activity of the enzyme via post-transcriptional modification. The npt gene encodes a specific phosphopantetheine transferase (PPTase) that converts the inactive apo-enzyme to the active holo-enzyme. The natural substrate of this enzyme is vanillic acid, and the enzyme exhibits broad acceptance of aromatic and aliphatic substrates (Venkitasubramanian et al., in Biocatalysis in the Pharmaceutical and Biotechnology Industires, ed. R. N. Patel, Chapter 15, pp. 425-440, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Fla. (2006)).

Gene
name	GI Number	GenBank ID	Organism
Car	40796035	AAR91681.1	Nocardia iowensis (sp. NRRL 5646)
Npt	114848891	ABI83656.1	Nocardia iowensis (sp. NRRL 5646)

Additional car and npt genes can be identified based on sequence homology.

Gene name	GI Number	GenBank ID	Organism
fadD9	121638475	YP_978699.1	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
BCG_2812c	121638674	YP_978898.1	Mycobacterium bovis BCG
nfa20150	54023983	YP_118225.1	Nocardia farcinica IFM 10152
nfa40540	54026024	YP_120266.1	Nocardia farcinica IFM 10152
SGR_6790	182440583	YP_001828302.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus
			NBRC 13350
SGR_665	182434458	YP_001822177.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus
			NBRC 13350
MSMEG_2956	YP_887275.1	YP_887275.1	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2 155
MSMEG_5739	YP_889972.1	118469671	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2 155
MSMEG_2648	YP_886985.1	118471293	Mycobacterium smegmatis MC2 155
MAP1040c	NP_959974.1	41407138	Mycobacterium avium subsp.
			paratuberculosis K-10
MAP2899c	NP_961833.1	41408997	Mycobacterium avium subsp.
			paratuberculosis K-10
MMAR_2117	YP_001850422.1	183982131	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_2936	YP_001851230.1	183982939	Mycobacterium marinum M
MMAR_1916	YP_001850220.1	183981929	Mycobacterium marinum M
TpauDRAFT_33060	ZP_04027864.1	227980601	Tsukamurella paurometabola DSM 20162
TpauDRAFT_20920	ZP_04026660.1	ZP_04026660.1	Tsukamurella paurometabola DSM 20162
CPCC7001_1320	ZP_05045132.1	254431429	Cyanobium PCC7001
DDBDRAFT_0187729	XP_636931.1	66806417	Dictyostelium discoideum AX4

An additional enzyme candidate found in Streptomyces griseus is encoded by the griC and griD genes. This enzyme is believed to convert 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid to 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzaldehyde as deletion of either griC or griD led to accumulation of extracellular 3-acetylamino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, a shunt product of 3-amino-4-hydroxybenzoic acid metabolism (Suzuki, et al., J. Antibiot. 60(6):380-387 (2007)). Co-expression of griC and griD with SGR_—665, an enzyme similar in sequence to the Nocardia iowensis npt, can be beneficial.

Gene name	GI Number	GenBank ID	Organism
griC	182438036	YP_001825755.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp.
			griseus NBRC 13350
Grid	182438037	YP_001825756.1	Streptomyces griseus subsp.
			griseus NBRC 13350

An enzyme with similar characteristics, alpha-aminoadipate reductase (AAR, EC 1.2.1.31), participates in lysine biosynthesis pathways in some fungal species. This enzyme naturally reduces alpha-aminoadipate to alpha-aminoadipate semialdehyde. The carboxyl group is first activated through the ATP-dependent formation of an adenylate that is then reduced by NAD(P)H to yield the aldehyde and AMP. Like CAR, this enzyme utilizes magnesium and requires activation by a PPTase. Enzyme candidates for AAR and its corresponding PPTase are found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Morris et al., Gene 98:141-145 (1991)), Candida albicans (Guo et al., Mol. Genet. Genomics 269:271-279 (2003)), and Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Ford et al., Curr. Genet. 28:131-137 (1995)). The AAR from S. pombe exhibited significant activity when expressed in E. coli (Guo et al., Yeast 21:1279-1288 (2004)). The AAR from Penicillium chrysogenum accepts S-carboxymethyl-L-cysteine as an alternate substrate, but did not react with adipate, L-glutamate or diaminopimelate (Hijarrubia et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:8250-8256 (2003)). The gene encoding the P. chrysogenum PPTase has not been identified to date.

Gene name	GI Number	GenBank ID	Organism
LYS2	171867	AAA34747.1	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS5	1708896	P50113.1	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
LYS2	2853226	AAC02241.1	Candida albicans
LYS5	28136195	AAO26020.1	Candida albicans
Lys1p	13124791	P40976.3	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys7p	1723561	Q10474.1	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
Lys2	3282044	CAA74300.1	Penicillium chrysogenum

Enzymes exhibiting 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase activity are capable of forming 1,4-butanediol from 4-hydroxybutanal. Exemplary genes encoding enzymes that catalyze the conversion of an aldehyde to alcohol (i.e., alcohol dehydrogenase or equivalently aldehyde reductase) include alrA encoding a medium-chain alcohol dehydrogenase for C₂-C₁₄ (Tani Appl. Environ. Micro et al. 66:5231-5235 (2000), ADH2 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Aoshima et al., Mol. Microbiol. 51:791-798 (2004)), yqhD from E. coli which has preference for molecules longer than C(3) (Sulzenbacher et al., J. Mol. Biol. 342:489-502 (2004), and bdh I and bdh II from C. acetobutylicum which converts butyraldehyde into butanol (Walter et al., J. Bacteriol. 174:7149-7158 (1992)). ADH1 from Zymomonas mobilis has been demonstrated to have activity on a number of aldehydes including formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, and acrolein (Kinoshita, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 22:249-254 (1985)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
alrA	BAB12273.1	9967138	Acinetobacter sp. Strain M-1
ADH2	NP_014032.1	6323961	Saccharymyces cerevisiae
yqhD	NP_417484.1	16130909	Escherichia coli
bdh I	NP_349892.1	15896543	Clostridium acetobutylicum
bdh II	NP_349891.1	15896542	Clostridium acetobutylicum
adhA	YP_162971.1	56552132	Zymomonas mobilis

Enzymes exhibiting 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase activity (EC 1.1.1.61) also fall into this category. Such enzymes have been characterized in Ralstonia eutropha (Bravo et al., J. Forensic Sci. 49:379-387 (2004), Clostridium kluyveri (Wolff and Kenealy, Protein Expr. Purif. 6:206-212 (1995)) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Breitkreuz et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:41552-41556 (2003)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
4hbd	YP_726053.1	113867564	Ralstonia eutropha H16
4hbd	L21902.1	146348486	Clostridium kluyveri DSM 555
4hbd	Q94B07	75249805	Arabidopsis thaliana

Example XXV

Exemplary Hydrogenase and CO Dehydrogenase Enzymes for Extracting Reducing Equivalents from Syngas and Exemplary Reductive TCA Cycle Enzymes

Enzymes of the reductive TCA cycle useful in the non-naturally occurring microbial organisms of the present invention include one or more of ATP-citrate lyase and three CO2-fixing enzymes: isocitrate dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. The presence of ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase and alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase indicates the presence of an active reductive TCA cycle in an organism. Enzymes for each step of the reductive TCA cycle are shown below.

ATP-citrate lyase (ACL, EC 2.3.3.8), also called ATP citrate synthase, catalyzes the ATP-dependent cleavage of citrate to oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA. ACL is an enzyme of the RTCA cycle that has been studied in green sulfur bacteria Chlorobium limicola and Chlorobium tepidum. The alpha(4)beta(4) heteromeric enzyme from Chlorobium limicola was cloned and characterized in E. coli (Kanao et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 269:3409-3416 (2002). The C. limicola enzyme, encoded by aclAB, is irreversible and activity of the enzyme is regulated by the ratio of ADP/ATP. A recombinant ACL from Chlorobium tepidum was also expressed in E. coli and the holoenzyme was reconstituted in vitro, in a study elucidating the role of the alpha and beta subunits in the catalytic mechanism (Kim and Tabita, J. Bacteriol. 188:6544-6552 (2006). ACL enzymes have also been identified in Balnearium lithotrophicum, Sulfurihydrogenibium subterraneum and other members of the bacterial phylum Aquificae (Hugler et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:81-92 (2007)). This activity has been reported in some fungi as well. Exemplary organisms include Sordaria macrospora (Nowrousian et al., Curr. Genet. 37:189-93 (2000), Aspergillus nidulans, Yarrowia lipolytica (Hynes and Murray, Eukaryotic Cell, July: 1039-1048, (2010) and Aspergillus niger (Meijer et al. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 36:1275-1280 (2009). Other candidates can be found based on sequence homology. Information related to these enzymes is tabulated below:

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
aclA	BAB21376.1	12407237	Chlorobium limicola
aclB	BAB21375.1	12407235	Chlorobium limicola
aclA	AAM72321.1	21647054	Chlorobium tepidum
aclB	AAM72322.1	21647055	Chlorobium tepidum
aclA	ABI50076.1	114054981	Balnearium lithotrophicum
aclB	ABI50075.1	114054980	Balnearium lithotrophicum
aclA	ABI50085.1	114055040	Sulfurihydrogenibium
			subterraneum
aclB	ABI50084.1	114055039	Sulfurihydrogenibium
			subterraneum
aclA	AAX76834.1	62199504	Sulfurimonas denitrificans
aclB	AAX76835.1	62199506	Sulfurimonas denitrificans
acl1	XP_504787.1	50554757	Yarrowia lipolytica
acl2	XP_503231.1	50551515	Yarrowia lipolytica
SPBC1703.07	NP_596202.1	19112994	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
SPAC22A12.16	NP_593246.1	19114158	Schizosaccharomyces pombe
acl1	CAB76165.1	7160185	Sordaria macrospora
acl2	CAB76164.1	7160184	Sordaria macrospora
aclA	CBF86850.1	259487849	Aspergillus nidulans
aclB	CBF86848	259487848	Aspergillus nidulans

In some organisms the conversion of citrate to oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA proceeds through a citryl-CoA intermediate and is catalyzed by two separate enzymes, citryl-CoA synthetase (EC 6.2.1.18) and citryl-CoA lyase (EC 4.1.3.34) (Aoshima, M., Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 75:249-255 (2007). Citryl-CoA synthetase catalyzes the activation of citrate to citryl-CoA. The Hydrogenobacter thermophilus enzyme is composed of large and small subunits encoded by ccsA and ccsB, respectively (Aoshima et al., Mol. Micrbiol. 52:751-761 (2004)). The citryl-CoA synthetase of Aquifex aeolicus is composed of alpha and beta subunits encoded by sucC1 and sucD1 (Hugler et al., Environ. Microbiol. 9:81-92 (2007)). Citryl-CoA lyase splits citryl-CoA into oxaloacetate and acetyl-CoA. This enzyme is a homotrimer encoded by ccl in Hydrogenobacter thermophilus (Aoshima et al., Mol. Microbiol. 52:763-770 (2004)) and aq_—150 in Aquifex aeolicus (Hugler et al., supra (2007)). The genes for this mechanism of converting citrate to oxaloacetate and citryl-CoA have also been reported recently in Chlorobium tepidum (Eisen et al., PNAS 99(14): 9509-14 (2002).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
ccsA	BAD17844.1	46849514	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
ccsB	BAD17846.1	46849517	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
sucC1	AAC07285	2983723	Aquifex aeolicus
sucD1	AAC07686	2984152	Aquifex aeolicus
ccl	BAD17841.1	46849510	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
aq_150	AAC06486	2982866	Aquifex aeolicus
CT0380	NP_661284	21673219	Chlorobium tepidum
CT0269	NP_ 661173.1	21673108	Chlorobium tepidum
CT1834	AAM73055.1	21647851	Chlorobium tepidum

Oxaloacetate is converted into malate by malate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.37), an enzyme which functions in both the forward and reverse direction. S. cerevisiae possesses three copies of malate dehydrogenase, MDH1 (McAlister-Henn and Thompson, J. Bacteriol. 169:5157-5166 (1987), MDH2 (Minard and McAlister-Henn, Mol. Cell. Biol. 11:370-380 (1991); Gibson and McAlister-Henn, J. Biol. Chem. 278:25628-25636 (2003)), and MDH3 (Steffan and McAlister-Henn, J. Biol. Chem. 267:24708-24715 (1992)), which localize to the mitochondrion, cytosol, and peroxisome, respectively. E. coli is known to have an active malate dehydrogenase encoded by mdh.

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	MDH1	NP_012838	6322765	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	MDH2	NP_014515	116006499	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	MDH3	NP_010205	6320125	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	Mdh	NP_417703.1	16131126	Escherichia coli

Fumarate hydratase (EC 4.2.1.2) catalyzes the reversible hydration of fumarate to malate. The three fumarases of E. coli, encoded by fumA, fumB and fumC, are regulated under different conditions of oxygen availability. FumB is oxygen sensitive and is active under anaerobic conditions. FumA is active under microanaerobic conditions, and FumC is active under aerobic growth conditions (Tseng et al., J. Bacteriol. 183:461-467 (2001); Woods et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 954:14-26 (1988); Guest et al., J. Gen. Microbiol. 131:2971-2984 (1985)). S. cerevisiae contains one copy of a fumarase-encoding gene, FUM1, whose product localizes to both the cytosol and mitochondrion (Sass et al., J. Biol. Chem. 278:45109-45116 (2003)). Additional fumarase enzymes are found in Campylobacter jejuni (Smith et al., Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Biol. 31:961-975 (1999)), Thermus thermophilus (Mizobata et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 355:49-55 (1998)) and Rattus norvegicus (Kobayashi et al., J. Biochem. 89:1923-1931 (1981)). Similar enzymes with high sequence homology include fum1 from Arabidopsis thaliana and fumC from Corynebacterium glutamicum. The MmcBC fumarase from Pelotomaculum thermopropionicum is another class of fumarase with two subunits (Shimoyama et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 270:207-213 (2007)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
fumA	NP_416129.1	16129570	Escherichia coli
fumB	NP_418546.1	16131948	Escherichia coli
fumC	NP_416128.1	16129569	Escherichia coli
FUM1	NP_015061	6324993	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
fumC	Q8NRN8.1	39931596	Corynebacterium glutamicum
fumC	O69294.1	9789756	Campylobacter jejuni
fumC	P84127	75427690	Thermus thermophilus
fumH	P14408.1	120605	Rattus norvegicus
MmcB	YP_001211906	147677691	Pelotomaculum
			thermopropionicum
MmcC	YP_001211907	147677692	Pelotomaculum
			thermopropionicum

Fumarate reductase catalyzes the reduction of fumarate to succinate. The fumarate reductase of E. coli, composed of four subunits encoded by frdABCD, is membrane-bound and active under anaerobic conditions. The electron donor for this reaction is menaquinone and the two protons produced in this reaction do not contribute to the proton gradient (Iverson et al., Science 284:1961-1966 (1999)). The yeast genome encodes two soluble fumarate reductase isozymes encoded by FRDS1 (Enomoto et al., DNA Res. 3:263-267 (1996)) and FRDS2 (Muratsubaki et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 352:175-181 (1998)), which localize to the cytosol and promitochondrion, respectively, and are used during anaerobic growth on glucose (Arikawa et al., FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 165:111-116 (1998)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
FRDS1	P32614	418423	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
FRDS2	NP_012585	6322511	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
frdA	NP_418578.1	16131979	Escherichia coli
frdB	NP_418577.1	16131978	Escherichia coli
frdC	NP_418576.1	16131977	Escherichia coli
frdD	NP_418475.1	16131877	Escherichia coli

The ATP-dependent acylation of succinate to succinyl-CoA is catalyzed by succinyl-CoA synthetase (EC 6.2.1.5). The product of the LSC1 and LSC2 genes of S. cerevisiae and the sucC and sucD genes of E. coli naturally form a succinyl-CoA synthetase complex that catalyzes the formation of succinyl-CoA from succinate with the concomitant consumption of one ATP, a reaction which is reversible in vivo (Buck et al., Biochemistry 24:6245-6252 (1985)). These proteins are identified below:

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	LSC1	NP_014785	6324716	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	LSC2	NP_011760	6321683	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	sucC	NP_415256.1	16128703	Escherichia coli
	sucD	AAC73823.1	1786949	Escherichia coli

Alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (EC 1.2.7.3), also known as 2-oxoglutarate synthase or 2-oxoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (OFOR), forms alpha-ketoglutarate from CO2 and succinyl-CoA with concurrent consumption of two reduced ferredoxin equivalents. OFOR and pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) are members of a diverse family of 2-oxoacid:ferredoxin (flavodoxin) oxidoreductases which utilize thiamine pyrophosphate, CoA and iron-sulfur clusters as cofactors and ferredoxin, flavodoxin and FAD as electron carriers (Adams et al., Archaea. Adv. Protein Chem. 48:101-180 (1996)). Enzymes in this class are reversible and function in the carboxylation direction in organisms that fix carbon by the RTCA cycle such as Hydrogenobacter thermophilus, Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus and Chlorobium species (Shiba et al. 1985; Evans et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. ScI. U.S.A. 55:92934 (1966); Buchanan, 1971). The two-subunit enzyme from H. thermophilus, encoded by korAB, has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Yun et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 282:589-594 (2001)). A five subunit OFOR from the same organism with strict substrate specificity for succinyl-CoA, encoded by forDABGE, was recently identified and expressed in E. coli (Yun et al. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 292:280-286 (2002)). The kinetics of CO₂ fixation of both H. thermophilus OFOR enzymes have been characterized (Yamamoto et al., Extremophiles 14:79-85 (2010)). A CO₂-fixing OFOR from Chlorobium thiosulfatophilum has been purified and characterized but the genes encoding this enzyme have not been identified to date. Enzyme candidates in Chlorobium species can be inferred by sequence similarity to the H. thermophilus genes. For example, the Chlorobium limicola genome encodes two similar proteins. Acetogenic bacteria such as Moorella thermoacetica are predicted to encode two OFOR enzymes. The enzyme encoded by Moth_—0034 is predicted to function in the CO₂-assimilating direction. The genes associated with this enzyme, Moth_—0034 have not been experimentally validated to date but can be inferred by sequence similarity to known OFOR enzymes.

OFOR enzymes that function in the decarboxylation direction under physiological conditions can also catalyze the reverse reaction. The OFOR from the thermoacidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus sp. strain 7, encoded by ST2300, has been extensively studied (Zhang et al., supra, 1996. A plasmid-based expression system has been developed for efficiently expressing this protein in E. coli (Fukuda et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 268:5639-5646 (2001)) and residues involved in substrate specificity were determined (Fukuda and Wakagi, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1597:74-80 (2002)). The OFOR encoded by Ape1472/Ape1473 from Aeropyrum pernix str. K1 was recently cloned into E. coli, characterized, and found to react with 2-oxoglutarate and a broad range of 2-oxoacids (Nishizawa et al., FEBS Lett. 579:2319-2322 (2005)). Another exemplary OFOR is encoded by oorDABC in Helicobacter pylori (Hughes et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:1119-1128 (1998)). An enzyme specific to alpha-ketoglutarate has been reported in Thauera aromatics (Dorner and Boll, J. Bacteriol. 184 (14), 3975-83 (2002). A similar enzyme can be found in Rhodospirillum rubrum by sequence homology. A two subunit enzyme has also been identified in Chlorobium tepidum (Eisen et al., PNAS 99(14): 9509-14 (2002)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
korA	BAB21494	12583691	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
korB	BAB21495	12583692	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
forD	BAB62132.1	14970994	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
forA	BAB62133.1	14970995	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
forB	BAB62134.1	14970996	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
forG	BAB62135.1	14970997	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
forE	BAB62136.1	14970998	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
Clim_0204	ACD89303.1	189339900	Chlorobium limicola
Clim_0205	ACD89302.1	189339899	Chlorobium limicola
Clim_1123	ACD90192.1	189340789	Chlorobium limicola
Clim_1124	ACD90193.1	189340790	Chlorobium limicola
Moth_1984	YP_430825.1	83590816	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1985	YP_430826.1	83590817	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0034	YP_428917.1	83588908	Moorella thermoacetica
ST2300	NP_378302.1	15922633	Sulfolobus sp. strain 7
Ape1472	BAA80470.1	5105156	Aeropyrum pernix
Ape1473	BAA80471.2	116062794	Aeropyrum pernix
oorD	NP_207383.1	15645213	Helicobacter pylori
	(AAC38210.1)	(2935178)
oorA	NP_207384.1	15645214	Helicobacter pylori
	(AAC38211.1)	(2935179)
oorB	NP_207385.1	15645215	Helicobacter pylori
	(AAC38212.1)	(2935180)
oorC	NP_207386.1	15645216	Helicobacter pylori
	(AAC38213.1)	(2935181)
CT0163	NP_661069.1	21673004	Chlorobium tepidum
CT0162	NP_661068.1	21673003	Chlorobium tepidum
korA	CAA12243.2	19571179	Thauera aromatica
korB	CAD27440.1	19571178	Thauera aromatica
Rru_A2721	YP_427805.1	83594053	Rhodospirillum rubrum
Rru_A2722	YP_427806.1	83594054	Rhodospirillum rubrum

Isocitrate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reversible decarboxylation of isocitrate to 2-oxoglutarate coupled to the reduction of NAD(P)⁺. IDH enzymes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli are encoded by IDP1 and icd, respectively (Haselbeck and McAlister-Henn, J. Biol. Chem. 266:2339-2345 (1991); Nimmo, H. G., Biochem. J. 234:317-2332 (1986)). The reverse reaction in the reductive TCA cycle, the reductive carboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate to isocitrate, is favored by the NADPH-dependent CO₂-fixing IDH from Chlorobium limicola and was functionally expressed in E. coli (Kanao et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 269:1926-1931 (2002)). A similar enzyme with 95% sequence identity is found in the C. tepidum genome in addition to some other candidates listed below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Icd	ACI84720.1	209772816	Escherichia coli
IDP1	AAA34703.1	171749	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Idh	BAC00856.1	21396513	Chlorobium limicola
Icd	AAM71597.1	21646271	Chlorobium tepidum
icd	NP_952516.1	39996565	Geobacter sulfurreducens
icd	YP_393560.	78777245	Sulfurimonas denitrificans

In H. thermophilus the reductive carboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate to isocitrate is catalyzed by two enzymes: 2-oxoglutarate carboxylase and oxalosuccinate reductase. 2-Oxoglutarate carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.7) catalyzes the ATP-dependent carboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate to oxalosuccinate (Aoshima and Igarashi, Mol. Microbiol. 62:748-759 (2006)). This enzyme is a large complex composed of two subunits. Biotinylation of the large (A) subunit is required for enzyme function (Aoshima et al., Mol. Microbiol. 51:791-798 (2004)). Oxalosuccinate reductase (EC 1.1.1.-) catalyzes the NAD-dependent conversion of oxalosuccinate to D-threo-isocitrate. The enzyme is a homodimer encoded by icd in H. thermophilus. The kinetic parameters of this enzyme indicate that the enzyme only operates in the reductive carboxylation direction in vivo, in contrast to isocitrate dehydrogenase enzymes in other organisms (Aoshima and Igarashi, J. Bacteriol. 190:2050-2055 (2008)). Based on sequence homology, gene candidates have also been found in Thiobacillus denitrificans and Thermocrinis albus.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
cfiA	BAF34932.1	116234991	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
cifB	BAF34931.1	116234990	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
Icd	BAD02487.1	38602676	Hydrogenobacter thermophilus
Tbd_1556	YP_315314	74317574	Thiobacillus denitrificans
Tbd_1555	YP_315313	74317573	Thiobacillus denitrificans
Tbd_0854	YP_314612	74316872	Thiobacillus denitrificans
Thal_0268	YP_003473030	289548042	Thermocrinis albus
Thal_0267	YP_003473029	289548041	Thermocrinis albus
Thal_0646	YP_003473406	289548418	Thermocrinis albus

Aconitase (EC 4.2.1.3) is an iron-sulfur-containing protein catalyzing the reversible isomerization of citrate and iso-citrate via the intermediate cis-aconitate. Two aconitase enzymes are encoded in the E. coli genome by acnA and acnB. AcnB is the main catabolic enzyme, while AcnA is more stable and appears to be active under conditions of oxidative or acid stress (Cunningham et al., Microbiology 143 (Pt 12):3795-3805 (1997)). Two isozymes of aconitase in Salmonella typhimurium are encoded by acnA and acnB (Horswill and Escalante-Semerena, Biochemistry 40:4703-4713 (2001)). The S. cerevisiae aconitase, encoded by ACO1, is localized to the mitochondria where it participates in the TCA cycle (Gangloff et al., Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:3551-3561 (1990)) and the cytosol where it participates in the glyoxylate shunt (Regev-Rudzki et al., Mol. Biol. Cell. 16:4163-4171 (2005)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
acnA	AAC7438.1	1787531	Escherichia coli
acnB	AAC73229.1	2367097	Escherichia coli
HP0779	NP_207572.1	15645398	Helicobacter pylori
			26695
H16_B0568	CAJ95365.1	113529018	Ralstonia eutropha
DesfrDRAFT_3783	ZP_07335307.1	303249064	Desulfovibrio
			fructosovorans JJ
Suden_1040	ABB44318.1	78497778	Sulfurimonas
(acnB)			denitrificans
Hydth_0755	ADO45152.1	308751669	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
CT0543 (acn)	AAM71785.1	21646475	Chlorobium tepidum
Clim_2436	YP_001944436.1	189347907	Chlorobium limicola
Clim_0515	ACD89607.1	189340204	Chlorobium limicola
acnA	NP_460671.1	16765056	Salmonella
			typhimurium
acnB	NP_459163.1	16763548	Salmonella
			typhimurium
ACO1	AAA34389.1	170982	Saccharomyces
			cerevisiae

Pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) catalyzes the reversible oxidation of pyruvate to form acetyl-CoA. The PFOR from Desulfovibrio africanus has been cloned and expressed in E. coli resulting in an active recombinant enzyme that was stable for several days in the presence of oxygen (Pieulle et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:5684-5692 (1997)). Oxygen stability is relatively uncommon in PFORs and is believed to be conferred by a 60 residue extension in the polypeptide chain of the D. africanus enzyme. Two cysteine residues in this enzyme form a disulfide bond that prtotects it against inactivation in the form of oxygen. This disulfide bond and the stability in the presence of oxygen has been found in other Desulfovibrio species also (Vita et al., Biochemistry, 47: 957-64 (2008)). The M. thermoacetica PFOR is also well characterized (Menon and Ragsdale, Biochemistry 36:8484-8494 (1997)) and was shown to have high activity in the direction of pyruvate synthesis during autotrophic growth (Furdui and Ragsdale, J. Biol. Chem. 275:28494-28499 (2000)). Further, E. coli possesses an uncharacterized open reading frame, ydbK, encoding a protein that is 51% identical to the M. thermoacetica PFOR. Evidence for pyruvate oxidoreductase activity in E. coli has been described (Blaschkowski et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 123:563-569 (1982)). PFORs have also been described in other organisms, including Rhodobacter capsulatas (Yakunin and Hallenbeck, Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1409 (1998) 39-49 (1998)) and Choloboum tepidum (Eisen et al., PNAS 99(14): 9509-14 (2002)). The five subunit PFOR from H. thermophilus, encoded by porEDABG, was cloned into E. coli and shown to function in both the decarboxylating and CO2-assimilating directions (Ikeda et al., Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 340:76-82 (2006); Yamamoto et al., Extremophiles 14:79-85 (2010)). Homologs also exist in C. carboxidivorans P7. Several additional PFOR enzymes are described in the following review (Ragsdale, S. W., Chem. Rev. 103:2333-2346 (2003)). Finally, flavodoxin reductases (e.g., fqrB from Helicobacter pylori or Campylobacter jejuni) (St Maurice et al., J. Bacteriol. 189:4764-4773 (2007)) or Rnf-type proteins (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105:2128-2133 (2008); and Herrmann, J. Bacteriol 190:784-791 (2008)) provide a means to generate NADH or NADPH from the reduced ferredoxin generated by PFOR. These proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
DesfrDRAFT_0121	ZP_07331646.1	303245362	Desulfovibrio
			fructosovorans JJ
Por	CAA70873.1	1770208	Desulfovibrio
			africanus
por	YP_012236.1	46581428	Desulfovibrio
			vulgaris str.
			Hildenborough
Dde_3237	ABB40031.1	78220682	DesulfoVibrio
			desulfuricans G20
Ddes_0298	YP_002478891.1	220903579	Desulfovibrio
			desulfuricans subsp.
			desulfuricans stn.
			ATCC 27774
Por	YP_428946.1	83588937	Moorella
			thermoacetica
YdbK	NP_415896.1	16129339	Escherichia coli
nifJ (CT1628)	NP_662511.1	21674446	Chlorobium tepidum
CJE1649	YP_179630.1	57238499	Campylobacter jejuni
nifJ	ADE85473.1	294476085	Rhodobacter
			capsulatus
porE	BAA95603.1	7768912	Hydrogenobacter
			thennophdus
porD	BAA95604.1	7768913	Hydrogenobacter
			thennophdus
porA	BAA95605.1	7768914	Hydrogenobacter
			thennophdus
porB	BAA95606.1	776891	Hydrogenobacter
			thennophdus
porG	BAA95607.1	7768916	Hydrogenobacter
			thennophdus
FqrB	YP_001482096.1	157414840	Campylobacter jejuni
HP1164	NP_207955.1	15645778	Helicobacter pylori
RnfC	EDK33306.1	146346770	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfD	EDK33307.1	146346771	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfG	EDK33308.1	146346772	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfE	EDK33309.1	146346773	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfA	EDK33310.1	146346774	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfB	EDK33311.1	146346775	Clostridium kluyveri

The conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA can be catalyzed by several other enzymes or their combinations thereof. For example, pyruvate dehydrogenase can transform pyruvate into acetyl-CoA with the concomitant reduction of a molecule of NAD into NADH. It is a multi-enzyme complex that catalyzes a series of partial reactions which results in acylating oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate. The enzyme comprises of three subunits: the pyruvate decarboxylase (E1), dihydrolipoamide acyltransferase (E2) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3). This enzyme is naturally present in several organisms, including E. coli and S. cerevisiae. In the E. coli enzyme, specific residues in the E1 component are responsible for substrate specificity (Bisswanger, H., J. Biol. Chem. 256:815-82 (1981); Bremer, J., Eur. J. Biochem. 8:535-540 (1969); Gong et al., J. Biol. Chem. 275:13645-13653 (2000)). Enzyme engineering efforts have improved the E. coli PDH enzyme activity under anaerobic conditions (Kim et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:3851-3858 (2008); Kim et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73:1766-1771 (2007); Zhou et al., Biotechnol. Lett. 30:335-342 (2008)). In contrast to the E. coli PDH, the B. subtilis complex is active and required for growth under anaerobic conditions (Nakano et al., J. Bacteriol. 179:6749-6755 (1997)). The Klebsiella pneumoniae PDH, characterized during growth on glycerol, is also active under anaerobic conditions (5). Crystal structures of the enzyme complex from bovine kidney (18) and the E2 catalytic domain from Azotobacter vinelandii are available (4). Yet another enzyme that can catalyze this conversion is pyruvate formate lyase. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate and CoA into acetyl-CoA and formate. Pyruvate formate lyase is a common enzyme in prokaryotic organisms that is used to help modulate anaerobic redox balance. Exemplary enzymes can be found in Escherichia coli encoded by pflB (Knappe and Sawers, FEMS. Microbiol Rev. 6:383-398 (1990)), Lactococcus lactis (Melchiorsen et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 58:338-344 (2002)), and Streptococcus mutans (Takahashi-Abbe et al., Oral. Microbiol Immunol. 18:293-297 (2003)). E. coli possesses an additional pyruvate formate lyase, encoded by tdcE, that catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate or 2-oxobutanoate to acetyl-CoA or propionyl-CoA, respectively (Hesslinger et al., Mol. Microbiol. 27:477-492 (1998)). Both pflB and tdcE from E. coli require the presence of pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme, encoded by pflA. Further, a short protein encoded by yfiD in E. coli can associate with and restore activity to oxygen-cleaved pyruvate formate lyase (Vey et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105:16137-16141 (2008). Note that pflA and pflB from E. coli were expressed in S. cerevisiae as a means to increase cytosolic acetyl-CoA for butanol production as described in WO/2008/080124). Additional pyruvate formate lyase and activating enzyme candidates, encoded by pfl and act, respectively, are found in Clostridium pasteurianum (Weidner et al., J Bacteriol. 178:2440-2444 (1996)).

Further, different enzymes can be used in combination to convert pyruvate into acetyl-CoA. For example, in S. cerevisiae, acetyl-CoA is obtained in the cytosol by first decarboxylating pyruvate to form acetaldehyde; the latter is oxidized to acetate by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and subsequently activated to form acetyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA synthetase. Acetyl-CoA synthetase is a native enzyme in several other organisms including E. coli (Kumari et al., J. Bacteriol. 177:2878-2886 (1995)), Salmonella enterica (Starai et al., Microbiology 151:3793-3801 (2005); Starai et al., J. Biol. Chem. 280:26200-26205 (2005)), and Moorella thermoacetica (described already). Alternatively, acetate can be activated to form acetyl-CoA by acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylase. Acetate kinase first converts acetate into acetyl-phosphate with the accompanying use of an ATP molecule. Acetyl-phosphate and CoA are next converted into acetyl-CoA with the release of one phosphate by phosphotransacetylase. Both acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylyase are well-studied enzymes in several Clostridia and Methanosarcina thermophila.

Yet another way of converting pyruvate to acetyl-CoA is via pyruvate oxidase. Pyruvate oxidase converts pyruvate into acetate, using ubiquione as the electron acceptor. In E. coli, this activity is encoded by poxB. PoxB has similarity to pyruvate decarboxylase of S. cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis. The enzyme has a thiamin pyrophosphate cofactor (Koland and Gennis, Biochemistry 21:4438-4442 (1982)); O'Brien et al., Biochemistry 16:3105-3109 (1977); O'Brien and Gennis, J. Biol. Chem. 255:3302-3307 (1980)) and a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor. Acetate can then be converted into acetyl-CoA by either acetyl-CoA synthetase or by acetate kinase and phosphotransacetylase, as described earlier. Some of these enzymes can also catalyze the reverse reaction from acetyl-CoA to pyruvate.

For enzymes that use reducing equivalents in the form of NADH or NADPH, these reduced carriers can be generated by transferring electrons from reduced ferredoxin. Two enzymes catalyze the reversible transfer of electrons from reduced ferredoxins to NAD(P)⁺, ferredoxin:NAD⁺ oxidoreductase (EC 1.18.1.3) and ferredoxin:NADP⁺ oxidoreductase (FNR, EC 1.18.1.2). Ferredoxin:NADP⁺ oxidoreductase (FNR, EC 1.18.1.2) has a noncovalently bound FAD cofactor that facilitates the reversible transfer of electrons from NADPH to low-potential acceptors such as ferredoxins or flavodoxins (Blaschkowski et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 123:563-569 (1982); Fujii et al., 1977). The Helicobacter pylori FNR, encoded by HP1164 (fqrB), is coupled to the activity of pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) resulting in the pyruvate-dependent production of NADPH (St Maurice et al., J Bacteriol. 189(13):4764-4773 (2007)). An analogous enzyme is found in Campylobacter jejuni (St et al., supra, 2007). A ferredoxin:NADP⁺ oxidoreductase enzyme is encoded in the E. coli genome by fpr (Bianchi et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:1590-1595 (1993)). Ferredoxin:NAD⁺ oxidoreductase utilizes reduced ferredoxin to generate NADH from NAD⁺. In several organisms, including E. coli, this enzyme is a component of multifunctional dioxygenase enzyme complexes. The ferredoxin:NAD⁺ oxidoreductase of E. coli, encoded by hcaD, is a component of the 3-phenylproppionate dioxygenase system involved in involved in aromatic acid utilization (Diaz et al., J Bacteriol. 180:2915-2923 (1998)). NADH:ferredoxin reductase activity was detected in cell extracts of Hydrogenobacter thermophilus strain TK-6, although a gene with this activity has not yet been indicated (Yoon et al. 2006). NADP oxidoreductase of C. kluyveri, encoded by nfnAB, catalyzes the concomitant reduction of ferredoxin and NAD+ with two equivalents of NADPH (Wang et al., J. Bacteriol. 192: 5115-5123 (2010)). Finally, the energy-conserving membrane-associated Rnf-type proteins (Seedorf et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105:2128-2133 (2008); Herrmann et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:784-791 (2008)) provide a means to generate NADH or NADPH from reduced ferredoxin. Additional ferredoxin:NAD(P)+ oxidoreductases have been annotated in Clostridium carboxydivorans P7 and Clostridium ljungdahli.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
HP1164	NP_207955.1	15645778	Helicobacter pylori
RPA3954	CAE29395.1	39650872	Rhodopseudomonas
			palustris
fpr	BAH29712.1	225320633	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
yumC	NP_391091.2	255767736	Bacillus subtilis
CJE0663	AAW35824.1	57167045	Campylobacter jejuni
fpr	P28861.4	399486	Escherichia coli
hcaD	AAC75595.1	1788892	Escherichia coli
LOC100282643	NP_001149023.1	226497434	Zea mays
NfnA	YP_001393861.1	153953096	Clostridium kluyveri
NfnB	YP_001393862.1	153953097	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfC	EDK33306.1	146346770	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfD	EDK33307.1	146346771	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfG	EDK33308.1	146346772	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfE	EDK33309.1	146346773	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfA	EDK33310.1	146346774	Clostridium kluyveri
RnfB	EDK33311.1	146346775	Clostridium kluyveri
CcarbDRAFT_2639	ZP_05392639.1	255525707	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2638	ZP_05392638.1	255525706	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2636	ZP_05392636.1	255525704	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_5060	ZP_05395060.1	255528241	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2450	ZP_05392450.1	255525514	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_1084	ZP_05391084.1	255524124	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CLJU_c11410	ADK14209.1	300434442	Clostridium
(RnJB)			ljungdahli
CLJU_c11400	ADK14208.1	300434441	Clostridium
(RnfA)			ljungdahli
CLJU_c11390	ADK14207.1	300434440	Clostridium
(RnfE)			ljungdahli
CLJU_c11380	ADK14206.1	300434439	Clostridium
(RnfG)			ljungdahli
CLJU_c11370	ADK14205.1	300434438	Clostridium
(RnfD)			ljungdahli
CLJU_c11360	ADK14204.1	300434437	Clostridium
(RnfC)			ljungdahli

Ferredoxins are small acidic proteins containing one or more iron-sulfur clusters that function as intracellular electron carriers with a low reduction potential. Reduced ferredoxins donate electrons to Fe-dependent enzymes such as ferredoxin-NADP⁺ oxidoreductase, pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) and 2-oxoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (OFOR). The H. thermophilus gene fdx1 encodes a [4Fe-4S]-type ferredoxin that is required for the reversible carboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate and pyruvate by OFOR and PFOR, respectively (Yamamoto et al., Extremophiles 14:79-85 (2010)). The ferredoxin associated with the Sulfolobus solfataricus 2-oxoacid:ferredoxin reductase is a monomeric dicluster [3Fe-4S][4Fe-4S] type ferredoxin (Park et al., J Biochem Mol. Biol. 39:46-54 (2006)). While the gene associated with this protein has not been fully sequenced, the N-terminal domain shares 93% homology with the zfx ferredoxin from S. acidocaldarius. The E. coli genome encodes a soluble ferredoxin of unknown physiological function, fdx. Some evidence indicates that this protein can function in iron-sulfur cluster assembly (Takahashi and Nakamura, J Biochem. 126:917-926 (1999)). Additional ferredoxin proteins have been characterized in Helicobacter pylori (Mukhopadhyay et al., J Bacteriol. 185:2927-2935 (2003)) and Campylobacter jejuni (van Vliet et al., FEMS Microbiol Lett. 196:189-193 (2001). A 2Fe-2S ferredoxin from Clostridium pasteurianum has been cloned and expressed in E. coli (Fujinaga and Meyer, Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 192(3):1115-1122 (1993)). Acetogenic bacteria such as Moorella thermoacetica, Clostridium carboxidivorans P7, Clostridium ljungdahli and Rhodospirillum rubrum are predicted to encode several ferredoxins, listed in the table below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
fdx1	BAE02673.1	68163284	Hydrogenobacter
			thermophilus
M11214.1	AAA83524.1	144806	Clostridium
			pasteurianum
Zfx	AAY79867.1	68566938	Sulfolobus
			acidocalarius
Fdx	AAC75578.1	1788874	Escherichia coli
hp_0277	AAD07340.1	2313367	Helicobacter pylori
fdxA	CAL34484.1	112359698	Campylobacter jejuni
Moth_0061	ABC18400.1	83571848	Moorella
			thermoacetica
Moth_1200	ABC19514.1	83572962	Moorella
			thermoacetica
Moth_1888	ABC20188.1	83573636	Moorella
			thermoacetica
Moth_2112	ABC20404.1	83573852	Moorella
			thermoacetica
Moth_1037	ABC19351.1	83572799	Moorella
			thermoacetica
CcarbDRAFT_4383	ZP_05394383.1	255527515	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2958	ZP_05392958.1	255526034	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2281	ZP_05392281.1	255525342	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_5296	ZP_05395295.1	255528511	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_1615	ZP_05391615.1	255524662	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_1304	ZP_05391304.1	255524347	Clostridium
			carboxidivorans P7
cooF	AAG29808.1	11095245	Carboxydothermus
			hydrogenoformans
fdxN	CAA35699.1	46143	Rhodobacter
			capsulatus
Rru_A2264	ABC23064.1	83576513	Rhodospirillum
			rubrum
Rru_A1916	ABC22716.1	83576165	Rhodospirillum
			rubrum
Rru_A2026	ABC22826.1	83576275	Rhodospirillum
			rubrum
cooF	AAC45122.1	1498747	Rhodospirillum
			rubrum
fdxN	AAA26460.1	152605	Rhodospirillum
			rubrum
Alvin_2884	ADC63789.1	288897953	Allochromatium
			vinosum DSM 180
fdx	YP_002801146.1	226946073	Azotobacter
			vinelandii DJ
CKL_3790	YP_001397146.1	153956381	Clostridium kluyveri
			DSM 555
fer1	NP_949965.1	39937689	Rhodopseudomonas
			palustris CGA009
fdx	CAA12251.1	3724172	Thauera aromatica
CHY_2405	YP_361202.1	78044690	Carboxydothermus
			hydrogenoformans
fer	YP_359966.1	78045103	Carboxydothermus
			hydrogenoformans
fer	AAC83945.1	1146198	Bacillus subtilis
fdx1	NP_249053.1	15595559	Pseudomonas
			aeruginosa PA01
yfhL	AP_003148.1	89109368	Escherichia coli K-12
CLJU_c00930	ADK13195.1	300433428	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c00010	ADK13115.1	300433348	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c01820	ADK13272.1	300433505	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c17980	ADK14861.1	300435094	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c17970	ADK14860.1	300435093	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c22510	ADK15311.1	300435544	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c26680	ADK15726.1	300435959	Clostridium
			ljungdahli
CLJU_c29400	ADK15988.1	300436221	Clostridium
			ljungdahli

Succinyl-CoA transferase catalyzes the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate while transferring the CoA moiety to a CoA acceptor molecule. Many transferases have broad specificity and can utilize CoA acceptors as diverse as acetate, succinate, propionate, butyrate, 2-methylacetoacetate, 3-ketohexanoate, 3-ketopentanoate, valerate, crotonate, 3-mercaptopropionate, propionate, vinylacetate, and butyrate, among others.

The conversion of succinate to succinyl-CoA can be carried by a transferase which does not require the direct consumption of an ATP or GTP. This type of reaction is common in a number of organisms. The conversion of succinate to succinyl-CoA can also be catalyzed by succinyl-CoA:Acetyl-CoA transferase. The gene product of cat1 of Clostridium kluyveri has been shown to exhibit succinyl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase activity (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). In addition, the activity is present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., J Biol. Chem. 283:1411-1418 (2008)) and Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., J Biol. Chem. 279(44):45337-45346 (2004)). The succinyl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase from Acetobacter aceti, encoded by aarC, replaces succinyl-CoA synthetase in a variant TCA cycle (Mullins et al., J. Bacteriol. 190(14):4933-4940 (2008)). Similar succinyl-CoA transferase activities are also present in Trichomonas vaginalis (van Grinsven et al., supra 2008), Trypanosoma brucei (Riviere et al., supra 2004) and Clostridium kluyveri (Sohling and Gottschalk, J. Bacteriol. 178:871-880 (1996)). The beta-ketoadipate:succinyl-CoA transferase encoded by pcaI and pcaJ in Pseudomonas putida is yet another candidate (Kaschabek et al., J. Bacteriol. 184(1):207-215 (2002). The aforementioned proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
cat1	P38946.1	729048	Clostridium kluyveri
TVAG_395550	XP_001330176	123975034	Trichomonas vaginalis G3
Tb11.02.0290	XP_828352	71754875	Trypanosoma brucei
pcaI	AAN69545.1	24985644	Pseudomonas putida
pcaJ	NP_746082.1	26990657	Pseudomonas putida
aarC	ACD85596.1	189233555	Acetobacter aceti

An additional exemplary transferase that converts succinate to succinyl-CoA while converting a 3-ketoacyl-CoA to a 3-ketoacid is succinyl-CoA:3:ketoacid-CoA transferase (EC 2.8.3.5). Exemplary succinyl-CoA:3:ketoacid-CoA transferases are present in Helicobacter pylori (Corthesy-Theulaz et al., J. Biol. Chem. 272(41):25659-25667 (1997)), Bacillus subtilis, and Homo sapiens (Fukao et al., Genomics 68(2):144-151 (2000); Tanaka et al., Mol Hum Reprod. 8(1):16-23 (2002)). The aforementioned proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
HPAG1_0676	YP_627417	108563101	Helicobacter pylori
HPAG1_0677	YP_627418	108563102	Helicobacter pylori
ScoA	NP_391778	16080950	Bacillus subtilis
ScoB	NP_391777	16080949	Bacillus subtilis
OXCT1	NP_000427	4557817	Homo sapiens
OXCT2	NP_071403	11545841	Homo sapiens

Converting succinate to succinyl-CoA by succinyl-CoA:3:ketoacid-CoA transferase requires the simultaneous conversion of a 3-ketoacyl-CoA such as acetoacetyl-CoA to a 3-ketoacid such as acetoacetate. Conversion of a 3-ketoacid back to a 3-ketoacyl-CoA can be catalyzed by an acetoacetyl-CoA:acetate:CoA transferase. Acetoacetyl-CoA:acetate:CoA transferase converts acetoacetyl-CoA and acetate to acetoacetate and acetyl-CoA, or vice versa. Exemplary enzymes include the gene products of atoAD from E. coli (Hanai et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 73:7814-7818 (2007), ctfAB from C. acetobutylicum (Jojima et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 77:1219-1224 (2008), and ctfAB from Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum (Kosaka et al., Biosci. Biotechnol Biochem. 71:58-68 (2007)) are shown below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
AtoA	NP_416726.1	2492994	Escherichia coli
AtoD	NP_416725.1	2492990	Escherichia coli
CtfA	NP_149326.1	15004866	Clostridium acetobutylicum
CtfB	NP_149327.1	15004867	Clostridium acetobutylicum
CtfA	AAP42564.1	31075384	Clostridium
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum
CtfB	AAP42565.1	31075385	Clostridium
			saccharoperbutylacetonicum

Yet another possible CoA acceptor is benzylsuccinate. Succinyl-CoA:(R)-Benzylsuccinate CoA-Transferase functions as part of an anaerobic degradation pathway for toluene in organisms such as Thauera aromatics (Leutwein and Heider, J. Bact. 183(14) 4288-4295 (2001)). Homologs can be found in Azoarcus sp. T, Aromatoleum aromaticum EbN1, and Geobacter metallireducens GS-15. The aforementioned proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
bbsE	AAF89840	9622535	Thauera aromatica
Bbsf	AAF89841	9622536	Thauera aromatica
bbsE	AAU45405.1	52421824	Azoarcus sp. T
bbsF	AAU45406.1	52421825	Azoarcus sp. T
bbsE	YP_158075.1	56476486	Aromatoleum aromaticum EbN1
bbsF	YP_158074.1	56476485	Aromatoleum aromaticum EbN1
Gmet_1521	YP_384480.1	78222733	Geobacter metallireducens GS-15
Gmet_1522	YP_384481.1	78222734	Geobacter metallireducens GS-15

Additionally, yell encodes a propionyl CoA:succinate CoA transferase in E. coli (Haller et al., Biochemistry, 39(16) 4622-4629). Close homologs can be found in, for example, Citrobacter youngae ATCC 29220, Salmonella enterica subsp. arizonae serovar, and Yersinia intermedia ATCC 29909. The aforementioned proteins are identified below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
ygfH	NP_417395.1	16130821	Escherichia coli
			str. K-12 substr.
			MG1655
CIT292_04485	ZP_03838384.1	227334728	Citrobacter youngae
			ATCC 29220
SARI_04582	YP_001573497.1	161506385	Salmonella enterica
			subsp. arizonae serovar
yinte0001_14430	ZP_04635364.1	238791727	Yersinia intermedia
			ATCC 29909

Citrate lyase (EC 4.1.3.6) catalyzes a series of reactions resulting in the cleavage of citrate to acetate and oxaloacetate. The enzyme is active under anaerobic conditions and is composed of three subunits: an acyl-carrier protein (ACP, gamma), an ACP transferase (alpha), and a acyl lyase (beta). Enzyme activation uses covalent binding and acetylation of an unusual prosthetic group, 2′-(5″-phosphoribosyl)-3′-dephospho-CoA, which is similar in structure to acetyl-CoA. Acylation is catalyzed by CitC, a citrate lyase synthetase. Two additional proteins, CitG and CitX, are used to convert the apo enzyme into the active holo enzyme (Schneider et al., Biochemistry 39:9438-9450 (2000)). Wild type E. coli does not have citrate lyase activity; however, mutants deficient in molybdenum cofactor synthesis have an active citrate lyase (Clark, FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 55:245-249 (1990)). The E. coli enzyme is encoded by citEFD and the citrate lyase synthetase is encoded by citC (Nilekani and SivaRaman, Biochemistry 22:4657-4663 (1983)). The Leuconostoc mesenteroides citrate lyase has been cloned, characterized and expressed in E. coli (Bekal et al., J. Bacteriol. 180:647-654 (1998)). Citrate lyase enzymes have also been identified in enterobacteria that utilize citrate as a carbon and energy source, including Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella pneumoniae (Bott, Arch. Microbiol. 167: 78-88 (1997); Bott and Dimroth, Mol. Microbiol. 14:347-356 (1994)). The aforementioned proteins are tabulated below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
citF	AAC73716.1	1786832	Escherichia coli
Cite	AAC73717.2	87081764	Escherichia coli
citD	AAC73718.1	1786834	Escherichia coli
citC	AAC73719.2	87081765	Escherichia coli
citG	AAC73714.1	1786830	Escherichia coli
citX	AAC73715.1	1786831	Escherichia coli
citF	CAA71633.1	2842397	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
Cite	CAA71632.1	2842396	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
citD	CAA71635.1	2842395	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
citC	CAA71636.1	3413797	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
citG	CAA71634.1	2842398	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
citX	CAA71634.1	2842398	Leuconostoc mesenteroides
citF	NP_459613.1	16763998	Salmonella typhimurium
cite	AAL19573.1	16419133	Salmonella typhimurium
citD	NP_459064.1	16763449	Salmonella typhimurium
citC	NP_459616.1	16764001	Salmonella typhimurium
citG	NP_459611.1	16763996	Salmonella typhimurium
citX	NP_459612.1	16763997	Salmonella typhimurium
citF	CAA56217.1	565619	Klebsiella pneumoniae
cite	CAA56216.1	565618	Klebsiella pneumoniae
citD	CAA56215.1	565617	Klebsiella pneumoniae
citC	BAH66541.1	238774045	Klebsiella pneumoniae
citG	CAA56218.1	565620	Klebsiella pneumoniae
citX	AAL60463.1	18140907	Klebsiella pneumoniae

Acetate kinase (EC 2.7.2.1) catalyzes the reversible ATP-dependent phosphorylation of acetate to acetylphosphate. Exemplary acetate kinase enzymes have been characterized in many organisms including E. coli, Clostridium acetobutylicum and Methanosarcina thermophila (Ingram-Smith et al., J. Bacteriol. 187:2386-2394 (2005); Fox and Roseman, J. Biol. Chem. 261:13487-13497 (1986); Winzer et al., Microbioloy 143 (Pt 10):3279-3286 (1997)). Acetate kinase activity has also been demonstrated in the gene product of E. coli purT (Marolewski et al., Biochemistry 33:2531-2537 (1994). Some butyrate kinase enzymes (EC 2.7.2.7), for example buk1 and buk2 from Clostridium acetobutylicum, also accept acetate as a substrate (Hartmanis, M. G., J. Biol. Chem. 262:617-621 (1987)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
ackA	NP_416799.1	16130231	Escherichia coli
Ack	AAB18301.1	1491790	Clostridium acetobutylicum
Ack	AAA72042.1	349834	Methanosarcina thermophile
purT	AAC74919.1	1788155	Escherichia coli
buk1	NP_349675	15896326	Clostridium acetobutylicum
buk2	Q97II1	20137415	Clostridium acetobutylicum

The formation of acetyl-CoA from acetylphosphate is catalyzed by phosphotransacetylase (EC 2.3.1.8). The pta gene from E. coli encodes an enzyme that reversibly converts acetyl-CoA into acetyl-phosphate (Suzuki, T., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 191:559-569 (969)). Additional acetyltransferase enzymes have been characterized in Bacillus subtilis (Rado and Hoch, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 321:114-125 (1973), Clostridium kluyveri (Stadtman, E., Methods Enzymol. 1:5896-599 (1955), and Thermotoga maritima (Bock et al., J. Bacteriol. 181:1861-1867 (1999)). This reaction is also catalyzed by some phosphotranbutyrylase enzymes (EC 2.3.1.19) including the ptb gene products from Clostridium acetobutylicum (Wiesenborn et al., App. Environ. Microbiol. 55:317-322 (1989); Walter et al., Gene 134:107-111 (1993)). Additional ptb genes are found in butyrate-producing bacterium L2-50 (Louis et al., J. Bacteriol. 186:2099-2106 (2004) and Bacillus megaterium (Vazquez et al., Curr. Microbiol. 42:345-349 (2001).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Pta	NP_416800.1	71152910	Escherichia coli
Pta	P39646	730415	Bacillus subtilis
Pta	A5N801	146346896	Clostridium kluyveri
Pta	Q9X0L4	6685776	Thermotoga maritima
Ptb	NP_349676	34540484	Clostridium acetobutylicum
Ptb	AAR19757.1	38425288	butyrate-producing bacterium
			L2-50
Ptb	CAC07932.1	10046659	Bacillus megaterium

The acylation of acetate to acetyl-CoA is catalyzed by enzymes with acetyl-CoA synthetase activity. Two enzymes that catalyze this reaction are AMP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (EC 6.2.1.1) and ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (EC 6.2.1.13). AMP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) is the predominant enzyme for activation of acetate to acetyl-CoA. Exemplary ACS enzymes are found in E. coli (Brown et al., J. Gen. Microbiol. 102:327-336 (1977)), Ralstonia eutropha (Priefert and Steinbuchel, J. Bacteriol. 174:6590-6599 (1992)), Methanothermobacter thermautotrophicus (Ingram-Smith and Smith, Archaea 2:95-107 (2007)), Salmonella enterica (Gulick et al., Biochemistry 42:2866-2873 (2003)) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Jogl and Tong, Biochemistry 43:1425-1431 (2004)). ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetases are reversible enzymes with a generally broad substrate range (Musfeldt and Schonheit, J. Bacteriol. 184:636-644 (2002)). Two isozymes of ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetases are encoded in the Archaeoglobus fulgidus genome by are encoded by AF1211 and AF1983 (Musfeldt and Schonheit, supra (2002)). The enzyme from Haloarcula marismortui (annotated as a succinyl-CoA synthetase) also accepts acetate as a substrate and reversibility of the enzyme was demonstrated (Brasen and Schonheit, Arch. Microbiol. 182:277-287 (2004)). The ACD encoded by PAE3250 from hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum showed the broadest substrate range of all characterized ACDs, reacting with acetate, isobutyryl-CoA (preferred substrate) and phenylacetyl-CoA (Brasen and Schonheit, supra (2004)). Directed evolution or engineering can be used to modify this enzyme to operate at the physiological temperature of the host organism. The enzymes from A. fulgidus, H. marismortui and P. aerophilum have all been cloned, functionally expressed, and characterized in E. coli (Brasen and Schonheit, supra (2004); Musfeldt and Schonheit, supra (2002)). Additional candidates include the succinyl-CoA synthetase encoded by sucCD in E. coli (Buck et al., Biochemistry 24:6245-6252 (1985)) and the acyl-CoA ligase from Pseudomonas putida (Fernandez-Valverde et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:1149-1154 (1993)). The aforementioned proteins are tabulated below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
acs	AAC77039.1	1790505	Escherichia coli
acoE	AAA21945.1	141890	Ralstonia eutropha
acs1	ABC87079.1	86169671	Methanothermobacter
			thermautotrophicus
acs1	AAL23099.1	16422835	Salmonella enterica
ACS1	Q01574.2	257050994	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
AF1211	NP_070039.1	11498810	Archaeoglobus fulgidus
AF1983	NP_070807.1	11499565	Archaeoglobus fulgidus
scs	YP_135572.1	55377722	Haloarcula marismortui
PAE3250	NP_560604.1	18313937	Pyrobaculum aerophilum str.
			IM2
sucC	NP_415256.1	16128703	Escherichia coli
sucD	AAC73823.1	1786949	Escherichia coli
paaF	AAC24333.2	22711873	Pseudomonas putida

The product yields per C-mol of substrate of microbial cells synthesizing reduced fermentation products such as 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone, are limited by insufficient reducing equivalents in the carbohydrate feedstock. Reducing equivalents, or electrons, can be extracted from synthesis gas components such as CO and H₂ using carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) and hydrogenase enzymes, respectively. The reducing equivalents are then passed to acceptors such as oxidized ferredoxins, oxidized quinones, oxidized cytochromes, NAD(P)+, water, or hydrogen peroxide to form reduced ferredoxin, reduced quinones, reduced cytochromes, NAD(P)H, H₂, or water, respectively. Reduced ferredoxin and NAD(P)H are particularly useful as they can serve as redox carriers for various Wood-Ljungdahl pathway and reductive TCA cycle enzymes.

Here, we show specific examples of how additional redox availability from CO and/or H₂ can improve the yields of reduced products such as 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone. The maximum theoretical yield to produce 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone from glucose is 1.09 mol BDO/mol glucose, 1.33 mol 4HB/mol glucose and 1.33 mol GBL/mol glucose under anaerobic conditions. Using reducing equivalents from CO, H₂ and their various combinations in conjunction with carbohydrate feedstocks, such as glucose, yields of all three products can be improved to 2 mole/mole glucose.

When both feedstocks of sugar and syngas are available, the syngas components CO and H₂ can be utilized to generate reducing equivalents by employing the hydrogenase and CO dehydrogenase. The reducing equivalents generated from syngas components will be utilized to power the glucose to 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone production pathways. Theoretically, all carbons in glucose will be conserved, thus resulting in a maximal theoretical yield to produce 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone from glucose at 2 mole of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone per mol of glucose under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions.

As shown in above example, a combined feedstock strategy where syngas is combined with a sugar-based feedstock or other carbon substrate can greatly improve the theoretical yields. In this co-feeding approach, syngas components H₂ and CO can be utilized by the hydrogenase and CO dehydrogenase to generate reducing equivalents, that can be used to power chemical production pathways in which the carbons from sugar or other carbon substrates will be maximally conserved and the theoretical yields improved. For example, improved 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone production from glucose or sugar can be achieved. Such improvements provide environmental and economic benefits and greatly enhance sustainable chemical production.

Herein below the enzymes and the corresponding genes used for extracting redox from synags components are described. CODH is a reversible enzyme that interconverts CO and CO₂ at the expense or gain of electrons. The natural physiological role of the CODH in ACS/CODH complexes is to convert CO₂ to CO for incorporation into acetyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA synthase. Nevertheless, such CODH enzymes are suitable for the extraction of reducing equivalents from CO due to the reversible nature of such enzymes. Expressing such CODH enzymes in the absence of ACS allows them to operate in the direction opposite to their natural physiological role (i.e., CO oxidation).

In M. thermoacetica, C. hydrogenoformans, C. carboxidivorans P7, and several other organisms, additional CODH encoding genes are located outside of the ACS/CODH operons. These enzymes provide a means for extracting electrons (or reducing equivalents) from the conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. The M. thermoacetica gene (Genbank Accession Number: YP_—430813) is expressed by itself in an operon and is believed to transfer electrons from CO to an external mediator like ferredoxin in a “Ping-pong” reaction. The reduced mediator then couples to other reduced nicolinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAD(P)H) carriers or ferredoxin-dependent cellular processes (Ragsdale, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1125: 129-136 (2008)). The genes encoding the C. hydrogenoformans CODH-II and CooF, a neighboring protein, were cloned and sequenced (Gonzalez and Robb, FEMS Microbiol Lett. 191:243-247 (2000)). The resulting complex was membrane-bound, although cytoplasmic fractions of CODH-II were shown to catalyze the formation of NADPH suggesting an anabolic role (Svetlitchnyi et al., J Bacteriol. 183:5134-5144 (2001)). The crystal structure of the CODH-II is also available (Dobbek et al., Science 293:1281-1285 (2001)). Similar ACS-free CODH enzymes can be found in a diverse array of organisms including Geobacter metallireducens GS-15, Chlorobium phaeobacteroides DSM 266, Clostridium cellulolyticum H10, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans subsp. desulfuricans str. ATCC 27774, Pelobacter carbinolicus DSM 2380, C. ljungdahli and Campylobacter curvus 525.92.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
CODH (putative)	YP_430813	83590804	Moorella thermoacetica
CODH-II (CooS-II)	YP_358957	78044574	Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans
CooF	YP_358958	78045112	Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans
CODH (putative)	ZP_05390164.1	255523193	Clostridium carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_0341	ZP_05390341.1	255523371	Clostridium carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_1756	ZP_05391756.1	255524806	Clostridium carboxidivorans P7
CcarbDRAFT_2944	ZP_05392944.1	255526020	Clostridium carboxidivorans P7
CODH	YP_384856.1	78223109	Geobacter metallireducens GS-15
Cpha266_0148	YP_910642.1	119355998	Chlorobium phaeobacteroides DSM 266
(cytochrome c)
Cpha266_0149	YP_910643.1	119355999	Chlorobium phaeobacteroides DSM 266
(CODH)
Ccel_0438	YP_002504800.1	220927891	Clostridium cellulolyticum H10
Ddes_0382	YP_002478973.1	220903661	Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
(CODH)			subsp. desulfuricans str. ATCC 27774
Ddes_0381	YP_002478972.1	220903660	Desulfovibrio desulfuricans
(CooC)			subsp. desulfuricans str. ATCC 27774
Pcar_0057	YP_355490.1	7791767	Pelobacter carbinolicus DSM 2380
(CODH)
Pcar_0058	YP_355491.1	7791766	Pelobacter carbinolicus DSM 2380
(CooC)
Pcar_0058	YP_355492.1	7791765	Pelobacter carbinolicus DSM 2380
(HypA)
CooS (CODH)	YP_001407343.1	154175407	Campylobacter curvus 525.92
CLJU_c09110	ADK13979.1	300434212	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c09100	ADK13978.1	300434211	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c09090	ADK13977.1	300434210	Clostridium ljungdahli

In some cases, hydrogenase encoding genes are located adjacent to a CODH. In Rhodospirillum rubrum, the encoded CODH/hydrogenase proteins form a membrane-bound enzyme complex that has been indicated to be a site where energy, in the form of a proton gradient, is generated from the conversion of CO and H₂O to CO₂ and H₂ (Fox et al., J. Bacteriol. 178:6200-6208 (1996)). The CODH-I of C. hydrogenoformans and its adjacent genes have been proposed to catalyze a similar functional role based on their similarity to the R. rubrum CODH/hydrogenase gene cluster (Wu et al., PLoS Genet. 1:e65 (2005)). The C. hydrogenoformans CODH-I was also shown to exhibit intense CO oxidation and CO₂ reduction activities when linked to an electrode (Parkin et al., J Am. Chem. Soc. 129:10328-10329 (2007)). The protein sequences of exemplary CODH and hydrogenase genes can be identified by the following GenBank accession numbers.

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	CODH-I	YP_360644	78043418	Carboxydothermus
	(CooS-I)			hydrogenoformans
	CooF	YP_360645	78044791	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	HypA	YP_360646	78044340	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooH	YP_360647	78043871	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooU	YP_360648	78044023	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooX	YP_360649	78043124	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooL	YP_360650	78043938	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooK	YP_360651	78044700	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooM	YP_360652	78043942	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooC	YP_360654.1	78043296	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooA-1	YP_360655.1	78044021	Carboxydothermus
				hydrogenoformans
	CooL	AAC45118	1515468	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooX	AAC45119	1515469	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooU	AAC45120	1515470	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooH	AAC45121	1498746	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooF	AAC45122	1498747	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CODH	AAC45123	1498748	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	(CooS)
	CooC	AAC45124	1498749	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooT	AAC45125	1498750	Rhodospirillum rubrum
	CooJ	AAC45126	1498751	Rhodospirillum rubrum

Native to E. coli and other enteric bacteria are multiple genes encoding up to four hydrogenases (Sawers, G., Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 66:57-88 (1994); Sawers et al., J Bacteriol. 164:1324-1331 (1985); Sawers and Boxer, Eur. J Biochem. 156:265-275 (1986); Sawers et al., J Bacteriol. 168:398-404 (1986)). Given the multiplicity of enzyme activities, E. coli or another host organism can provide sufficient hydrogenase activity to split incoming molecular hydrogen and reduce the corresponding acceptor. E. coli possesses two uptake hydrogenases, Hyd-1 and Hyd-2, encoded by the hyaABCDEF and hybOABCDEFG gene clusters, respectively (Lukey et al., How E. coli is equipped to oxidize hydrogen under different redox conditions, J Biol Chem published online Nov. 16, 2009 (285(6):3928-3938 (2010)). Hyd-1 is oxygen-tolerant, irreversible, and is coupled to quinone reduction via the hyaC cytochrome. Hyd-2 is sensitive to O₂, reversible, and transfers electrons to the periplasmic ferredoxin hybA which, in turn, reduces a quinone via the hybB integral membrane protein. Reduced quinones can serve as the source of electrons for fumarate reductase in the reductive branch of the TCA cycle. Reduced ferredoxins can be used by enzymes such as NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductases to generate NADPH or NADH. They can alternatively be used as the electron donor for reactions such as pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase, AKG ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and 5,10-methylene-H4folate reductase.

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	HyaA	AAC74057.1	1787206	Escherichia coli
	HyaB	AAC74058.1	1787207	Escherichia coli
	HyaC	AAC74059.1	1787208	Escherichia coli
	HyaD	AAC74060.1	1787209	Escherichia coli
	HyaE	AAC74061.1	1787210	Escherichia coli
	HyaF	AAC74062.1	1787211	Escherichia coli
	HybO	AAC76033.1	1789371	Escherichia coli
	HybA	AAC76032.1	1789370	Escherichia coli
	HybB	AAC76031.1	2367183	Escherichia coli
	HybC	AAC76030.1	1789368	Escherichia coli
	HybD	AAC76029.1	1789367	Escherichia coli
	HybE	AAC76028.1	1789366	Escherichia coli
	HybF	AAC76027.1	1789365	Escherichia coli
	HybG	AAC76026.1	1789364	Escherichia coli

The hydrogen-lyase systems of E. coli include hydrogenase 3, a membrane-bound enzyme complex using ferredoxin as an acceptor, and hydrogenase 4 that also uses a ferredoxin acceptor. Hydrogenase 3 and 4 are encoded by the hyc and hyf gene clusters, respectively. Hydrogenase 3 has been shown to be a reversible enzyme (Maeda et al., Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 76(5):1035-42 (2007)). Hydrogenase activity in E. coli is also dependent upon the expression of the hyp genes whose corresponding proteins are involved in the assembly of the hydrogenase complexes (Jacobi et al., Arch. Microbiol 158:444-451 (1992); Rangarajan et al., J. Bacteriol. 190:1447-1458 (2008)).

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	HycA	NP_417205	16130632	Escherichia coli
	HycB	NP_417204	16130631	Escherichia coli
	HycC	NP_417203	16130630	Escherichia coli
	HycD	NP_417202	16130629	Escherichia coli
	HycE	NP_417201	16130628	Escherichia coli
	HycF	NP_417200	16130627	Escherichia coli
	HycG	NP_417199	16130626	Escherichia coli
	HycH	NP_417198	16130625	Escherichia coli
	HycI	NP_417197	16130624	Escherichia coli
	HyfA	NP_416976	90111444	Escherichia coli
	HyfB	NP_416977	16130407	Escherichia coli
	HyfC	NP_416978	90111445	Escherichia coli
	HyfD	NP_416979	16130409	Escherichia coli
	HyfE	NP_416980	16130410	Escherichia coli
	HyfF	NP_416981	16130411	Escherichia coli
	HyfG	NP_416982	16130412	Escherichia coli
	HyfH	NP_416983	16130413	Escherichia coli
	HyfI	NP_416984	16130414	Escherichia coli
	HyfJ	NP_416985	90111446	Escherichia coli
	HyfR	NP_416986	90111447	Escherichia coli
	HypA	NP_417206	16130633	Escherichia coli
	HypB	NP_417207	16130634	Escherichia coli
	HypC	NP_417208	16130635	Escherichia coli
	HypD	NP_417209	16130636	Escherichia coli
	HypE	NP_417210	226524740	Escherichia coli
	HypF	NP_417192	16130619	Escherichia coli

The M. thermoacetica hydrogenases are suitable for a host that lacks sufficient endogenous hydrogenase activity. M. thermoacetica can grow with CO₂ as the exclusive carbon source indicating that reducing equivalents are extracted from H₂ to enable acetyl-CoA synthesis via the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (Drake, H. L., J. Bacteriol. 150:702-709 (1982); Drake and Daniel, Res. Microbiol. 155:869-883 (2004); Kellum and Drake, J. Bacteriol. 160:466-469 (1984)) (see FIG. 68). M. thermoacetica has homologs to several hyp, hyc, and hyf genes from E. coli. The protein sequences encoded for by these genes are identified by the following GenBank accession numbers.

Proteins in M. thermoacetica whose genes are homologous to the E. coli hyp genes are shown below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Moth_2175	YP_431007	83590998	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2176	YP_431008	83590999	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2177	YP_431009	83591000	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2178	YP_431010	83591001	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2179	YP_431011	83591002	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2180	YP_431012	83591003	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2181	YP_431013	83591004	Moorella thermoacetica

Proteins in M. thermoacetica that are homologous to the E. coli Hydrogenase 3 and/or 4 proteins are listed in the following table.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Moth_2182	YP_431014	83591005	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2183	YP_431015	83591006	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2184	YP_431016	83591007	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2185	YP_431017	83591008	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2186	YP_431018	83591009	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2187	YP_431019	83591010	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2188	YP_431020	83591011	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2189	YP_431021	83591012	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2190	YP_431022	83591013	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2191	YP_431023	83591014	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_2192	YP_431024	83591015	Moorella thermoacetica

In addition, several gene clusters encoding hydrogenase functionality are present in M. thermoacetica and their corresponding protein sequences are provided below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Moth_0439	YP_429313	83589304	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0440	YP_429314	83589305	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0441	YP_429315	83589306	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0442	YP_429316	83589307	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0809	YP_429670	83589661	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0810	YP_429671	83589662	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0811	YP_429672	83589663	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0812	YP_429673	83589664	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0814	YP_429674	83589665	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0815	YP_429675	83589666	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_0816	YP_429676	83589667	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1193	YP_430050	83590041	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1194	YP_430051	83590042	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1195	YP_430052	83590043	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1196	YP_430053	83590044	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1717	YP_430562	83590553	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1718	YP_430563	83590554	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1719	YP_430564	83590555	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1883	YP_430726	83590717	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1884	YP_430727	83590718	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1885	YP_430728	83590719	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1886	YP_430729	83590720	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1887	YP_430730	83590721	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1888	YP_430731	83590722	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1452	YP_430305	83590296	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1453	YP_430306	83590297	Moorella thermoacetica
Moth_1454	YP_430307	83590298	Moorella thermoacetica

Ralstonia eutropha H16 uses hydrogen as an energy source with oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. Its membrane-bound uptake [NiFe]-hydrogenase is an “O2-tolerant” hydrogenase (Cracknell, et al. Proc Nat Acad Sci, 106(49) 20681-20686 (2009)) that is periplasmically-oriented and connected to the respiratory chain via a b-type cytochrome (Schink and Schlegel, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 567, 315-324 (1979); Bernhard et al., Eur. J. Biochem. 248, 179-186 (1997)). R. eutropha also contains an O₂-tolerant soluble hydrogenase encoded by the Hox operon which is cytoplasmic and directly reduces NAD+ at the expense of hydrogen (Schneider and Schlegel, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 452, 66-80 (1976); Burgdorf, J. Bact. 187(9) 3122-3132 (2005)). Soluble hydrogenase enzymes are additionally present in several other organisms including Geobacter sulfurreducens (Coppi, Microbiology 151, 1239-1254 (2005)), Synechocystis str. PCC 6803 (Germer, J. Biol. Chem., 284(52), 36462-36472 (2009)), and Thiocapsa roseopersicina (Rakhely, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70(2) 722-728 (2004)). The Synechocystis enzyme is capable of generating NADPH from hydrogen. Overexpression of both the Hox operon from Synechocystis str. PCC 6803 and the accessory genes encoded by the Hyp operon from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 led to increased hydrogenase activity compared to expression of the Hox genes alone (Germer, J. Biol. Chem. 284(52), 36462-36472 (2009)).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
HoxF	NP_942727.1	38637753	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxU	NP_942728.1	38637754	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxY	NP_942729.1	38637755	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxH	NP_942730.1	38637756	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxW	NP_942731.1	38637757	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxI	NP_942732.1	38637758	Ralstonia eutropha H16
HoxE	NP_953767.1	39997816	Geobacter sulfurreducens
HoxF	NP_953766.1	39997815	Geobacter sulfurreducens
HoxU	NP_953765.1	39997814	Geobacter sulfurreducens
HoxY	NP_953764.1	39997813	Geobacter sulfurreducens
HoxH	NP_953763.1	39997812	Geobacter sulfurreducens
GSU2717	NP_953762.1	39997811	Geobacter sulfurreducens
HoxE	NP_441418.1	16330690	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
HoxF	NP_441417.1	16330689	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
Unknown	NP_441416.1	16330688	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
function
HoxU	NP_441415.1	16330687	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
HoxY	NP_441414.1	16330686	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
Unknown	NP_441413.1	16330685	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
function
Unknown	NP_441412.1	16330684	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
function
HoxH	NP_441411.1	16330683	Synechocystis str. PCC 6803
HypF	NP_484737.1	17228189	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
HypC	NP_484738.1	17228190	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
HypD	NP_484739.1	17228191	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
Unknown	NP_484740.1	17228192	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
function
HypE	NP_484741.1	17228193	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
HypA	NP_484742.1	17228194	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
HypB	NP_484743.1	17228195	Nostoc sp. PCC 7120
Hox1E	AAP50519.1	37787351	Thiocapsa roseopersicina
Hox1F	AAP50520.1	37787352	Thiocapsa roseopersicina
Hox1U	AAP50521.1	37787353	Thiocapsa roseopersicina
Hox1Y	AAP50522.1	37787354	Thiocapsa roseopersicina
Hox1H	AAP50523.1	37787355	Thiocapsa roseopersicina

Genes encoding hydrogenase enzymes from C. ljungdahli are shown below.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
CLJU_c20290	ADK15091.1	300435324	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07030	ADK13773.1	300434006	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07040	ADK13774.1	300434007	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07050	ADK13775.1	300434008	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07060	ADK13776.1	300434009	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07070	ADK13777.1	300434010	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c07080	ADK13778.1	300434011	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c14730	ADK14541.1	300434774	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c14720	ADK14540.1	300434773	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c14710	ADK14539.1	300434772	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c14700	ADK14538.1	300434771	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c28670	ADK15915.1	300436148	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c28660	ADK15914.1	300436147	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c28650	ADK15913.1	300436146	Clostridium ljungdahli
CLJU_c28640	ADK15912.1	300436145	Clostridium ljungdahli

Several enzymes and the corresponding genes used for fixing carbon dioxide to either pyruvate or phosphoenolpyruvate to form the TCA cycle intermediates, oxaloacetate or malate are described below.

Carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate is catalyzed by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. Exemplary PEP carboxylase enzymes are encoded by ppc in E. coli (Kai et al., Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 414:170-179 (2003), ppcA in Methylobacterium extorquens AM1 (Arps et al., J. Bacteriol. 175:3776-3783 (1993), and ppc in Corynebacterium glutamicum (Eikmanns et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 218:330-339 (1989).

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
Ppc	NP_418391	16131794	Escherichia coli
ppcA	AAB58883	28572162	Methylobacterium extorquens
Ppc	ABB53270	80973080	Corynebacterium glutamicum

An alternative enzyme for converting phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate is PEP carboxykinase, which simultaneously forms an ATP while carboxylating PEP. In most organisms PEP carboxykinase serves a gluconeogenic function and converts oxaloacetate to PEP at the expense of one ATP. S. cerevisiae is one such organism whose native PEP carboxykinase, PCK1, serves a gluconeogenic role (Valdes-Hevia et al., FEBS Lett. 258:313-316 (1989). E. coli is another such organism, as the role of PEP carboxykinase in producing oxaloacetate is believed to be minor when compared to PEP carboxylase, which does not form ATP, possibly due to the higher K_m for bicarbonate of PEP carboxykinase (Kim et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70:1238-1241 (2004)). Nevertheless, activity of the native E. coli PEP carboxykinase from PEP towards oxaloacetate has been recently demonstrated in ppc mutants of E. coli K-12 (Kwon et al., J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 16:1448-1452 (2006)). These strains exhibited no growth defects and had increased succinate production at high NaHCO₃ concentrations. Mutant strains of E. coli can adopt Pck as the dominant CO2-fixing enzyme following adaptive evolution (Zhang et al. 2009). In some organisms, particularly rumen bacteria, PEP carboxykinase is quite efficient in producing oxaloacetate from PEP and generating ATP. Examples of PEP carboxykinase genes that have been cloned into E. coli include those from Mannheimia succiniciproducens (Lee et al., Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng. 7:95-99 (2002)), Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens (Laivenieks et al., Appi. Environ. Microbiol. 63:2273-2280 (1997), and Actinobacillus succinogenes (Kim et al. supra). The PEP carboxykinase enzyme encoded by Haemophilus influenza is effective at forming oxaloacetate from PEP.

Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
PCK1	NP_013023	6322950	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
pck	NP_417862.1	16131280	Escherichia coli
pckA	YP_089485.1	52426348	Mannheimia succiniciproducens
pckA	O09460.1	3122621	Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens
pckA	Q6W6X5	75440571	Actinobacillus succinogenes
pckA	P43923.1	1172573	Haemophilus influenza

Pyruvate carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.1) directly converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate at the cost of one ATP. Pyruvate carboxylase enzymes are encoded by PYC1 (Walker et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 176:1210-1217 (1991) and PYC2 (Walker et al., supra) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and pyc in Mycobacterium smegmatis (Mukhopadhyay and Purwantini, Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1475:191-206 (2000)).

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	PYC1	NP_011453	6321376	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	PYC2	NP_009777	6319695	Saccharomyces cerevisiae
	Pyc	YP_890857.1	118470447	Mycobacterium smegmatis

Malic enzyme can be applied to convert CO₂ and pyruvate to malate at the expense of one reducing equivalent. Malic enzymes for this purpose can include, without limitation, malic enzyme (NAD-dependent) and malic enzyme (NADP-dependent). For example, one of the E. coli malic enzymes (Takeo, J. Biochem. 66:379-387 (1969)) or a similar enzyme with higher activity can be expressed to enable the conversion of pyruvate and CO₂ to malate. By fixing carbon to pyruvate as opposed to PEP, malic enzyme allows the high-energy phosphate bond from PEP to be conserved by pyruvate kinase whereby ATP is generated in the formation of pyruvate or by the phosphotransferase system for glucose transport. Although malic enzyme is typically assumed to operate in the direction of pyruvate formation from malate, overexpression of the NAD-dependent enzyme, encoded by maeA, has been demonstrated to increase succinate production in E. coli while restoring the lethal Δpfl-ΔldhA phenotype under anaerobic conditions by operating in the carbon-fixing direction (Stols and Donnelly, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(7) 2695-2701 (1997)). A similar observation was made upon overexpressing the malic enzyme from Ascaris suum in E. coli (Stols et al., Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 63-65(1), 153-158 (1997)). The second E. coli malic enzyme, encoded by maeB, is NADP-dependent and also decarboxylates oxaloacetate and other alpha-keto acids (Iwakura et al., J. Biochem. 85(5):1355-65 (1979)).

	Protein	GenBank ID	GI Number	Organism
	maeA	NP_415996	90111281	Escherichia coli
	maeB	NP_416958	16130388	Escherichia coli
	NAD-ME	P27443	126732	Ascaris suum

The enzymes used for converting oxaloacetate (formed from, for example, PEP carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, or pyruvate carboxylase) or malate (formed from, for example, malic enzyme or malate dehydrogenase) to succinyl-CoA via the reductive branch of the TCA cycle are malate dehydrogenase, fumarate dehydratase (fumarase), fumarate reductase, and succinyl-CoA transferase. The genes for each of the enzymes are described herein above.

Enzymes, genes and methods for engineering pathways from succinyl-CoA to various products into a microorganism are now known in the art. The additional reducing equivalents obtained from CO and/or H₂, as disclosed herein, improve the yields of 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone when utilizing carbohydrate-based feedstock. For example, 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone can be produced as described herein, for example, produced from succinyl-CoA via pathways shown in FIG. 64B and FIG. 8A. Exemplary enzymes for the conversion succinyl-CoA to 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone include those disclosed herein, including the figures.

Enzymes, genes and methods for engineering pathways from glycolysis intermediates to various products into a microorganism are known in the art. The additional reducing equivalents obtained from CO and H₂, as described herein, improve the yields of all these products on carbohydrates. For example, 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone can be produced from the glycolysis intermediate. Exemplary enzymes for the conversion of to 1,4-butanediol, 4-hydroxybutyrate and/or gamma-butyrolactone are described herein.

Example XXVI

Methods for Handling CO and Anaerobic Cultures

This example describes methods used in handling CO and anaerobic cultures.

A. Handling of CO in Small Quantities for Assays and Small Cultures.

CO is an odorless, colorless and tasteless gas that is a poison. Therefore, cultures and assays that utilized CO required special handling. Several assays, including CO oxidation, acetyl-CoA synthesis, CO concentration using myoglobin, and CO tolerance/utilization in small batch cultures, called for small quantities of the CO gas that were dispensed and handled within a fume hood. Biochemical assays called for saturating very small quantities (<2 mL) of the biochemical assay medium or buffer with CO and then performing the assay. All of the CO handling steps were performed in a fume hood with the sash set at the proper height and blower turned on; CO was dispensed from a compressed gas cylinder and the regulator connected to a Schlenk line. The latter ensures that equal concentrations of CO were dispensed to each of several possible cuvettes or vials. The Schlenk line was set up containing an oxygen scrubber on the input side and an oil pressure release bubbler and vent on the other side. Assay cuvettes were both anaerobic and CO-containing. Therefore, the assay cuvettes were tightly sealed with a rubber stopper and reagents were added or removed using gas-tight needles and syringes. Secondly, small (˜50 mL) cultures were grown with saturating CO in tightly stoppered serum bottles. As with the biochemical assays, the CO-saturated microbial cultures were equilibrated in the fume hood using the Schlenk line setup. Both the biochemical assays and microbial cultures were in portable, sealed containers and in small volumes making for safe handling outside of the fume hood. The compressed CO tank was adjacent to the fume hood.

Typically, a Schlenk line was used to dispense CO to cuvettes, each vented. Rubber stoppers on the cuvettes were pierced with 19 or 20 gage disposable syringe needles and were vented with the same. An oil bubbler was used with a CO tank and oxygen scrubber. The glass or quartz spectrophotometer cuvettes have a circular hole on top into which a Kontes stopper sleeve, Sz7 774250-0007 was fitted. The CO detector unit was positioned proximal to the fume hood.

B. Handling of CO in Larger Quantities Fed to Large-Scale Cultures.

Fermentation cultures are fed either CO or a mixture of CO and H₂ to simulate syngas as a feedstock in fermentative production. Therefore, quantities of cells ranging from 1 liter to several liters can include the addition of CO gas to increase the dissolved concentration of CO in the medium. In these circumstances, fairly large and continuously administered quantities of CO gas are added to the cultures. At different points, the cultures are harvested or samples removed. Alternatively, cells are harvested with an integrated continuous flow centrifuge that is part of the fermenter.

The fermentative processes are carried out under anaerobic conditions. In some cases, it is uneconomical to pump oxygen or air into fermenters to ensure adequate oxygen saturation to provide a respiratory environment. In addition, the reducing power generated during anaerobic fermentation may be needed in product formation rather than respiration. Furthermore, many of the enzymes for various pathways are oxygen-sensitive to varying degrees. Classic acetogens such as M. thermoacetica are obligate anaerobes and the enzymes in the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway are highly sensitive to irreversible inactivation by molecular oxygen. While there are oxygen-tolerant acetogens, the repertoire of enzymes in the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway might be incompatible in the presence of oxygen because most are metallo-enzymes, key components are ferredoxins, and regulation can divert metabolism away from the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway to maximize energy acquisition. At the same time, cells in culture act as oxygen scavengers that moderate the need for extreme measures in the presence of large cell growth.

C. Anaerobic Chamber and Conditions.

Exemplary anaerobic chambers are available commercially (see, for example, Vacuum Atmospheres Company, Hawthorne Calif.; MBraun, Newburyport Mass.). Conditions included an O₂ concentration of 1 ppm or less and 1 atm pure N₂. In one example, 3 oxygen scrubbers/catalyst regenerators were used, and the chamber included an O₂ electrode (such as Teledyne; City of Industry Calif.). Nearly all items and reagents were cycled four times in the airlock of the chamber prior to opening the inner chamber door. Reagents with a volume >5 mL were sparged with pure N₂ prior to introduction into the chamber. Gloves are changed twice/yr and the catalyst containers were regenerated periodically when the chamber displays increasingly sluggish response to changes in oxygen levels. The chamber's pressure was controlled through one-way valves activated by solenoids. This feature allowed setting the chamber pressure at a level higher than the surroundings to allow transfer of very small tubes through the purge valve.

The anaerobic chambers achieved levels of O₂ that were consistently very low and were needed for highly oxygen sensitive anaerobic conditions. However, growth and handling of cells does not usually require such precautions. In an alternative anaerobic chamber configuration, platinum or palladium can be used as a catalyst that requires some hydrogen gas in the mix. Instead of using solenoid valves, pressure release can be controlled by a bubbler. Instead of using instrument-based O₂ monitoring, test strips can be used instead.

D. Anaerobic Microbiology.

Small cultures were handled as described above for CO handling. In particular, serum or media bottles are fitted with thick rubber stoppers and aluminum crimps are employed to seal the bottle. Medium, such as Terrific Broth, is made in a conventional manner and dispensed to an appropriately sized serum bottle. The bottles are sparged with nitrogen for ˜30 min of moderate bubbling. This removes most of the oxygen from the medium and, after this step, each bottle is capped with a rubber stopper (such as Bellco 20 mm septum stoppers; Bellco, Vineland, N.J.) and crimp-sealed (Bellco 20 mm). Then the bottles of medium are autoclaved using a slow (liquid) exhaust cycle. At least sometimes a needle can be poked through the stopper to provide exhaust during autoclaving; the needle needs to be removed immediately upon removal from the autoclave. The sterile medium has the remaining medium components, for example buffer or antibiotics, added via syringe and needle. Prior to addition of reducing agents, the bottles are equilibrated for 30-60 minutes with nitrogen (or CO depending upon use). A reducing agent such as a 100×150 mM sodium sulfide, 200 mM cysteine-HCl is added. This is made by weighing the sodium sulfide into a dry beaker and the cysteine into a serum bottle, bringing both into the anaerobic chamber, dissolving the sodium sulfide into anaerobic water, then adding this to the cysteine in the serum bottle. The bottle is stoppered immediately as the sodium sulfide solution generates hydrogen sulfide gas upon contact with the cysteine. When injecting into the culture, a syringe filter is used to sterilize the solution. Other components are added through syringe needles, such as B12 (10 μM cyanocobalamin), nickel chloride (NiCl₂, 20 microM final concentration from a 40 mM stock made in anaerobic water in the chamber and sterilized by autoclaving or by using a syringe filter upon injection into the culture), and ferrous ammonium sulfate (final concentration needed is 100 μM—made as 100-1000× stock solution in anaerobic water in the chamber and sterilized by autoclaving or by using a syringe filter upon injection into the culture). To facilitate faster growth under anaerobic conditions, the 1 liter bottles were inoculated with 50 mL of a preculture grown anaerobically. Induction of the pA1-lacO1 promoter in the vectors was performed by addition of isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) to a final concentration of 0.2 mM and was carried out for about 3 hrs.

Large cultures can be grown in larger bottles using continuous gas addition while bubbling. A rubber stopper with a metal bubbler is placed in the bottle after medium addition and sparged with nitrogen for 30 minutes or more prior to setting up the rest of the bottle. Each bottle is put together such that a sterile filter will sterilize the gas bubbled in and the hoses on the bottles are compressible with small C clamps. Medium and cells are stirred with magnetic stir bars. Once all medium components and cells are added, the bottles are incubated in an incubator in room air but with continuous nitrogen sparging into the bottles.

Example XXVII

CO Oxidation (CODH) Assay

This example describes assay methods for measuring CO oxidation (CO dehydrogenase; CODH).

The 7 gene CODH/ACS operon of Moorella thermoacetica was cloned into E. coli expression vectors. The intact ˜10 kbp DNA fragment was cloned, and it is likely that some of the genes in this region are expressed from their own endogenous promoters and all contain endogenous ribosomal binding sites. These clones were assayed for CO oxidation, using an assay that quantitatively measures CODH activity. Antisera to the M. thermoacetica gene products was used for Western blots to estimate specific activity. M. thermoacetica is Gram positive, and ribosome binding site elements are expected to work well in E. coli. This activity, described below in more detail, was estimated to be ˜ 1/50th of the M. thermoacetica specific activity. It is possible that CODH activity of recombinant E. coli cells could be limited by the fact that M. thermoacetica enzymes have temperature optima around 55° C. Therefore, a mesophilic CODH/ACS pathway could be advantageous such as the close relative of Moorella that is mesophilic and does have an apparently intact CODH/ACS operon and a Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, Desulfitobacterium hafniense. Acetogens as potential host organisms include, but are not limited to, Rhodospirillum rubrum, Moorella thermoacetica and Desulfitobacterium hafniense.

CO oxidation is both the most sensitive and most robust of the CODH/ACS assays. It is likely that an E. coli-based syngas using system will ultimately need to be about as anaerobic as Clostridial (i.e., Moorella) systems, especially for maximal activity. Improvement in CODH should be possible but will ultimately be limited by the solubility of CO gas in water.

Initially, each of the genes was cloned individually into expression vectors. Combined expression units for multiple subunits/1 complex were generated. Expression in E. coli at the protein level was determined. Both combined M. thermoacetica CODH/ACS operons and individual expression clones were made.

CO oxidation assay. This assay is one of the simpler, reliable, and more versatile assays of enzymatic activities within the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway and tests CODH (Seravalli et al., Biochemistry 43:3944-3955 (2004)). A typical activity of M. thermoacetica CODH specific activity is 500 U at 55° C. or ˜60 U at 25° C. This assay employs reduction of methyl viologen in the presence of CO. This is measured at 578 nm in stoppered, anaerobic, glass cuvettes.

In more detail, glass rubber stoppered cuvettes were prepared after first washing the cuvette four times in deionized water and one time with acetone. A small amount of vacuum grease was smeared on the top of the rubber gasket. The cuvette was gassed with CO, dried 10 min with a 22 Ga. needle plus an exhaust needle. A volume of 0.98 mL of reaction buffer (50 mM Hepes, pH 8.5, 2 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) was added using a 22 Ga. needle, with exhaust needled, and 100% CO. Methyl viologen (CH₃ viologen) stock was 1 M in water. Each assay used 20 microliters for 20 mM final concentration. When methyl viologen was added, an 18 Ga needle (partial) was used as a jacket to facilitate use of a Hamilton syringe to withdraw the CH₃ viologen. 4-5 aliquots were drawn up and discarded to wash and gas equilibrate the syringe. A small amount of sodium dithionite (0.1 M stock) was added when making up the CH₃ viologen stock to slightly reduce the CH₃ viologen. The temperature was equilibrated to 55° C. in a heated Olis spectrophotometer (Bogart Ga.). A blank reaction (CH₃ viologen+buffer) was run first to measure the base rate of CH₃ viologen reduction. Crude E. coli cell extracts of ACS90 and ACS91 (CODH-ACS operon of M. thermoacetica with and without, respectively, the first cooC). 10 microliters of extract were added at a time, mixed and assayed. Reduced CH₃ viologen turns purple. The results of an assay are shown in Table 33.

TABLE 33
Crude extract CO Oxidation Activities.
ACS90	7.7 mg/ml	ACS91	11.8 mg/ml
Mta98	9.8 mg/ml	Mta99	11.2 mg/ml
Extract	Vol	OD/	U/ml	U/mg
ACS90	10 microliters	0.073	0.376	0.049
ACS91	10 microliters	0.096	0.494	0.042
Mta99	10 microliters	0.0031	0.016	0.0014
ACS90	10 microliters	0.099	0.51	0.066
Mta99	25 microliters	0.012	0.025	0.0022
ACS91	25 microliters	0.215	0.443	0.037
Mta98	25 microliters	0.019	0.039	0.004
ACS91	10 microliters	0.129	0.66	0.056
Averages
ACS90	0.057	U/mg
ACS91	0.045	U/mg
Mta99	0.0018	U/mg

Mta98/Mta99 are E. coli MG1655 strains that express methanol methyltransferase genes from M. thermoacetia and, therefore, are negative controls for the ACS90 ACS91 E. coli strains that contain M. thermoacetica CODH operons.

If ˜1% of the cellular protein is CODH, then these figures would be approximately 100× less than the 500 U/mg activity of pure M. thermoacetica CODH. Actual estimates based on Western blots are 0.5% of the cellular protein, so the activity is about 50× less than for M. thermoacetica CODH. Nevertheless, this experiment demonstrates CO oxidation activity in recombinant E. coli with a much smaller amount in the negative controls. The small amount of CO oxidation (CH₃ viologen reduction) seen in the negative controls indicates that E. coli may have a limited ability to reduce CH₃ viologen.

To estimate the final concentrations of CODH and Mtr proteins, SDS-PAGE followed by Western blot analyses were performed on the same cell extracts used in the CO oxidation, ACS, methyltransferase, and corrinoid Fe—S assays. The antisera used were polyclonal to purified M. thermoacetica CODH-ACS and Mtr proteins and were visualized using an alkaline phosphatase-linked goat-anti-rabbit secondary antibody. The Westerns were performed and results are shown in FIG. 70. The amounts of CODH in ACS90 and ACS91 were estimated at 50 ng by comparison to the control lanes. Expression of CODH-ACS operon genes including 2 CODH subunits and the methyltransferase were confirmed via Western blot analysis. Therefore, the recombinant E. coli cells express multiple components of a 7 gene operon. In addition, both the methyltransferase and corrinoid iron sulfur protein were active in the same recombinant E. coli cells. These proteins are part of the same operon cloned into the same cells.

The CO oxidation assays were repeated using extracts of Moorella thermoacetica cells for the positive controls. Though CODH activity in E. coli ACS90 and ACS91 was measurable, it was at about 130-150× lower than the M. thermoacetica control. The results of the assay are shown in FIG. 71. Briefly, cells (M. thermoacetica or E. coli with the CODH/ACS operon; ACS90 or ACS91 or empty vector: pZA33S) were grown and extracts prepared as described above. Assays were performed as described above at 55° C. at various times on the day the extracts were prepared. Reduction of methylviologen was followed at 578 nm over a 120 sec time course.

These results describe the CO oxidation (CODH) assay and results. Recombinant E. coli cells expressed CO oxidation activity as measured by the methyl viologen reduction assay.

Example XXVIII

E. coli CO Tolerance Experiment and CO Concentration Assay (Myoglobin Assay)

This example describes the tolerance of E. coli for high concentrations of CO.

To test whether or not E. coli can grow anaerobically in the presence of saturating amounts of CO, cultures were set up in 120 ml serum bottles with 50 ml of Terrific Broth medium (plus reducing solution, NiCl₂, Fe(II)NH₄SO₄, cyanocobalamin, IPTG, and chloramphenicol) as described above for anaerobic microbiology in small volumes. One half of these bottles were equilibrated with nitrogen gas for 30 min. and one half was equilibrated with CO gas for 30 min. An empty vector (pZA33) was used as a control, and cultures containing the pZA33 empty vector as well as both ACS90 and ACS91 were tested with both N₂ and CO. All were inoculated and grown for 36 hrs with shaking (250 rpm) at 37° C. At the end of the 36 hour period, examination of the flasks showed high amounts of growth in all. The bulk of the observed growth occurred overnight with a long lag.

Given that all cultures appeared to grow well in the presence of CO, the final CO concentrations were confirmed. This was performed using an assay of the spectral shift of myoglobin upon exposure to CO. Myoglobin reduced with sodium dithionite has an absorbance peak at 435 nm; this peak is shifted to 423 nm with CO. Due to the low wavelength and need to record a whole spectrum from 300 nm on upwards, quartz cuvettes must be used. CO concentration is measured against a standard curve and depends upon the Henry's Law constant for CO of maximum water solubility=970 micromolar at 20° C. and 1 atm.

For the myoglobin test of CO concentration, cuvettes were washed 10× with water, 1× with acetone, and then stoppered as with the CODH assay. N₂ was blown into the cuvettes for ˜10 min. A volume of 1 ml of anaerobic buffer (HEPES, pH 8.0, 2 mM DTT) was added to the blank (not equilibrated with CO) with a Hamilton syringe. A volume of 10 microliter myoglobin (˜1 mM—can be varied, just need a fairly large amount) and 1 microliter dithionite (20 mM stock) were added. A CO standard curve was made using CO saturated buffer added at 1 microliter increments. Peak height and shift was recorded for each increment. The cultures tested were pZA33/CO, ACS90/CO, and ACS91/CO. Each of these was added in 1 microliter increments to the same cuvette. Midway through the experiment a second cuvette was set up and used. The results are shown in Table 34.

TABLE 34
Carbon Monoxide Concentrations, 36 hrs.
Strain and Growth Conditions Final CO concentration (micromolar)
pZA33-CO                     930
ACS90-CO                     638
                             494
                             734
                             883
ave                          687
SD                           164
ACS91-CO                     728
                             812
                             760
                             611
ave.                         728
SD                           85

The results shown in Table 34 indicate that the cultures grew whether or not a strain was cultured in the presence of CO or not. These results indicate that E. coli can tolerate exposure to CO under anaerobic conditions and that E. coli cells expressing the CODH-ACS operon can metabolize some of the CO.

These results demonstrate that E. coli cells, whether expressing CODH/ACS or not, were able to grow in the presence of saturating amounts of CO. Furthermore, these grew equally well as the controls in nitrogen in place of CO. This experiment demonstrated that laboratory strains of E. coli are insensitive to CO at the levels achievable in a syngas project performed at normal atmospheric pressure. In addition, preliminary experiments indicated that the recombinant E. coli cells expressing CODH/ACS actually consumed some CO, probably by oxidation to carbon dioxide.

Throughout this application various publications have been referenced. The disclosures of these publications in their entireties, including GenBank and GI number publications, are hereby incorporated by reference in this application in order to more fully describe the state of the art to which this invention pertains. Although the invention has been described with reference to the examples provided above, it should be understood that various modifications can be made without departing from the spirit of the invention.

Claims

1. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 1,4-butanediol pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 1,4-butanediol pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 1,4-butanediol; said non-naturally occurring microbial organism further comprising:

(i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, a citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase;

(ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or

(iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H2 hydrogenase, and combinations thereof;

wherein said 1,4-butanediol pathway comprises a pathway selected from:

(a) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase;

(b) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, aldehyde dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase and an aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase;

(c) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (iii) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, or a butyrate kinase and a phosphotransbutyrylase; (iv) an aldehyde dehydrogenase; and (v) an alcohol dehydrogenase;

(d) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase;

(e) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) and 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase;

(f) 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(g) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(h) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(i) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase;

(j) homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(k) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(l) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(m) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase;

(n) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(o) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(p) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(q) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(r) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(s) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(t) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(u) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(v) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(w) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(x) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(y) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(z) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(aa) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase;

(bb) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; or glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; (iv) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and (v) 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase;

(cc) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or succinyl-CoA synthetase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and (iv) aldehyde dehydrogenase; and alcohol dehydrogenase; or aldehyde/alcohol dehydrogenase;

(dd) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or glutamate dehydrogenase; glutamate decarboxylase; and deaminating 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and (iii) 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphorylating 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase;

(ee) (i) glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; or glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming glutamyl-CoA reductase; or glutamate 5-kinase; phosphorylating glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; (ii) deaminating 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and (iii) 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase;

(ff) succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase;

(gg) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase;

(hh) succinate reductase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase;

(ii) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate reductase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase;

(jj) alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate decarboxylase; and optionally 1,4-butandiol dehydrogenase;

(kk) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(ll) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(mm) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(nn) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylasel; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(oo) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(pp) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(qq) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(rr) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(ss) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(tt) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(uu) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(vv) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(ww) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(xx) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(yy) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(zz) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(aaa) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(bbb) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(ccc) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(ddd) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(eee) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(fff) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(ggg) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-phosphate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(hhh) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate reductase; and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(iii) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(jjj) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(kkk) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and

(lll) any of the pathways that produce 1,4-butanediol as shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74.

2. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprising (i) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

3. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprising (ii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

4. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprising (iii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase and ferredoxin.

5-6. (canceled)

7. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism:

(i) comprising pathways (a), (b) or (c) further comprises an enzyme selected from succinyl-CoA synthetase, exogenous CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase or exogenous succinyl-CoA synthetase and exogenous CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase;

(ii) comprising pathway (d), (g), (h), (i), (j) further comprises an enzyme selected from 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(iii) comprising pathway (e) or (f) further comprises 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(iv) comprising pathway (k) further comprises succinyl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase;

(v) comprising pathway (1) further comprises alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase, phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), or 1,4-butanediol dehydrogenase.

8. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1, wherein said microbial organism comprises two, three, four or five exogenous nucleic acids each encoding enzymes of (i), (ii) or (iii).

9. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 8, wherein said microbial organism comprising (i) comprises three exogenous nucleic acids encoding ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase;

wherein said microbial organism comprising (ii) comprises five exogenous nucleic acids encoding pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or

wherein said microbial organism comprising (iii) comprises two exogenous nucleic acids encoding CO dehydrogenase and H2 hydrogenase.

10. (canceled)

11. A method for producing 1,4-butanediol, comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 1 under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 1,4-butanediol.

12. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway enzyme 4-hydroxybutyrate expressed in a sufficient amount to produce 4-hydroxybutyrate; said non-naturally occurring microbial organism further comprising:

(i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase;

(ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or

(iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H2 hydrogenase, and combinations thereof;

(a) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase, 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase/4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase;

(b) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, hydrolase or synthetase;

(c) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase;

(d) Succinate reductase; and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(e) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(f) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); and 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(g) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); and Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming);

(h) acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase, a 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, a crotonase, a crotonyl-CoA hydratase, a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, a phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase, and a 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase;

(i) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase;

(j) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase;

(k) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(l) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(m) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(n) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(o) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase;

(p) succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(q) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(r) succinate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase;

(s) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or glutamate dehydrogenase or glutamate transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase and 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; and 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and

(t) a 4-hydroxybutyrate pathway selected from any of the pathways that produce 4-hydroxybutyrate as shown in any of FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62, 63 or 72-74.

13. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprising (i) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

14. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprising (ii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

15. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 12, wherein said microbial organism comprising (iii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase and ferredoxin.

16-18. (canceled)

19. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 18, wherein said microbial organism comprising (i) comprises three exogenous nucleic acids encoding ATP-citrate lyase or citrate lyase, a fumarate reductase, and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase;

wherein said microbial organism comprising (ii) comprises five exogenous nucleic acids encoding pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or

wherein said microbial organism comprising (iii) comprises two exogenous nucleic acids encoding CO dehydrogenase and H2 hydrogenase.

20. (canceled)

21. A method for producing 4-hydroxybutyrate, comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 12 under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce 4-hydroxybutyrate.

22. A non-naturally occurring microbial organism, comprising a microbial organism having a gamma-butyrolactone pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a gamma-butyrolactone pathway enzyme expressed in a sufficient amount to produce gamma-butyrolactone; said non-naturally occurring microbial organism further comprising:

(i) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from an ATP-citrate lyase, citrate lyase, a citryl-CoA synthetase, a citryl-CoA lyase, a fumarate reductase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and an alpha-ketoglutarate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase;

(ii) a reductive TCA pathway comprising at least one exogenous nucleic acid encoding a reductive TCA pathway enzyme, wherein said at least one exogenous nucleic acid is selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, a phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, a CO dehydrogenase, and an H2 hydrogenase; or

(iii) at least one exogenous nucleic acid encodes an enzyme selected from a CO dehydrogenase, an H2 hydrogenase, and combinations thereof;

(a) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; and spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed;

(b) Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase or acetoacetyl-CoA synthase; 3-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase; Crotonase; Crotonyl-CoA hydratase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; amd spontaneous or enzyme catalyzed;

(c) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(d) Succinate reductase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(e) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(f) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (aldehyde forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(g) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(h) Alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase or (Glutamate dehydrogenase and/or Glutamate transaminase; Glutamate decarboxylase; 4-aminobutyrate dehydrogenase and/or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase); 4-Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(i) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyrate kinase; Phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(j) Succinyl-CoA transferase, or Succinyl-CoA synthetase (or succinyl-CoA ligase); Succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, or 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA synthetase; and 4-Hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or spontaneous;

(k) alpha-ketoglutarate reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoate dehydrogenase (decarboxylation)

(l) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase;

(m) 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, 4-hydroxybutyrate:CoA transferase, 4-butyrate kinase, phosphotransbutyrylase, α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase;

(n) (i) an α-ketoglutarate decarboxylase, or an α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and a CoA-dependent succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, or a glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and a glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) a 4-hydroxybutanoate dehydrogenase; (iii) a 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA:acetyl-CoA transferase, or a butyrate kinase and a phosphotransbutyrylase;

(o) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA transaminase, and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase;

(p) 4-aminobutyrate CoA transferase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-aminobutyrate-CoA ligase, 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-aminobutyryl-CoA reductase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) and 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase;

(q) 4-aminobutyrate kinase, 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase, [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase, and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(r) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase, 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase, alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(s) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, glutamyl-CoA ligase, glutamate 5-kinase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating), glutamyl-CoA reductase, glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase, glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating), 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase, 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(t) 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase, vinylacetyl-CoA Δ-isomerase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydratase;

(u) homoserine deaminase, homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, homoserine-CoA ligase, homoserine-CoA deaminase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(v) succinyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming), 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(w) glutamate dehydrogenase, 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase (deaminating), 4-aminobutyrate transaminase, glutamate decarboxylase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase, or 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(x) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; 4-aminobutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 4-aminobutan-1-ol dehydrogenase; and 4-aminobutan-1-ol oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 4-aminobutan-1-ol transaminase;

(y) 4-aminobutyrate kinase; [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or [(4-aminobutanolyl)oxy]phosphonic acid transaminase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-phosphate dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating);

(z) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(aa) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(bb) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(cc) alpha-ketoglutarate 5-kinase; 2,5-dioxopentanoic semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2,5-dioxopentanoic acid reductase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(dd) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase;

(ee) alpha-ketoglutarate CoA transferase, alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA hydrolase, or alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA ligase; alpha-ketoglutaryl-CoA reductase; 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(ff) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase (alcohol forming); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(gg) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(hh) glutamate CoA transferase, glutamyl-CoA hydrolase, or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(ii) glutamate 5-kinase; glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (phosphorylating); glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase (deaminating) or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase or 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase (decarboxylation);

(jj) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA hydrolase, 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(kk) homoserine CoA transferase, homoserine-CoA hydrolase, or homoserine-CoA ligase; homoserine-CoA deaminase; and 4-hydroxybut-2-enoyl-CoA reductase;

(ll) homoserine deaminase; 4-hydroxybut-2-enoate reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase, 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase, or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase;

(mm) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; or glutamate:succinate semialdehyde transaminase and glutamate decarboxylase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and (iv) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase;

(nn) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or succinyl-CoA synthetase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; (iii) 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase and phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase;

(oo) (i) alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylase; or glutamate dehydrogenase; glutamate decarboxylase; and deaminating 4-aminobutyrate oxidoreductase or 4-aminobutyrate transaminase; or alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and CoA-dependent succinate semialdehyde dehydrogenase; (ii) 4-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase; and (iii) 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphorylating 4-hydroxybutanal dehydrogenase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyrate kinase; phosphotrans-4-hydroxybutyrylase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA transferase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA hydrolase or 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase;

(pp) (i) glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; glutamyl-CoA reductase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; or glutamate CoA transferase or glutamyl-CoA hydrolase or glutamyl-CoA ligase; and alcohol forming glutamyl-CoA reductase; or glutamate 5-kinase; phosphorylating glutamate-5-semialdehyde dehydrogenase; and glutamate-5-semialdehyde reductase; (ii) deaminating 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid oxidoreductase or 2-amino-5-hydroxypentanoic acid transaminase; and (iii) 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid decarboxylase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase; 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase; and 4-hydroxybutyraldehyde reductase; or decarboxylating 5-hydroxy-2-oxopentanoic acid dehydrogenase and alcohol forming 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA reductase;

(qq) a gamma-butyrolactone pathway comprising a pathway selected from any of the pathways that produce 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA or 4-hydroxybutyryl phosphate as shown in FIG. 1, 8-13, 58, 62-63 or 72-74, wherein gamma-butyrolactone is produced enzymatically or by spontaneous chemical conversion.

23. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 22, wherein said microbial organism comprising (i) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from a pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, an aconitase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, an acetate kinase, a phosphotransacetylase, an acetyl-CoA synthetase, an NAD(P)H:ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

24. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 22, wherein said microbial organism comprising (ii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from an aconitase, an isocitrate dehydrogenase, a succinyl-CoA synthetase, a succinyl-CoA transferase, a fumarase, a malate dehydrogenase, NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase, ferredoxin, and combinations thereof.

25. The non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 22, wherein said microbial organism comprising (iii) further comprises an exogenous nucleic acid encoding an enzyme selected from NAD(P):ferredoxin oxidoreductase and ferredoxin.

26-31. (canceled)

32. A method for producing gamma-butyrolactone, comprising culturing the non-naturally occurring microbial organism of claim 22 under conditions and for a sufficient period of time to produce gamma-butyrolactone.

33. A carboxylic acid reductase, comprising an amino acid sequence having an amino acid substitution selected from E16K; Q95L; L100M; A1011T; K823E; T941S; H15Q; D198E; G446C; S392N; F699L; V8831; F467S; T987S; R12H; V295G; V295A; V295S; V295T; V295G; V295V; V295L; V2951; V295M; V295P; V295F; V295Y; V295W; V295D; V295E; V295N; V295Q; V295H; V295K; V295R; M296G; M296A; M296S; M296T; M296C; M296V; M296L; M2961; M296M; M296P; M296F; M296Y; M296W; M296D; M296E; M296N; M296Q; M296H; M296K; M296R; G297G; G297A; G297S; G297T; G297C; G297V; G297L; G2971; G297M; G297P; G297F; G297Y; G297W; G297D; G297E; G297N; G297Q; G297H; G297K; G297R; G391G; G391A; G391S; G391T; G391C; G391V; G391L; G391I; G391M; G391P; G391F; G391Y; G391W; G391D; G391E; G391N; G391Q; G391H; G391K; G391R; G421G; G421A; G421S; G421T; G421C; G421V; G421L; G421I; G421M; G421P; G421F; G421Y; G421W; G421D; G421E; G421N; G421Q; G421H; G421K; G421R; D413G; D413A; D413S; D413T; D413C; D413V; D413L; D413I; D413M; D413P; D413F; D413Y; D413W; D413D; D413E; D413N; D413Q; D413H; D413K; D413R; G414G; G414A; G414S; G414T; G414C; G414V; G414L; G414I; G414M; G414P; G414F; G414Y; G414W; G414D; G414E; G414N; G414Q; G414H; G414K; G414R; Y415G; Y415A; Y415S; Y415T; Y415C; Y415V; Y415L; Y415I; Y415M; Y415P; Y415F; Y415Y; Y415W; Y415D; Y415E; Y415N; Y415Q; Y415H; Y415K; Y415R; G416G; G416A; G416S; G416T; G416C; G416V; G416L; G416I; G416M; G416P; G416F; G416Y; G416W; G416D; G416E; G416N; G416Q; G416H; G416K; G416R; S417G; 5417A; S417S; S417T; S417C; S417V S417L; S417I; S417M; S417P; S417F; S417Y; S417W; S417D; S417E; S417N; S417Q; S417H; S417K; and S417R, or combinations thereof.