Abstract: A blade for fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) flue hot gas expander with a layer of hard abrasive material localized on the blade tip that contributes to reducing the accumulation of FCC catalyst residuals in the expander.

Abstract: Some variations provide an additively manufactured metal-containing component comprising (i) nickel, (ii) aluminum and/or titanium, and (iii) nanoparticles, wherein the sum of aluminum weight percentage and one-half of titanium weight percentage is at least 3 on a nanoparticle-free basis, and wherein the additively manufactured metal-containing component has a microstructure that is substantially crack-free with equiaxed grains. A feedstock composition is also provided, comprising metal-containing microparticles and nanoparticles, wherein the nanoparticles are chemically and/or physically disposed on surfaces of the microparticles, wherein the microparticles comprise (i) nickel and (ii) aluminum and/or titanium, and wherein the sum of aluminum weight percentage and one-half of titanium weight percentage is at least 3 on a nanoparticle-free basis.

Abstract: A method is provided. The method includes preparing a surface to receive a 3D printed layer, 3D printing a conductive layer comprising a plurality of overlaid layers of conductive material to the surface, and 3D printing conductive diamonds to the conductive layer. Preparing the surface includes one or more of texturing the surface and chemically treating the surface. The texturing is performed in order to not adversely impact regularity of the surface and limit variations in the height from the surface of conductive diamonds. Chemically treating the surface reduces films or coatings that may impact adhesion between the surface and the conductive layer, without degrading the conductive layer.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a cutting blade including diamond abrasive grains and boron compound grains. The average grain size of the diamond abrasive grains falls within the range of 5 ?m to 50 ?m. The average grain size of the boron compound grains is greater than ? and less than or equal to ½ of the average grain size of the diamond abrasive grains.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a novel method for producing metallic semifinished products by extrusion, to the thus obtainable semifinished products and to contact pieces that can be produced therefrom.

Abstract: Methods of attaching a polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) element to a substrate include maintaining a gap between the PDC element and an adjacent substrate, and at least substantially filling the gap with a deposition process. Methods of forming a cutting element for an earth-boring tool include forming a PDC element by pressing diamond crystals together, forming a substrate including a particulate carbide material and a matrix material, leaving a gap between at least portions of the PDC element and the substrate, masking surfaces of the PDC element and of the substrate that do not face the gap, and forming an adhesion material on surfaces of the PDC element and of the substrate that face the gap. Cutting elements for earth-boring tools include a PDC element attached to a substrate with at least one of diamond, diamond-like carbon, a carbide material, a nitride material, and a cubic boron nitride material.

Abstract: Polycrystalline diamond compacts for cutting tools and rock drilling tools, and more particularly to very fine polycrystalline diamond compacts with a grain growth inhibitor layer and reduced abnormal grain growth. A method of fabricating such polycrystalline diamond material includes placing a powder layer of nano-sized grain growth inhibitor particles next to a mixture of diamond particles having an average particle size of about 1 micron or less and sintering at high pressure and high temperature to create a polycrystalline structure of sintered diamond grains. The sintered diamond grains have an average size of about 1 micron or less.

Abstract: A tool for a high temperature, high pressure apparatus includes a working layer of a first hard metal composition of material and at least one supporting layer of a second hard metal composition of material attached to the working layer. The first hard metal composition has a mean linear intercept of less than about 0.4 ?m of a binder phase. The working layer has a top and bottom surface. At least one supporting layer of a second hard metal composition of material is attached to the working layer. The at least one supporting layer includes an upper portion. An interface region is formed by the bottom surface of the working layer and the upper portion of the at least one supporting layer. The bottom surface and upper portion have a corresponding shape, wherein the bottom surface and upper portion are bonded to form the corresponding shape in the interface region.

Abstract: A sliding element, particularly a piston ring for an internal combustion engine, includes a substrate, and a wear-protection layer, obtained by thermal spraying of a powder comprising the element proportions 2-50 percent by weight iron, FE; 5-60 percent by weight tungsten, W; 5-40 percent by weight chrome, Cr; 5-25 percent by weight nickel, Ni; 1-5 percent by weight molybdenum, Mo; 1-10 carbon, C and 0.1-2 percent by weight silicon, Si; and a running-in layer, obtained by thermal spraying of a powder comprising the element proportions 60-95 percent by weight nickel; 5-40 percent by weight carbon.

Abstract: The invention relates to a self-fluxing brazing piece. The piece comprises a composite material comprising at least one inorganic material distributed in a metal or metal alloy matrix, the inorganic material forming a flux during brazing to promote the formation of a thermally induced metallic bond. The matrix may be an aluminum silicon brazing alloy and the inorganic material may be a potassium-fluoro-aluminate flux. The piece is made by spray forming.

Abstract: Methods of forming larger sintered compacts of PCD and other sintered ultrahard materials are disclosed. Improved solvent metal compositions and layering of the un-sintered construct allow for sintering of thicker and larger high quality sintered compacts. Jewelry may also be made from sintered ultrahard materials including diamond, carbides, and boron nitrides. Increased biocompatibility is achieved through use of a sintering metal containing tin. Methods of sintering perform shapes are provided.

Abstract: A composite metal surface that looks metallic, but permits effective transmission of an electromagnetic field. The composite metal surface can be integrated into various electronic equipment, such as telephones, remote controls, battery doors, keyboards, mice, game controllers, cameras, laptops, inductive power supplies, and essentially any other electronic equipment. The composite metal surface can also be integrated into non-electrically conductive heat sinks, high permeability shielding, and polished metal non-electrically conductive surfaces.

Abstract: A cutting tool including a base, a TiN layer on the base, a TiCN layer on the TiN layer, and an Al2O3 layer on the TiCN layer. The base contains a cemented carbide. The TiN layer and the TiCN layer contain Nb. A Nb content in the TiCN layer at a middle portion of the TiCN layer in a thickness direction is 0.1% by mass or more, and the Nb content in the Al2O3 layer at a middle portion of the Al2O3 layer in the thickness direction is 0.05% by mass or less.

Abstract: The invention relates to a slide bearing composite material having at least one carrier layer and a sintered bearing metal layer. The sintered bearing metal layer is designed in at least one layer region as a gradient layer.

Abstract: A hard alloy and a cutting tool. The hard alloy includes a hard phase and a binder phase. The hard phase includes: a main phase containing 50-70 mass % of WC, 15-30 mass % of TiCN, and 0-10 mass % of at least one kind of carbide, nitride or carbonitride of one or more non-W, non-Ti periodic table Group 4, 5 or 6 metal; a WC phase; and a composite hard phase. The binder phase includes 6 to 12 mass % of at least one of Co and Ni. The hard alloy includes a surface portion at a surface thereof, the surface portion having a WC content higher than that of an internal portion thereof. An average size of grains in the WC phase in the surface portion is larger than an average size of grains in the WC phase in the internal portion.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing a component having increased thermal conductivity through layer-by-layer construction. At least one section of the component is constructed by applying a layer section having predetermined dimensions of a composite material of a metal and/or a metal alloy and particles of a highly heat-conducting material, including diamond and/or cubic boron nitride, in a predetermined area on a base layer by melting the metal or the metal alloy a heat source, in such a way that the metal and/or metal alloy form(s) within the predetermined dimensions a cohesive matrix, in which particles of the highly heat-conducting material are embedded, and then cooling.

Abstract: A coated article includes a metal substrate and an abrasion-resisting layer formed on a surface of the metal substrate. The abrasion-resisting layer consists essentially of amorphous phosphorus-nickel alloy with polytetrafluoroethylene particles and tungsten carbide particles dispersed therein. A method for making the present coated article is also described.

Abstract: A coated article system includes a substrate and a surface coating on the substrate. The surface coating is formed by depositing individual particles of a composite metal powder with sufficient energy to cause the composite metal powder to bond with the substrate and form the surface coating. The composite metal powder includes a substantially homogeneous dispersion of molybdenum and molybdenum disulfide sub-particles that are fused together to form the individual particles of the composite metal powder.

Abstract: A tip (20) for a rotary machine tool comprising a superhard structure (12) joined to a cemented carbide substrate 14 by means of at least one intermediate layer (161, 62, 163) disposed between the superhard structure (12) and the cemented carbide substrate (14), the intermediate layer or layers (161, 162, 163) comprising grains of superhard material and grains of a metal carbide material dispersed in a metal binder material.

Abstract: A ferrous sintered multilayer roll-formed bushing having a ferrous sintered sliding material layer which is sinter-bonded to a back metal steel, wherein the ferrous sintered sliding material layer is produced in such a manner that a Fe—C—Cu—Sn based sintered sliding material mixed powder containing at least carbon of 0.40 to 15 wt %, Cu of 13 to 40 wt % and Sn of 0.5 to 10 wt % is preliminarily sinter-bonded to said back metal steel and then finally sinter-bonded by a liquid-phase sintering at high temperatures higher than 1000° C. after bending into a roll.

Abstract: A cermet has a WC first hard phase, a second hard phase including one or more of a carbide, nitride and carbonitride of an element(s) of groups 4, 5 and 6 of the Periodic Table including a titanium element, and a mutual solid solution thereof, and a binder phase. In the cermet, a carbon amount CT (% by weight), a tungsten amount CW (% by weight), and a nitrogen amount CN (% by weight) satisfy 0.25<(CN/(CT?0.0653·CW))<6. The cermet has a surface region with a thickness of 5 to 100 ?m which includes the first hard phase and the binder phase, and an inner region which includes the first and second hard phases and the binder phase. In a cross-section of the inner region, a ratio of an area of the first hard phase to an area of the second hard phase is 0.15 to 4.

Abstract: Fine-grained (average grain size 1 nm to 1,000 nm) metallic coatings optionally containing solid particulates dispersed therein are disclosed. The fine-grained metallic materials are significantly harder and stronger than conventional coatings of the same chemical composition due to Hall-Petch strengthening and have low linear coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs). The invention provides means for matching the CTE of the fine-grained metallic coating to the one of the substrate by adjusting the composition of the alloy and/or by varying the chemistry and volume fraction of particulates embedded in the coating. The fine-grained metallic coatings are particularly suited for strong and lightweight articles, precision molds, sporting goods, automotive parts and components exposed to thermal cycling. The low CTEs and the ability to match the CTEs of the fine-grained metallic coatings with the CTEs of the substrate minimize dimensional changes during thermal cycling and prevent premature failure.

Abstract: An article of manufacture includes a cemented carbide piece, and a joining phase that binds the cemented carbide piece into the article. The joining phase includes inorganic particles and a matrix material. The matrix material is a metal and a metallic alloy. The melting temperature of the inorganic particles is higher than the melting temperature of the matrix material. A method includes infiltrating the space between the inorganic particles and the cemented carbide piece with a molten metal or metal alloy followed by solidification of the metal or metal alloy to form an article of manufacture.

Abstract: An abradable seal positioned proximate a rotating element includes a substrate having a surface facing the rotating element and a coating positioned on the surface of the substrate. The coating has a matrix material and a filler material. The matrix material constitutes between about 30 % and about 80 % of the coating by volume.

Abstract: Fine-gained (average grain size 1 nm to 1,000 nm) metallic coatings optionally containing solid particulates dispersed therein are disclosed. The fine-grained metallic materials are significantly harder and stronger than conventional coatings of the same chemical composition due to Hall-Fetch strengthening and have low linear coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs). The invention provides means for matching the CTE of the fine-grained metallic coating to the one of the substrate by adjusting the composition of the alloy and/or by varying the chemistry and volume fraction of particulates embedded in the coating. The fine-grained metallic coatings are particularly suited for strong and lightweight articles, precision molds, sporting goods, automotive parts and components exposed to thermal cycling. The low CTEs and the ability to match the CTEs of the fine-grained metallic coatings with the CTEs of the substrate minimize dimensional changes during thermal cycling and prevent premature failure.

Abstract: Fine-grained (average grain size 1 nm to 1,000 nm) metallic coatings optionally containing solid particulates dispersed therein are disclosed. The fine-grained metallic materials are significantly harder and stronger than conventional coatings of the same chemical composition due to Hall-Petch strengthening and have low linear coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs). The invention provides means for matching the CTE of the fine-grained metallic coating to the one of the substrate by adjusting the composition of the alloy and/or by varying the chemistry and volume fraction of particulates embedded in the coating. The fine-grained metallic coatings are particularly suited for strong and lightweight articles, precision molds, sporting goods, automotive parts and components exposed to thermal cycling. The low CTEs and the ability to match the CTEs of the fine-grained metallic coatings with the CTEs of the substrate minimize dimensional changes during thermal cycling and prevent premature failure.

Abstract: An economic ferrous sintered multilayer roll-formed bushing, a producing method of the same and a connecting device are provided, in which a ferrous sintered sliding material layer is tightly sintered-bonded to a back metal steel, the ferrous sintered sliding material layer being intended to have low coefficient of friction, having excellent seizing resistance and abrasion resistance and providing self-lubricating property so as to prolong a lubrication interval or eliminate the necessity of lubricating. The ferrous sintered multilayer roll-formed bushing according to the present invention comprises: a back metal steel; a ferrous sintered sliding material layer sinter-bonded to the back metal steel; a diffusion layer of ferrous alloy particle formed at the vicinity of the bonding boundary between the ferrous sintered sliding material layer and the back metal steel; and a Cu alloy phase formed at the vicinity of the bonding boundary and extending in the direction of the bonding boundary.

Abstract: A process for manufacturing a sliding contact piece for medium to high current densities including a step of warm premixing of graphite and plastic binder, a step of cold mixing of the resulting premixture with copper, a step of pressing of the resulting main mixture into the sliding contact piece, and finally a step of sintering of it; and so as to improve the operating characteristics of the sliding contact piece, which is free of any environmentally harmful additives, a metal such as zinc, tin, bismuth or an alloy of such metals is added during the premixing of the graphite and plastic binder.

Abstract: Thermally-stable polycrystalline diamond materials of this invention comprise a first phase including a plurality of bonded together diamond crystals, and a second phase including a reaction product formed between a binder/catalyst material and a material reactive with the binder/catalyst material. The reaction product is disposed within interstitial regions of the polycrystalline diamond material that exists between the bonded diamond crystals. The first and second phases are formed during a single high pressure/high temperature process condition. The reaction product has a coefficient of thermal expansion that is relatively closer to that of the bonded together diamond crystals than that of the binder/catalyst material, thereby providing an improved degree of thermal stability to the polycrystalline diamond material.

Abstract: A braze material and processes for making and using the material, such as for use in the manufacturing, coating, repair, and build-up of superalloy components. The braze material is composed of particles with melt-modifying constituents that are limited to the surfaces of the particles, yet are capable of sufficiently promoting the heating of the particles by conventional means and microwave radiation to achieve at least partial melting of the particles. The melt-modifying constituents are in the form of particulates embedded in the outer surface region of each particle. The particulates are formed of melting point depressant(s) and/or microwave coupling enhancer(s), are much smaller than the particle in which they are embedded.

Abstract: Fine-grained (average grain size 1 nm to 1,000 nm) metallic coatings optionally containing solid particulates dispersed therein are disclosed. The fine-grained metallic materials are significantly harder and stronger than conventional coatings of the same chemical composition due to Hall-Petch strengthening and have low linear coefficients of thermal expansion (CTEs). The invention provides means for matching the CTE of the fine-grained metallic coating to the one of the substrate by adjusting the composition of the alloy and/or by varying the chemistry and volume fraction of particulates embedded in the coating. The fine-grained metallic coatings are particularly suited for strong and lightweight articles, precision molds, sporting goods, automotive parts and components exposed to thermal cycling. The low CTEs and the ability to match the CTEs of the fine-grained metallic coatings with the CTEs of the substrate minimize dimensional changes during thermal cycling and prevent premature failure.

Abstract: A multi-layer sliding part is prepared by a process including mixing 1–50 parts by volume of a Cu-plated solid lubricant powder with 100 parts by volume of a Cu-based alloy powder comprising 5–20 mass % of Sn and a remainder of Cu to form a mixed powder, sintering the mixed powder in a reducing atmosphere to form a sintered mass, pulverizing the sintered mass to form a powder, dispersing the powder formed by pulverizing on a metal backing plate, and sintering the dispersed powder to bond grains of the dispersed powder to each other and to the backing plate. After sintering of the pulverized powder to form bearing metal layer, the bearing metal layer is pressed and densified. After densification, the bearing metal layer is annealed, again pressed, and then coated with a resin having good sliding properties.

Abstract: A multi-layer sliding part is prepared by a process including mixing 1–50 parts by volume of a Cu-plated solid lubricant powder with 100 parts by volume of a Cu-based alloy powder comprising 5–20 mass % of Sn and a remainder of Cu to form a mixed powder, sintering the mixed powder in a reducing atmosphere to form a sintered mass, pulverizing the sintered mass to form a powder, dispersing the powder formed by pulverizing on a steel backing plate, and sintering the dispersed powder to bond grains of the dispersed powder to each other and to the backing plate.

Abstract: In the method for producing a magnetic recording medium having a nonmagnetic substrate coated with a magnetic coating material containing a ferromagnetic powder and a binder, the magnetic coating material contains a liquid A constituted by the ferromagnetic powder and a solvent, and a solution B of the binder, and the liquid A and the solution B are mixed together by a thin-layer revolving-type fast stirring apparatus, and are thereafter subjected to dispersion processing. Thereby, coagulated particles of the ferromagnetic powder can be dispersed and the coagulation of the ferromagnetic powder can be prevented, thus making it possible to obtain a liquid of ferromagnetic powder with uniform adsorption of the binder. As a result, a magnetic coating material suitable for a low-noise high-density coating-type magnetic recording medium is obtained.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of spray forming a boron steel metal article, and to the formed article. In at least one embodiment, the method comprises (a) providing a spray forming pattern, (b) spraying metallic particles onto the spray forming pattern, and (c) allowing the sprayed metallic particles to cool to form a metal article. In at least one embodiment, the metallic particles are sprayed from a carbon steel feedstock having a boron content of 0.25-2.25 weight percent, based on the total weight of the feedstock.

Abstract: A multiple-region hardmetal tool piece. The tool piece includes a hardmetal body including a hard particle component and a binder; an additional body, the additional body including a hardmetal body having a hard particle component and a binder; a metal body or a ceramic body; a substantially discontinuous gradient-free boundary layer between the hardmetal body and the additional body; and a mating surface between the hardmetal body and the additional body. In the preferred embodiment, the hard particle components are a carbide, such as tungsten carbide. In the preferred embodiment, the mating surface includes a male portion on one of the bodies and a corresponding female portion on the other of the bodies. The mating surface is symmetrical or asymmetrical and, in the preferred embodiment, the mating surface is axially symmetrical, such as a dimple. The mating surface may further including both micro and macro mating features.

Abstract: Composite powder with a matrix domain structure, in which

Abstract: A method for producing an aluminum nitride/aluminum base composite material comprising the steps of; (A) charging aluminum nitride powder into a container provided in a molten metal pressure apparatus, (B) applying pressure to the aluminum nitride powder in the container, (C) pouring a molten aluminum base material into the container, and, (D) applying pressure to the molten aluminum base material in the container to fill the aluminum base material in space between the aluminum nitride powder particles.

Abstract: A component (10) including a substrate material (12) and a wear alloy coating (14) applied to the substrate by a cold spray process. Particles of the wear alloy coating material (16) are directed toward a target surface (18) of the substrate at a velocity sufficiently high for the particles to deform and to adhere to the target surface. The size and/or composition of the particles may be varied during the cold spray process to produce a coating with a varying property across the depth of the coating. Particles of the wear alloy material may be applied by cold spraying along with particles of a second material such as a lubricant or a ceramic material. For Group 5 hard facing materials, the size and distribution of the embedded carbide nodules may be controlled by controlling the selection of the carbide particles being sprayed.

Abstract: The surfaces of apparatuses and apparatus parts for chemical plant construction, including, for example, apparatus, container and reactor walls, discharge apparatuses, fittings, pumps, filters, compressors, centrifuges, columns, heat exchangers, dryers, comminuting machines, internals, packings and mixing elements, are coated by a process wherein protuberances having a mean height of from 100 nm to 50 &mgr;m with a mean spacing of from 100 nm to 100 &mgr;m are produced on the surface to be coated and the coating is applied thereon by currentless deposition of a metal layer or of a metal-polymer dispersion layer with the aid of a plating bath which contains a metal electrolyte, a reducing agent and optionally a polymer or polymer blend to be deposited, in dispersed form.

Abstract: An environmental coating is applied to the surface of a titanium-base alloy substrate to protect the surface from oxidation, corrosion, erosion, and other damage. The coating is a mixture of a metal and a ceramic, each selected to contribute to the protective function. The proportions of the metal and the ceramic in the coating are selected such that the coefficient of thermal expansion of the coating is about the same as the coefficient of thermal expansion of the substrate.

Abstract: A drill resistant plate, which presents a rough surface of hardened particles to drilling attack, and which tends to snap or destroy drill bits before they can began drilling. The plate is made by brazing hard particles into a matrix of brazing material attached to a steel plate. Nickel-Silver brazing material is used to form the matrix on the steel plate, and tungsten carbide particles of 8-10 mesh are secured within the matrix, with the hard particles of tungsten carbide partially exposed, presenting a roughened surface with angular pieces of tungsten carbide to the drilling attack.

Abstract: A hard alloy material comprising tungsten carbide in an amount of 50 to 80 weight percent of the material, titanium carbide in an amount of at least about 10 weight percent, and a binder material of cobalt and nickel. Though tungsten carbide based, the thermal conductivity of the material of the invention is between 10 and 20 Watt/m° K. In other aspects of the invention, molybdenum and chromium are included to further lower the thermal conductivity of the material. In yet another aspect of the invention, one or more nitrides or carbonitrides of titanium and/or zirconium are included in the material.

Abstract: A coated body that has a substrate of tungsten, carbon, and cobalt, and wherein the substrate presents a surface. Eta phase is present at the surface of the substrate. Fibrous tungsten carbide grains are present at the surface of the substrate. The surface of the substrate has a surface roughness, Ra, of greater than about 12 microinches. A coating layer is on the surface of the substrate.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an abrasive dressing tool used for mechanical and chemical planarization abrasion of the surface of the work pieces as can be used for semiconductor wafers or the like which require precise, planar and micro polishing, and a method for manufacturing the same dressing tool. Specifically, ultimately macro- and micro-scratches on wafers can be drastically reduced, the rate of inferior finished products or wafers can be decreased and abrasive life time of the tool can be prolonged, by sintering and brazing abrasive particles with a nickel based brazing metal on the abrasive tool, and then filling or covering the non-sintered parts and re-crystallized parts of sintered and brazed layers, apt to crack or fall-out from the surface, through electroplating process.

Abstract: A melamine-containing resin modified with a cyclic urea prepolymer comprising urea, formaldehyde and ammonia or a primary amine. The prepolymer-modified melamine-containing resin provides useful binders alone, or when combined or coreacted with other resins. Products prepared with the binder include wood composites such as particleboard and medium density fiberboard.

Abstract: A method of coating of steel products such as plate and sheet using an aluminum-zinc coating alloy includes modifying the coating bath with a particulate compound constituent in effective amounts to decrease the spangle facet size of the coated product, improve tension bend rust stain performance, and coated product paintability. Constituents include borides such as titanium boride and aluminum borides, carbides such as titanium carbide, and aluminides such as titanium aluminide. The method produces a coated steel product that does not require temper rolling for painting.

Abstract: A bearing material includes a backing metal and a porous sintered metal layer sintered onto a surface of the backing metal, particles of an inorganic substance being contained at grain boundaries of the porous sintered metal layer. The porous sintered metal layer contains tin, nickel, phosphorus, and copper, and the particles of the inorganic substance are those of at least one of graphite, boron nitride, graphite fluoride, calcium fluoride, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, and silicon carbide.

Abstract: The preparation of phenol-formaldehyde and melamine-formaldehyde resin-based binders extended with a cyclic urea-formaldehyde prepolymer and to products prepared using the binders. More particularly, the invention relates to a cyclic urea prepolymer comprising urea, formaldehyde, and ammonia or a primary amine which, when added to a phenol-formaldehyde or melamine-formaldehyde based resin, results in a useful binder for the manufacturer numerous articles.

Abstract: A cylinder block for an automotive engine that includes a sintered cylindrical body made of a first metal, the sintered cylindrical body having a plurality of pores. A powder of a second metal is dispersed into the pores of the sintered cylindrical body, and a cylinder block body is disposed around the sintered cylindrical body while filling the pores of the sintered cylindrical body. The main body is made of a third metal and integrally formed with the sintered cylindrical body by an intemetallic compound formed by a reaction between the first, second, and third metals.