Abstract: A method for forming a titanium oxide film that can be formed on a surface of a base material without a heating step. In Step 0, a surface of a molded product (base material) composed of a cyclic olefin-based resin is irradiated with ultraviolet light in an air atmosphere. In Step 1, the base material is immersed in a mixed liquid of an aqueous solution of titanium chloride and a nitrite ion-containing aqueous solution. A titanium oxide film grows by repeating oxidation of a titanium ion. In Step 2, the base material is pulled out from the mixed liquid, and then washed to stop the reaction. The film thickness can be controlled by controlling this immersion time. In Step 3, the base material after washing is dried at room temperature.

Abstract: Compositions and methods of producing discrete nanotubes and nanoplates and a method for their production. The discrete nanotube/nanoplate compositions are useful in fabricated articles to provide superior mechanical and electrical performance. They are also useful as catalysts and catalyst supports for chemical reactions.

Abstract: A nanoparticle comprises a nano-active material and a nano-support. In some embodiments, the nano-active material is platinum and the nano-support is alumina. Pinning and affixing the nano-active material to the nano-support is achieved by using a high temperature condensation technology. In some embodiments, the high temperature condensation technology is plasma. Typically, a quantity of platinum and a quantity of alumina are loaded into a plasma gun. When the nano-active material bonds with the nano-support, an interface between the nano-active material and the nano-support forms. The interface is a platinum alumina metallic compound, which dramatically changes an ability for the nano-active material to move around on the surface of the nano-support, providing a better bond than that of a wet catalyst. Alternatively, a quantity of carbon is also loaded into the plasma gun.

Abstract: A composition comprising at least one graphene-supported assembly, which comprises a three-dimensional network of graphene sheets crosslinked by covalent carbon bonds, and at least one metal chalcogenide compound disposed on said graphene sheets, wherein the chalcogen of said metal chalcogenide compound is selected from S, Se and Te. Also disclosed are methods for making and using the graphene-supported assembly, including graphene-supported MoS2. Monoliths with high surface area and conductivity can be achieved. Lower operating temperatures in some applications can be achieved. Pore size and volume can be tuned. Electrochemical methods can be used to make the materials.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for preparing a metal catalyst having improved yield of alcohols. The method for preparing a metal catalyst for the production of alcohol from synthesis gas includes forming a metal catalyst; and irradiating the metal catalyst with gamma rays. The metal catalyst has improved yield of alcohols by stabilizing the metal catalyst through gamma ray irradiation to inhibit generation of hydrocarbons in catalytic reaction with synthesis gas.

Abstract: A nanofibrous catalyst and method of manufacture. A precursor solution of a transition metal based material is formed into a plurality of interconnected nanofibers by electro-spinning the precursor solution with the nanofibers converted to a catalytically active material by a heat treatment. Selected subsequent treatments can enhance catalytic activity.

Abstract: In a process for forming a bulk hydroprocessing catalyst by sulfiding a catalyst precursor made in a co-precipitation reaction, up to 60% of the metal precursor feeds do not react to form catalyst precursor and end up in the supernatant. In the present disclosure, the metals can be recovered in an electro-coagulation reactor, wherein portion of the metal residuals in the supernatant reacts with the electrodes to form a slurry containing insoluble metal compounds. The insoluble metal compounds are isolated and recovered, forming an effluent stream. The insoluble metal compounds and/or the effluent stream can be further treated to form at least a metal precursor feed which can be used in the co-precipitation reaction.

Abstract: A method of forming a supported oxidation catalyst includes providing a support comprising a metal oxide or a metal salt, and depositing first palladium compound particles and second precious metal group (PMG) metal particles on the support while in a liquid phase including at least one solvent to form mixed metal comprising particles on the support. The PMG metal is not palladium. The mixed metal particles on the support are separated from the liquid phase to provide the supported oxidation catalyst.

Abstract: A nanoparticle comprises a nano-active material and a nano-support. In some embodiments, the nano-active material is platinum and the nano-support is alumina. Pinning and affixing the nano-active material to the nano-support is achieved by using a high temperature condensation technology. In some embodiments, the high temperature condensation technology is plasma. Typically, a quantity of platinum and a quantity of alumina are loaded into a plasma gun. When the nano-active material bonds with the nano-support, an interface between the nano-active material and the nano-support forms. The interface is a platinum alumina metallic compound, which dramatically changes an ability for the nano-active material to move around on the surface of the nano-support, providing a better bond than that of a wet catalyst. Alternatively, a quantity of carbon is also loaded into the plasma gun.

Abstract: Exemplary embodiments of the present invention relate to the processing of hydrocarbon-containing feedstreams in the presence of an interstitial metal hydride comprising a surface, with a metal oxide integrally synthesized and providing a coating on the surface of the interstitial metal hydride. The catalysts and processes of the present invention can improve overall hydrogenation, product conversion, as well as sulfur and nitrogen reduction in hydrocarbon feedstreams.

Abstract: This invention relates to a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst for photocatalyticly oxidation desulphurization and method for preparation and application thereof. The catalyst is comprised of one type of metal MI, one type of metal oxide MIIOx and BiVO4 as the supporter, wherein the mass ratio of the sum of the two types of metal (MI+MII) to BiVO4 is from 1:5000 to 1:50; the mass ratio of the type of metal MI to the type of metal MII is from 1:50 to 50:1. The catalyst is used in the photocatalytic oxidation desulphurization. Under mild condition (room temperature, 1 atm), using O2 as the oxidant and xenon lamp (wavelength 420 nm<?<700 nm) as the light source, avoid the oil's absorption of light (mainly in the violet area which is below 420 nm), the desulphurization ratio of thiophene can be above 90%, meanwhile the oil won't be excited. The sulfur in thiophene can be oxidized to SO3 and absorbed by the absorbent after escaped from the reaction system.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a catalyst having metal catalyst nanoparticles supported on natural cellulose fibers and a method of preparing the same, whereby natural cellulose fibers are subjected to specific pretreatment to increase a surface area and form defects on the surface thereof and metal catalyst nanoparticles are then supported on the cellulose catalyst support in a highly dispersed state, thereby providing improved catalysis while allowing production of the catalyst at low cost. The catalyst may be utilized for various catalytic reactions.

Abstract: A method of forming a catalyst, comprising: providing a plurality of support particles and a plurality of mobility-inhibiting particles, wherein each support particle in the plurality of support particles is bonded with its own catalytic particle; and bonding the plurality of mobility-inhibiting particles to the plurality of support particles, wherein each support particle is separated from every other support particle in the plurality of support particles by at least one of the mobility-inhibiting particles, and wherein the mobility-inhibiting particles are configured to prevent the catalytic particles from moving from one support particle to another support particle.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing a honeycomb structure 20 according to the present invention includes the steps of burying a burial base material into pores of a porous honeycomb base material which has a SiC phase and an oxide phase containing a Si oxide, where the burial base material contains metal Si particles having a particular diameter smaller than the pore diameter of the pore and metal Al particles having a particle diameter smaller than the pore diameter of the pore, and melting the metal Si particles and the metal Al particles, which are contained in the burial base material, by heating the porous honeycomb base material including the buried burial tease material in an inert atmosphere, so as to form a metal phase containing metal Si and metal Al in pores of the porous honeycomb base material.

Abstract: Methods for the rapid synthesis of catalyst are provided, as well as catalyst formed from such methods. One method of the rapid synthesis of catalyst comprises forming a homogenous solution comprising a precious metal precursor and a catalyst substrate, reducing the precious metal precursor to precious metal nanoparticles, and depositing the precious metal nanoparticles onto the catalyst substrate to form catalyst particles. The reducing and depositing steps comprise controlling a rate of increase in temperature of the solution with microwave irradiation until the solution is a predetermined temperature and maintaining the solution at the predetermined temperature with microwave irradiation. The method further comprises detecting completion of the reduction and deposition and ceasing microwave irradiation upon detection.

Abstract: In one embodiment, a system includes a nanoporous gold structure and a plurality of oxide particles deposited on the nanoporous gold structure; the oxide particles are characterized by a crystalline phase. In another embodiment, a method includes depositing oxide nanoparticles on a nanoporous gold support to form an active structure and functionalizing the deposited oxide nanoparticles.

Abstract: A catalyst is provided in the form of a fibrous wooly structure. The fibers of the wooly structure have a central non-catalytic core and an outer catalytic layer. An intermediate layer is sandwiched between the core and catalyst layer. Electrochemical or electroless deposition can be employed to fabricate such structures. In one experiment, Rhodium was deposited onto a steel wool substrate using Nickel as the intermediate layer.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for producing micro-nano combined active systems in which nanoparticles of a first component are bonded to microparticles of a second component, comprising the following steps: (a) producing a low-ligand colloidal suspension containing nanoparticles of the first component, (b) adding microparticles to the colloidal suspension containing the nanoparticles or adding the colloidal suspension containing the nanoparticles to a dispersion containing the microparticles and intensively mixing so that the nanoparticles adsorb onto the microparticles, (c) separating the microparticles and the nanoparticles bonded thereto from the liquid and drying the microparticles and the nanoparticles bonded thereto.

Abstract: A method of preparing a fuel cell catalyst includes preparing a catalyst precursor solution by mixing a catalyst precursor and a solvent, and subjecting the catalyst precursor solution to radiation of electron beams having energy of less than or equal to 1 MeV. A method of preparing the fuel cell catalyst uses electron beams having low energy so that it can provide a desirable catalyst uniformly in a simple and economical process, as well as releasing few X-rays so that the catalyst can be mass produced.

Abstract: A method for forming catalytic nanoparticles includes forming core-shell catalytic nanoparticles and processing the core-shell catalytic nanoparticles. The core-shell catalytic nanoparticles have a palladium core enclosed by a platinum shell. The core-shell catalytic nanoparticles are processed to increase the percentage of the surface area of the core-shell catalytic nanoparticles covered by the platinum shell.

Abstract: The present invention provides a new method for decomposing and/or removing hazardous substances using a photocatalytic material. The method of the present invention is sufficiently useful in fields requiring quick decomposition and/or removal of hazardous substances in gas and/or liquid phases. The decomposition method of the present invention using a photocatalytic material enables significantly efficient and rapid decomposition of hazardous substances in gas and/or liquid phases by causing a photocatalytic material to coexist with a dilute hydrogen peroxide solution.

Abstract: A method for producing a cathode material for rechargeable lithium-air batteries, which has a cathode catalyst loaded onto carbon, includes: a step of sonicating a mixed solution including a carbon having a specific surface area of 20 to 1,500 m2/g, a surfactant and a solvent, and a step of in situ synthesis of the cathode catalyst by (1) adding a cathode catalyst raw material to the mixed solution and (2) adding a solution containing an oxidant to the mixed solution to cause in situ precipitation of the cathode catalyst onto the carbon, the catalyst having a wire form in which the short axis length is smaller than that of the carbon and is 2 to 50 nm and the long axis length is longer than that of the carbon and is 5 to 200 nm.

Abstract: Disclosed are tunable catalysts and methods of controlling the activity of a catalyst. For example, disclosed are methods of controlling the activity of a catalyst, comprising providing a catalyst, comprising a ferroelectric substrate of finite thickness comprising two opposing surfaces, the ferroelectric substrate being characterized as having a polarization; an electrode surmounting one of the surfaces of the ferroelectric substrate; and a catalytically active material surmounting the surface of the ferroelectric substrate opposing the electrode; and subjecting the ferroelectric substrate to a controllable electric field to give rise to a modulation of the polarization of the ferroelectric substrate, whereby the modulation of the polarization controllably alters the activity of one or more chemical species on the catalytically active material.

Abstract: A method for regulating the distribution of metallic nanoparticles within the resin support is provided. This method uses the ion exchange or absorption resin bearing basic functional groups as the support; firstly introducing the metal in the form of anionic complexes onto the resin support through the ion exchange process, then realizing the purpose of regulating the distribution of the metal and its compound within the resin support by means of changing the concentration of the reductive or deposition agent in water solution and the reaction time. The regulated distribution of metallic nanoparticles within the resin support is in the form of rings with different depths and densities.

Abstract: Provided are a method of preparing a magnesium oxide structure and a magnesium oxide structure prepared by using the method. The magnesium oxide structure has meso-macro pores, a large specific surface area, and high strength, thereby enabling production of a catalyst with high catalytic activity.

Abstract: A method of making a nanoparticle catalyst composition including: a single heating of an aqueous salt solution comprising a Ce, a Zr, a rare earth dopant, and a transition metal oxide precursor to provide nanoparticles, the nanoparticles have a compositional gradient comprised of a CeZrREO2, where RE is a rare earth, and the outer portion of the nanoparticles has a Ce:Zr ratio different from the inner portion of the nanoparticles. Also disclosed is a nanoparticle-catalyst composition and articles containing the composition, as defined herein.

Abstract: A method of preparing a fuel cell catalyst includes preparing a catalyst precursor solution by mixing a catalyst precursor and a solvent, and subjecting the catalyst precursor solution to radiation of electron beams having energy of less than or equal to 1 MeV. A method of preparing the fuel cell catalyst uses electron beams having low energy so that it can provide a desirable catalyst uniformly in a simple and economical process, as well as releasing few X-rays so that the catalyst can be mass produced.

Abstract: A copper compound-carried titanium oxide photocatalyst which is excellent in a photocatalytic activity and a viral inactivation property and a production process for the same can be provided by a copper compound-carried titanium oxide photocatalyst comprising titanium oxide in which a content of rutile type titanium oxide is 50% by mole or more and a monovalent copper compound and a divalent copper compound which are carried on a surface of the titanium oxide described above and a production process for a copper compound-carried titanium oxide photocatalyst, comprising a step of carrying a monovalent copper compound and a divalent copper compound on a surface of titanium oxide in which a content of rutile type titanium oxide is 50% by mole or more.

Abstract: An oxide catalyst is formed by vaporizing a quantity of at least one precursor material or catalyst material thereby forming a vapor cloud. The vapor cloud is quenched forming precipitate nanoparticles. The nanoparticles are impregnated onto supports. The supports are able to be used in existing heterogeneous catalysis systems. A system for forming oxide catalysts comprises means for vaporizing a quantity of at least one precursor material or at least one catalyst material, quenching the resulting vapor cloud and forming precipitate nanoparticles. The system further comprises means for supports with the nanoparticles.

Abstract: A visible light activatable mesoporous titanium dioxide photocatalyst having a surface area of from 100 m2/g to 400 m2/g. The photocatalyst may have a rate of decomposition greater than 0.005 min?1. The photocatalyst may have a band gap width less than 2.95 eV. The photocatalyst may comprise undoped titanium dioxide or doped titanium dioxide. A hydrothermal process for synthesising a photocatalyst is also described.

Abstract: A method of and apparatus for optimizing a hydrogen producing system is provided. The method of optimizing the hydrogen producing system comprises producing hydrogen gas using a hydrogen producing formulation and removing a chemical substance that reduces the hydrogen gas producing efficiency. Further, the hydrogen producing system comprises a hydrogen producing catalyst, a hydrogen generating voltage applied to the hydrogen producing catalyst to generate hydrogen gas, and a catalyst regenerating device to regenerate the hydrogen producing catalyst to a chemical state capable of generating the hydrogen gas when a hydrogen generating voltage is applied.

Abstract: An electrocatalyst for the electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide to hydrocarbons is provided. The electrocatalyst for the electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide includes copper material supported on carbon nanotubes. The copper material may be pure copper, copper and ruthenium, copper and iron, or copper and palladium supported on the carbon nanotubes. The electrocatalyst is prepared by dissolving copper nitrate trihydrate in deionized water to form a salt solution. Carbon nanotubes are then added to the salt solution to form a suspension, which is then heated. A urea solution is added to the suspension to form the electrocatalyst in solution. The electrocatalyst is then removed from the solution. In addition to dissolving the copper nitrate trihydrate in the deionized water, either iron nitrate monohydrate, ruthenium chloride or palladium chloride may also be dissolved in the deionized water to form the salt solution.

Abstract: A Pt/graphene catalyst comprises graphene as carrier, and Pt loaded on the graphene. The use of graphene as carrier for the catalyst takes advantage of the ion effect and two-dimensional ductility of graphene, which increases the stability of the catalyst. The catalyst is prepared by a reverse micelles system method which provides a micro-environment (i.e. water-in-oil microemulsion), so that the particle size of the resulting nano-particles can be regulated easily and is more uniformly distributed. The use of the catalyst in electrochemostry is also disclosed.

Abstract: Disclosed are the metallic sulfide photocatalyst and its preparation method. The photocatalyst includes at least one soluble metallic salt and a sulfide with the oxidation state of S atom ?+4. The photocatalyst is afforded by reacting the sulfide with the at least one soluble metallic salt dissolved in the complexing agent. Additionally, the photocatalyst further is customized with co-catalyst such as RuCl to form Ru-carried metallic sulfide photocatalyst. The metallic sulfide photocatalyst and Ru-carried metallic sulfide photocatalyst are capable of effectively reducing CO2 to CH3OH under the visible light illumination.

Abstract: A method for producing a catalyst using an additive layer method includes: (i) forming a layer of a powdered catalyst or catalyst support material, (ii) binding or fusing the powder in said layer according to a predetermined pattern, (iii) repeating (i) and (ii) layer upon layer to form a shaped unit, and (iv) optionally applying a catalytic material to said shaped unit.

Abstract: A method of treating an adsorbent for a chromatographic separation. The method involves sonicating particles of an inorganic metal oxide having fragile edges in the absence of any alkylating or acylating agent to form smoothened particles of the inorganic metal oxide and washing the smoothened particles of the inorganic metal oxide to remove fine particulate matter to produce a treated adsorbent. The treated adsorbent can be used in a method of isolating a daughter radioisotope from a daughter radioisotope that is produced from the parent radioisotope by radioactive decay.

Abstract: Methods, devices, and remediation compositions for the microwave remediation of medical wastes are provided. The remediation compositions include a microwave active fluid including a microwave active liquid, a microwave enhancer, and a viscosity modifying agent. Methods include immersing medical waste in the remediation composition and then irradiating the medical waste and the remediation composition to remediate the medical waste. The devices include a container for the medical waste and the remediation composition, a microwave radiation source and a temperature monitoring device.

Abstract: In the present invention, slurry is formed by mixing noble metal-supported powder particles (3) and a binder (4) with each other in a liquid (Step S1), and the noble metal-supported powder particles (3) are dispersed by applying vibrations to the slurry (Step S2), and thereafter, the slurry is spray dried while keeping a state where the noble metal-supported powder particles (3) are dispersed (Step S3), whereby noble metal-supported powder (1) is produced. In the noble metal-supported powder (1) produced by such a method, pores through which exhaust gas flows are formed appropriately, and accordingly, exhaust gas purification performance can be enhanced.

Abstract: An electrode catalyst for a fuel cell, the electrode catalyst including a first catalyst that exhibits hydrophilicity, the first catalyst including pores, wherein at least 50 volume percent of the pores have an average diameter of about 100 nanometers or less; a method of preparing the electrode catalyst; and a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) and a fuel cell that include the electrolyte catalyst. The electrode catalyst for a fuel cell rapidly controls the migration of phosphoric acid at an initial stage of operation of an MEA, thereby securing a path for the migration of a conductor and a path for the diffusion of a fuel, and thus, an activation time of the MEA is shortened.

Abstract: A composition of matter and method of manufacturing as thin film electrocatalyst. The method uses physical vapor deposition to deposit a thin film of PtM (Ma transition metal) to form a Pt based alloy and annealing the thin film to achieve a (111) hexagonal faceted grain structure having catalytic activity approaching Pt3Ni (111) skin.

Abstract: Microwave irradiation is used to synthesize graphene and metallic nanocatalysts supported on graphene either by solid or solution phase. In solid phase methods, no solvents or additional reducing agents are required so the methods are “environmentally friendly” and economical, and the graphene and nanocatalysts are substantially free of residual contaminants. Recyclable, high efficiency Pd nanocatylysts are prepared by these methods.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method for activating a catalyst using the photothermal effects of photothermal nanomaterials, and more particularly to a method of activating a catalyst at a temperature, at which the catalyst has low or no activity, by irradiating a catalyst-photothermal nanomaterial composite with light. The method can activate the catalyst by increasing only the temperature around the nanomaterials without substantially changing the temperature of the reaction medium. A catalyst that generally has high activity at room temperature can be activated even at low temperature. Catalysts having high activity only under mild conditions are immobilized on photothermal nanomaterials so that they have activity even under low temperature and extreme conditions. The invention is useful when a catalyst substrate unstable at room temperature is used or a catalytic product unstable at room temperature is produced.

Abstract: A method of preparing a precious metal nitride nanoparticle composition, includes the step of ionizing nitrogen in the gas phase to create an active nitrogen species as a plasma. An atomic metal species of the precious metal is provided in the gas phase. The active nitrogen species in the gas phase is contacted with the atomic metal species of the precious metal in the gas phase to form a precious metal nitride. The precious metal nitride is deposited on the support. Precious metal nanoparticle compositions are also disclosed.

Abstract: The present invention discloses a catalyst used in preparing vinyl chloride, its method of preparation, and its applications. Said catalyst used in making vinyl chloride comprises activated carbon as a support, a barium compound and a phosphorus compound supported thereon. The barium compound accounts for 0.2% to 20% of the total mass of the catalyst and the phosphorus compound accounts for 0% to 10% of the total mass of the catalyst based on the mass percentage. A water-soluble barium compound, a water-soluble phosphorus compound, an aqueous polymer monomer, and water are mixed to form a solution or emulsion A. The activated carbon is added into the solution or emulsion A. The activated carbon is removed from water after impregnation, spin-dried, and then the monomers are polymerized. The activated carbon, after polymerization step, is heated to remove water and to decompose and carbonize the polymer. The catalyst after carbonization was activated to obtain a catalyst used in making vinyl chloride.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method of manufacturing a heterogeneous catalyst using space specificity, comprising: depositing a metal in a core of micelles provided on a substrate; depositing an oxide around a shell of the micelles after the deposition of the metal in the core of the micelle; and reducing the metal in the core of the micelles after the deposition of the oxide, then, removing the micelles, and a method for generation of hydrogen through decomposing water in the presence of the heterogeneous catalyst prepared according to the aforesaid method under a light source.

Abstract: A water splitting oxygen evolving catalyst including: a metal oxide particle including a metal oxide represented by Formula 1: Co1?xMxOY ??Formula I wherein M is at least one selected from Al, In, Ga, Si, and Sn, x and y respectively satisfy the inequalities 0?x<0.5 and 1<y<2, and the metal oxide particle is in the form of a flake.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a surface structure control and preparation process for a metal nanocatalyst involving a metal nanocatalyst. The present disclosure provides a surface structure control and continuous preparation system for a metal nanocatalyst, a metal nanocatalyst having an open surface structure and high surface energy, and a surface structure control and a preparation process thereof. The system is provided with a nucleation electrolytic cell, a distribution valve, at least two growth electrolytic cells, with two ends of the distribution valve being connected to an output port of the nucleation electrolytic cell and to input port of all the growth electrolytic cells, respectively. The metal nanocatalyst having an open surface structure is a single metal nanoscale crystal and has a high density of terrace atoms or active sites on the surface thereof.

Abstract: A heavy metal absorbent, and a filter device including the same, include heavy metal absorbing particles each having a surface with a —NOx (1?x?2) functional group. The heavy metal absorbing particles are one selected from inorganic oxide particles, graphite-based carbon particles, and a combination thereof.

Abstract: A method of synthesizing activated electrocatalyst, preferably having a morphology of a nanostructure, is disclosed. The method includes safely and efficiently removing surfactants and capping agents from the surface of the metal structures. With regard to metal nanoparticles, the method includes synthesis of nanoparticle(s) in polar or non-polar solution with surfactants or capping agents and subsequent activation by CO-adsorption-induced surfactant/capping agent desorption and electrochemical oxidation. The method produces activated macroparticle or nanoparticle electrocatalysts without damaging the surface of the electrocatalyst that includes breaking, increasing particle thickness or increasing the number of low coordination sites.

Abstract: Hollow metal nanoparticles and methods for their manufacture are disclosed. In one embodiment the metal nanoparticles have a continuous and nonporous shell with a hollow core which induces surface smoothening and lattice contraction of the shell. In a particular embodiment, the hollow nanoparticles have an external diameter of less than 20 nm, a wall thickness of between 1 nm and 3 nm or, alternatively, a wall thickness of between 4 and 12 atomic layers. In another embodiment, the hollow nanoparticles are fabricated by a process in which a sacrificial core is coated with an ultrathin shell layer that encapsulates the entire core. Removal of the core produces contraction of the shell about the hollow interior. In a particular embodiment the shell is formed by galvanic displacement of core surface atoms while remaining core removal is accomplished by dissolution in acid solution or in an electrolyte during potential cycling between upper and lower applied potentials.