Abstract: Provided is a lithium ion secondary battery demonstrating improved manganese dissolution inhibition performance when the lithium ion secondary battery is charged and discharged. In the lithium ion secondary battery, a positive electrode (64) includes a positive electrode collector (62) and a positive electrode active material layer (66) including at least a positive electrode active material (70) and formed on the positive electrode collector. The positive electrode active material (70) is mainly constituted by a manganese-containing lithium complex oxide (72) including lithium and at least manganese as a transition metal element and includes a coating film (74) of an amorphous structure including at least iron (Fe) and fluorine (F) formed on at least part of a surface of the manganese-containing lithium complex oxide.

Abstract: A voltaic cell comprising an iron in alkali anode where metal iron is oxidized to iron II hydroxide and a ferricyanide in alkali cathode where ferricyanide is reduced to ferrocyanide, and uses thereof.

Abstract: A composite precursor represented by Formula 1, a composite prepared therefrom represented by Formula 2, a method of preparing a composite precursor and a composite, a positive electrode for lithium secondary battery including the same, and a lithium secondary battery employing the same. aMn3O4-bM(OH)2??Formula 1 wherein in Formula 1, 0<a?0.8, 0.2?b<1 and M is at least one metal selected from the group consisting of titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn), iron, (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), magnesium (Mg), zirconium (Zr), and boron (B) aLi2MnO3-bLiyMO2??Formula 2 wherein in Formula 2, 0?a?0.6, 0.4?b?1 1.0?y?1.05, and M is at least one metal selected from the group consisting of Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Al, Mg, Zr, and B.

Abstract: A secondary battery capable of obtaining superior battery characteristics is provided. The cathode according to the technology includes a lithium-containing compound. The lithium-containing compound is a compound obtained by inserting an element M2 different from an element M1 in a crystal structure of a surface layer region of a composite oxide represented by a general formula of Li1+a(MnbCocNi1?b?c)1?aM1dO2?c (the element M2 is Mg or the like). A mole fraction R1 represented by [R1 (percent)=(a substance amount of the element M2/sum of substance amounts of Mn, Co, Ni, and the element M2)×100] on a central side of the lithium-containing compound is smaller than the mole fraction R1 on a surface layer side of the lithium-containing compound.

Abstract: The present invention provides a process for producing a graphene-enhanced anode active material for use in a lithium battery. The process comprises (a) providing a continuous film of a graphene material into a deposition zone; (b) introducing vapor or atoms of a precursor anode active material into the deposition zone, allowing the vapor or atoms to deposit onto a surface of the graphene material film to form a sheet of an anode active material-coated graphene material; and (c) mechanically breaking this sheet into multiple pieces of anode active material-coated graphene; wherein the graphene material is in an amount of from 0.1% to 99.5% by weight and the anode active material is in an amount of at least 0.5% by weight, all based on the total weight of the graphene material and the anode active material combined.

Abstract: A cathode for a magnesium battery that includes a current collector and an active material disposed on the current collector. The active material includes a metal organic framework with a cubic structure having iron or a transition metal on corners of the cubic structure. The corners are linked by a cyano group. The active material may have the formula: (MgA)xMFe(CN)6 wherein A=K, Na, M=Fe, Cu, Ni, Co, Mn, Zn and 0?×?0.67.

Abstract: The present invention provides an anode electrode of a lithium-ion battery, comprising an anode active material-coated graphene sheet, wherein the graphene sheet has two opposed parallel surfaces and at least 50% area of one of the surfaces is coated with an anode active material and wherein the graphene material is in an amount of from 0.1% to 99.5% by weight and the anode active material is in an amount of at least 0.5% by weight (preferably at least 60%), all based on the total weight of the graphene material and the anode active material combined.

Abstract: An all-solid-state cell, which includes a lithium-containing anode, a cathode and a lithium ions-conducting solid-state electrolyte separator situated between the anode and the cathode. To improve the safety and cycle stability of the cell, the cathode includes a composite material including at least one lithium titanate and at least one lithium ions-conducting solid-state electrolyte. Furthermore, the invention relates to a corresponding all-solid-state battery and a mobile or stationary system equipped with it.

Abstract: The present invention provides a cathode (positive electrode) of a lithium battery and a process for producing this cathode. The electrode comprises a cathode active material-coated graphene sheet and the graphene sheet has two opposed parallel surfaces, wherein at least 50% area (preferably >80%) of one of the two surfaces is coated with a cathode active material coating. The graphene material is in an amount of from 0.1% to 99.5% by weight and the cathode active material is in an amount of at least 0.5% by weight (preferably >80% and more preferably >90%), all based on the total weight of the graphene material and the cathode active material combined. The cathode active material is preferably an inorganic material, an organic or polymeric material, a metal oxide/phosphate/sulfide, or a combination thereof. The invention also provides a lithium battery, including a lithium-ion, lithium-metal, or lithium-sulfur battery.

Abstract: A non-aqueous electrolyte secondary battery including: a positive electrode having a positive electrode material mixture containing a composite lithium oxide; a negative electrode; a polyolefin separator; a non-aqueous electrolyte; and a heat-resistant insulating layer interposed between the positive and negative electrodes. The positive electrode material mixture has an estimated heat generation rate at 200° C. of not greater than 50 W/kg. The positive electrode and the negative electrode are wound together with the separator and the heat-resistant insulating layer interposed therebetween.

Abstract: The present invention provides electrochemical energy storage systems comprising metallolyte composites, iron fluoride composites and iron oxyfluoride composites. The present invention further provides methods for fabricating metallolyte composites.

Abstract: Electrode active material of the invention is mainly an amorphous transition metal complex represented by AxMPyOz (where x and y are values which independently satisfy 0?x?2 and 0?y?2, respectively, and z=(x+5y+valence of M)/2 to satisfy stoichiometry; also, A is an alkali metal and M is a metal element selected from transition metals), and has a peak near 220 cm?1 in Raman spectroscopy. Applying the electrode active material of the invention to a nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery increases the capacity of the nonaqueous electrolyte secondary battery.

Abstract: A battery capable of improving the cycle characteristics and the swollenness characteristics is provided. The battery includes a cathode, an anode, and an electrolytic solution. The node has an anode current collector and an anode active material layer provided thereon, and the anode active material layer contains a plurality of anode active material particles having silicon, and a metal material having a metal element not being alloyed with an electrode reactant in a gap between the anode active material particles.

Abstract: A battery includes a cathode, an anode, and an aqueous electrolyte disposed between the cathode and the anode and including a cation A. At least one of the cathode and the anode includes an electrode material having an open framework crystal structure into which the cation A is reversibly inserted during operation of the battery. The battery has a reference specific capacity when cycled at a reference rate, and at least 75% of the reference specific capacity is retained when the battery is cycled at 10 times the reference rate.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a glycerol solvent, (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and reacting to prepare amorphous lithium iron phosphate nanoseed particle, and (c) heat treating the lithium iron phosphate nanoseed particle thus to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon on a portion or a whole of a surface of a particle, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon prepared by the above method. The lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon having controlled particle size and particle size distribution may be prepared in a short time by performing two simple steps.

Abstract: To provide a high-capacity lithium secondary battery at a low price that attains an increased reversibility of charge and discharge, by using a new negative electrode material different from the existing negative electrode materials, and to provide a lithium secondary battery that can use an existing electrolyte at a small risk of ignition or overheating. There is provided a negative electrode material for a lithium secondary battery, comprising one of iron foil and iron-base alloy foil, wherein the one of iron foil and iron-base alloy foil which has a surface profile having a plurality of concave shaped hollows formed by heat treating with laser beam irradiation and the surface is a surface which contacts with an electrolyte solution for a lithium secondary battery.

Abstract: The invention relates to carbon-coated zinc ferrite particles, to a method for producing carbon-coated zinc ferrite particles, and to the use thereof as the electrode material for lithium-ion batteries.

Abstract: There is provided a positive-electrode material for a lithium secondary battery. The material comprises a lithium oxide compound or a complex oxide as reactive substance. The material also comprises at least one type of carbon material, and optionally a binder. A first type of carbon material is provided as a coating on the reactive substance particles surface. A second type of carbon material is carbon black. And a third type of carbon material is a fibrous carbon material provided as a mixture of at least two types of fibrous carbon material different in fiber diameter and/or fiber length. Also, there is provided a method for preparing the material as well as lithium secondary batteries comprising the material.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a triethanolamine solvent, (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and reacting to prepare amorphous lithium iron phosphate nanoseed particle, and (c) heat treating the lithium iron phosphate nanoseed particle thus to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon on a portion or a whole of a surface of a particle, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon prepared by the above method. The lithium iron phosphate nanopowder coated with carbon having controlled particle size and particle size distribution may be prepared in a short time by performing two simple steps.

Abstract: A negative-electrode active material includes a compound that has a pseudobrookite structure.

Abstract: To simply manufacture a lithium-containing oxide at lower manufacturing cost. A method for manufacturing a lithium-containing composite oxide expressed by a general formula LiMPO4 (M is one or more of Fe (II), Mn (II), Co (II), and Ni (II)). A solution containing Li and P is formed and then is dripped in a solution containing M (M is one or more of Fe (II), Mn (II), Co (II), and Ni (II)) to form a mixed solution. By a hydrothermal method using the mixed solution, a single crystal particle of a lithium-containing composite oxide expressed by the general formula LiMPO4 (M is one or more of Fe (II), Mn (II), Co (II), and Ni (II)) is manufactured.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a glycerol solvent, and (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and heating to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder under pressure conditions of 1 bar to 10 bar, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder prepared by the method. When compared to a common hydrothermal synthesis method, a supercritical hydrothermal synthesis method and a glycothermal synthesis method, a reaction may be performed under a relatively lower pressure. Thus, a high temperature/high pressure reactor is not necessary and process safety and economic feasibility may be secured. In addition, a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder having uniform particle size and effectively controlled particle size distribution may be easily prepared.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a triethanolamine solvent, and (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and heating to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder under pressure conditions of 10 bar to 100 bar, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder prepared by the method. When compared to a common hydrothermal synthesis method and a supercritical hydrothermal synthesis method, a reaction may be performed under a relatively lower pressure. When compared to a common glycothermal synthesis method, a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder having effectively controlled particle size and particle size distribution may be easily prepared.

Abstract: A negative active material, a lithium battery including the negative active material, and a method of preparing the negative active material. The negative active material includes a silicon-based alloy including Si, Al, and Fe. The silicon-based alloy includes an active phase of silicon nanoparticles and an inactive phase of Si3Al3Fe2 and Si2Fe in a ratios suitable to improve the lifespan of the lithium battery.

Abstract: The invention relates to electrodes that contain active materials of the formula: AaMb(SO4)cXx wherein A is a single or mixed alkali metal phase comprising one or more of sodium, potassium, lithium mixed with sodium, lithium mixed with potassium or lithium mixed with sodium and potassium; M is selected from one or more transition metals and/or non-transition metals and/or metalloids; X is a moiety comprising one or more atoms selected from halogen and OH; and further wherein 1<a<3; b is in the range: 0<b?2; c is in the range: 2?c?3 and x is in the range 0?x?1. Such electrodes are useful in, for example, sodium ion battery applications.

Abstract: In a battery production process, a positive electrode active material having a reaction-suppressing layer that does not easily peel off formed on the surface thereof, and a positive electrode and an all-solid-state battery that use said material are provided. The present invention involves positive electrode active material particles for an all-solid-state battery containing sulfide-based solid electrolyte. The positive electrode active material particles are an aggregate containing two or more particles. The surface of the aggregate is coated with a reaction-suppressing layer for suppressing reactions with the sulfide-based solid electrolyte.

Abstract: An electron collector structure and a lithium battery including the same are disclosed. The electron collector structure includes a conductive thin film; and a graphene layer that is coated on the surface of the conductive thin film and may improve the electrical conductivity of an electrode plate. As an electrode of the lithium battery includes the electron collector structure, the electrical conductivity of the electrode may be increased so that the energy consumption properties as well as the lifespan characteristics of the lithium battery may be also improved.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a glycerol solvent, and (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and heating to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder under pressure conditions of 10 bar to 100 bar, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder prepared by the method. When compared to a common hydrothermal synthesis method and a supercritical hydrothermal synthesis method, a reaction may be performed under a relatively lower pressure. When compared to a common glycothermal synthesis method, a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder having effectively controlled particle size and particle size distribution may be easily prepared.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for preparing a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder, including the steps of (a) preparing a mixture solution by adding a lithium precursor, an iron precursor and a phosphorus precursor in a triethanolamine solvent, and (b) putting the mixture solution into a reactor and heating to prepare the lithium iron phosphate nanopowder under pressure conditions of 1 bar to 10 bar, and a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder prepared by the method. When compared to a common hydrothermal synthesis method, a supercritical hydrothermal synthesis method and a glycothermal synthesis method, a reaction may be performed under a relatively lower pressure. Thus, a high temperature/high pressure reactor is not necessary and process safety and economic feasibility may be secured. In addition, a lithium iron phosphate nanopowder having uniform particle size and effectively controlled particle size distribution may be easily prepared.

Abstract: This invention provides a nanocomposite-based lithium battery electrode comprising: (a) A porous aggregate of electrically conductive nano-filaments that are substantially interconnected, intersected, physically contacted, or chemically bonded to form a three-dimensional network of electron-conducting paths, wherein the nano-filaments have a diameter or thickness less than 1 ?m (preferably less than 500 nm); and (b) Sub-micron or nanometer-scale electro-active particles that are bonded to a surface of the nano-filaments with a conductive binder material, wherein the particles comprise an electro-active material capable of absorbing and desorbing lithium ions and wherein the electro-active material content is no less than 25% by weight based on the total weight of the particles, the binder material, and the filaments. Preferably, these electro-active particles are coated with a thin carbon layer. This electrode can be an anode or a cathode.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a negative electrode active material for a rechargeable lithium battery, a method for preparing the same, and a rechargeable lithium battery using the same, and provides a negative electrode active material for a rechargeable lithium battery of a carbon-metal complex or a mixture type, containing a carbon-based active material including a first ceramic coating layer, a metal-based active material or a metal-base active material including a first ceramic coating layer, and a carbon-based active material.

Abstract: The present disclosure provides a sheet-form electrode for a secondary battery, comprising a current collector; an electrode active material layer formed on one surface of the current collector; a conductive layer formed on the electrode active material layer and comprising a conductive material and a binder; and a first porous supporting layer formed on the conductive layer. The sheet-form electrode for a secondary battery according to the present disclosure has supporting layers on at least one surfaces thereof to exhibit surprisingly improved flexibility and prevent the release of the electrode active material layer from a current collector even if intense external forces are applied to the electrode, thereby preventing the decrease of battery capacity and improving the cycle life characteristic of the battery.

Abstract: A cathode active material, a preparation method thereof, and a cathode for a lithium secondary battery and a lithium secondary battery including the cathode active material, wherein the cathode active material includes a core active material represented by Formula 1 below; and a coating layer formed on a surface of the core active material, the coating layer including lithium gallium oxide: Lia(A1-x-yBxCy)O2 ??Formula 1 In Formula 1, a, x, y, A, B, and C are defined in the detailed description.

Abstract: A lithium battery is provided. The lithium battery comprises a first plate, a second plate and a separator. The first plate is composed of a plurality of electrode material layers stacked on one another. At least one of the electrode material layers comprises a thermal activation material. The separator is disposed between the first plate and the second plate.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a lithium-ion battery comprising a positive electrode containing, as a principal component, a lithium oxide having a layered rock-salt structure and represented by chemical formula: LixM1yM2zO2-d, wherein 1.16?x?1.32, 0.33?y?0.63, 0.06?z?0.50, M1 represents a metal ion selected from Mn, Ti and Zr, or a mixture thereof, and M2 represents a metal ion selected from Fe, Co, Ni and Mn, or a mixture thereof; and a negative electrode containing, as a principal component, a material capable of intercalating/deintercalating lithium ions, wherein an oxygen deficiency (d) of the positive electrode is not less than 0.05 and not more than 0.20.

Abstract: A cathode active material including at least two agglomerates of primary particles and a cathode and a lithium secondary battery containing the same are disclosed. In the cathode active material, a secondary particle includes a nickel-based lithium transition metal oxide, an average particle diameter of each primary particle is in a range from about 2 to about 3 ?m, and an average particle diameter of the secondary particle is in a range from about 5 to about 8 ?m.

Abstract: A rechargeable lithium battery that includes: a negative electrode including a negative active material, and a positive electrode including a positive active material and activated carbon. When the positive active material includes a lithium nickel-based oxide, a lithium cobalt-based oxide, a lithium manganese-based oxide, a lithium titanium-based oxide, a lithium nickel manganese-based oxide, a lithium nickel cobalt manganese-based oxide, a lithium nickel cobalt aluminum-based oxide, or a combination thereof, the average particle diameter of the activated carbon is greater than about 100% and less than about 1000% of the average particle diameter of the positive active material. When the positive active material includes a lithium iron phosphate-based compound, the average particle diameter of the activated carbon is greater than or equal to about 1000% and less than or equal to about 3000% of the average particle diameter of the positive active material.

Abstract: The invention relates to Chevrel-phase materials and methods of preparing these materials utilizing a precursor approach. The Chevrel-phase materials are useful in assembling electrodes, e.g., cathodes, for use in electrochemical cells, such as rechargeable batteries. The Chevrel-phase materials have a general formula of Mo6Z8 and the precursors have a general formula of MxMo6Z8. The cathode containing the Chevrel-phase material in accordance with the invention can be combined with a magnesium-containing anode and an electrolyte.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, there is provided an active material including monoclinic niobium titanium composite oxide particles and a carbon material layer. The monoclinic niobium titanium composite oxide particles can absorb and release Li ions or Na ions and satisfy Formula (1) below. The carbon material layer covers at least a part of surfaces of the niobium titanium composite oxide particles and satisfies Formula (2) below: 0.5?(?/?)?2??(1) 0?(?/?)?0.

Abstract: A lithium secondary battery (10) includes a positive electrode active material of lithium transition metal oxide which contains at least a nickel element and a manganese element as transition metals and for which, with respect to a diffraction peak A located at a diffraction angle 20 of 17° to 20° and a diffraction peak B located at a diffraction angle 2? of 43° to 46° from X-ray diffraction measurements, when the integrated intensity ratio is R1=IA/IB, the peak intensity ratio is RH=HA/HB, and the ratio between the integrated intensity ratio R1 and the peak intensity ratio RH is SF=RH/R1>> the SF satisfies 1.1?SF?2.2.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a cathode active material for lithium secondary batteries with high safety, a method of preparing the same and lithium secondary batteries comprising the same. The cathode active material of the present invention comprises a lithium metal oxide secondary particle core portion formed by aggregation of lithium metal oxide primary particles; and a shell portion formed by coating the secondary particle core portion with an olivine-structured lithium iron phosphate oxide. The cathode active material of the present invention allows to manufacture lithium secondary batteries with improved safety, especially overcharge characteristics.

Abstract: The present invention provides a positive-electrode active material for non-aqueous secondary battery comprising a sodium transition metal composite oxide represented by Formula: NaxFe1-yMyO2, wherein 0.4?x?0.7, 0.25?y<1.0, and M is at least one element selected from the group consisting of manganese, cobalt and nickel, the sodium transition metal composite oxide having a crystal structure substantially composed of P63/mmc alone.

Abstract: A method of preparing a positive active material for a lithium secondary battery represented by the following Chemical Formula 1 (LiwNixCoyMn1-x-y-zMzO2) includes: (a) preparing a metal salt aqueous solution including a lithium raw material, a manganese raw material, a nickel raw material, and a cobalt raw material; (b) wet-pulverizing the metal salt aqueous solution using beads having a particle diameter of 0.05 to 0.30 mm at 2000 to 6000 rpm for 2 to 12 hours to prepare a slurry; (c) adding a carbon source to the slurry; (d) spray-drying the slurry of the step (c) to prepare a mixed powder; and (e) heat-treating the mixed powder.

Abstract: Disclosed is an electrode for secondary batteries including an electrode mixture including an electrode active material, binder and conductive material coated on a current collector wherein a conductive material is coated to a thickness of 1 to 80 ?m on the current collector and the electrode mixture is coated on a coating layer of the conductive material so as to improve electrical conductivity.

Abstract: An energy storage device includes an electrode made from an active material in which a plurality of channels have been etched. The channels are coated with an electrically functional substance selected from a conductor and an electrolyte.

Abstract: Lithium-rich compounds that are precursors for positive electrodes for lithium cells and batteries comprise a Li2O-containing compound as one component, and a second charged or partially-charged component, selected preferably from a metal oxide, a lithium-metal-oxide, a metal phosphate or metal sulfate compound. Li2O is extracted from the electrode precursors to activate the electrode either by electrochemical methods or by chemical methods. Methods for synthesizing and activating the electrodes, electrochemical cells, and batteries containing such electrodes also are described.

Abstract: Novel intermetallic materials are provided that are composed of tin and one or more additional metal(s) having a formula M(1-x)-Sn5, where ?0.1?x?0.5, with 0.01?x?0.4 being more preferred and the second metallic element (M) is selected from iron (Fe), copper (Cu), cobalt(Co), nickel (Ni), and a combination of two or more of those metals. Due to low concentration of the second metallic element, the intermetallic compound affords an enhanced capacity applicable for electrochemical cells and may serve as an intermediate phase between Sn and MSn2. A method of synthesizing these intermetallic materials is also disclosed.

Abstract: Ultrafast battery devices having enhanced reliability and power density are provided. Such batteries can include a cathode including a first silicon substrate having a cathode structured surface, an anode including a second silicon substrate having an anode structured surface positioned adjacent to the cathode such that the cathode structured surface faces the anode structured surface, and an electrolyte disposed between the cathode and the anode. The anode structured surface can be coated with an anodic active material and the cathode structured surface can be coated with a cathodic active material.

Abstract: Disclosed is a method of manufacturing an electrode for a secondary battery including an electrode mixture including an electrode active material, binder and conductive material coated on a current collector. Provided are a method including surface-treating the current collector such that an aluminum oxide (Al2O3) layer of 40 nm or less is formed on the current collector so as to enhance adhesion between the electrode mixture and the current collector, and an electrode for a secondary battery manufactured using the same.

Abstract: An all-solid-state lithium battery, thermo-electromechanical activation of Li2S in sulfide based solid state electrolyte with transition metal sulfides, and electromechanical evolution of a bulk-type all-solid-state iron sulfur cathode, are disclosed. An example all-solid-state lithium battery includes a cathode having a transition metal sulfide mixed with elemental sulfur to increase electrical conductivity. In one example method of in-situ electomechanical synthesis of Pyrite (FeS2) from Sulfide (FeS) and elemental sulfur (S) precursors for operation of a solid-state lithium battery, FeS+S composite electrodes are cycled at moderately elevated temperatures.