METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR DETECTING MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS USING FET ARRAYS
Methods and apparatuses relating to large scale FET arrays for analyte detection and measurement are provided. ChemFET (e.g., ISFET) arrays may be fabricated using conventional CMOS processing techniques based on improved FET pixel and array designs that increase measurement sensitivity and accuracy, and at the same time facilitate significantly small pixel sizes and dense arrays. Improved array control techniques provide for rapid data acquisition from large and dense arrays. Such arrays may be employed to detect a presence and/or concentration changes of various analyte types in a wide variety of chemical and/or biological processes.
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This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application 61/133,204 filed Jun. 26, 2008 and claims priority to and is a continuation-in-part of U.S. non-provisional application Ser. No. 12/002,291 filed Dec. 14, 2007, the entire contents of both of which are incorporated by reference.
FIELD OF THE DISCLOSUREThe present disclosure is directed generally to inventive methods and apparatus relating to detection and measurement of one or more analytes.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONElectronic devices and components have found numerous applications in chemistry and biology (more generally, “life sciences”), especially for detection and measurement of various chemical and biological reactions and identification, detection and measurement of various compounds. One such electronic device is referred to as an ion-sensitive field effect transistor, often denoted in the relevant literature as ISFET (or pHFET). ISFETs conventionally have been explored, primarily in the academic and research community, to facilitate measurement of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (commonly denoted as “pH”).
More specifically, an ISFET is an impedance transformation device that operates in a manner similar to that of a MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor), and is particularly configured to selectively measure ion activity in a solution (e.g., hydrogen ions in the solution are the “analytes”). A detailed theory of operation of an ISFET is given in “Thirty years of ISFETOLOGY: what happened in the past 30 years and what may happen in the next 30 years,” P. Bergveld, Sens. Actuators, 88 (2003), pp. 1-20, which publication is hereby incorporated herein by reference (hereinafter referred to as “Bergveld”).
Like a MOSFET, the operation of an ISFET is based on the modulation of charge concentration caused by a MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) capacitance constituted by the polysilicon gate 64, the gate oxide 65 and the region 60 of the n-type well 54 between the source and the drain. When a negative voltage is applied across the gate and source regions (VGS<0 Volts), a “p-channel” 63 is created at the interface of the region 60 and the gate oxide 65 by depleting this area of electrons. This p-channel 63 extends between the source and the drain, and electric current is conducted through the p-channel when the gate-source potential VGS is negative enough to attract holes from the source into the channel. The gate-source potential at which the channel 63 begins to conduct current is referred to as the transistor's threshold voltage VTH (the transistor conducts when VGS has an absolute value greater than the threshold voltage VTH). The source is so named because it is the source of the charge carriers (holes for a p-channel) that flow through the channel 63; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel 63.
In the ISFET 50 of
As also shown in
With respect to ion sensitivity, an electric potential difference, commonly referred to as a “surface potential,” arises at the solid/liquid interface of the passivation layer 72 and the analyte solution 74 as a function of the ion concentration in the sensitive area 78 due to a chemical reaction (e.g., usually involving the dissociation of oxide surface groups by the ions in the analyte solution 74 in proximity to the sensitive area 78). This surface potential in turn affects the threshold voltage VTH of the ISFET; thus, it is the threshold voltage VTH of the ISFET that varies with changes in ion concentration in the analyte solution 74 in proximity to the sensitive area 78.
where VHS is the voltage between the drain and the source, and β is a transconductance parameter (in units of Amps/Volts2) given by:
where μ represents the carrier mobility, Cox is the gate oxide capacitance per unit area, and the ratio W/L is the width to length ratio of the channel 63. If the reference electrode 76 provides an electrical reference or ground (VG=0 Volts), and the drain current ID and the drain-to-source voltage VDS are kept constant, variations of the source voltage VS of the ISFET directly track variations of the threshold voltage VTH, according to Eq. (1); this may be observed by rearranging Eq. (1) as:
Since the threshold voltage VTH of the ISFET is sensitive to ion concentration as discussed above, according to Eq. (3) the source voltage VS provides a signal that is directly related to the ion concentration in the analyte solution 74 in proximity to the sensitive area 78 of the ISFET. More specifically, the threshold voltage VTH is given by:
where VFB is the flatband voltage, QB is the depletion charge in the silicon and φF is the Fermi-potential. The flatband voltage in turn is related to material properties such as workfunctions and charge accumulation. In the case of an ISFET, with reference to
where Eref is the reference electrode potential relative to vacuum, Ψ0 is the surface potential that results from chemical reactions at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface (e.g., dissociation of surface groups in the passivation layer), and χsol is the surface dipole potential of the analyte solution 74. The fourth term in Eq. (5) relates to the silicon workfunction (q is the electron charge), and the last term relates to charge densities at the silicon surface and in the gate oxide. The only term in Eq. (5) sensitive to ion concentration in the analyte solution 74 is Ψ0, as the ion concentration in the analyte solution 74 controls the chemical reactions (dissociation of surface groups) at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface. Thus, substituting Eq. (5) into Eq. (4), it may be readily observed that it is the surface potential Ψ0 that renders the threshold voltage VTH sensitive to ion concentration in the analyte solution 74.
Regarding the chemical reactions at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface, the surface of a given material employed for the passivation layer 72 may include chemical groups that may donate protons to or accept protons from the analyte solution 74, leaving at any given time negatively charged, positively charged, and neutral sites on the surface of the passivation layer 72 at the interface with the analyte solution 74. A model for this proton donation/acceptance process at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface is referred to in the relevant literature as the “Site-Dissociation Model” or the “Site-Binding Model,” and the concepts underlying such a process may be applied generally to characterize surface activity of passivation layers comprising various materials (e.g., metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal oxynitrides).
Using the example of a metal oxide for purposes of illustration, the surface of any metal oxide contains hydroxyl groups that may donate a proton to or accept a proton from the analyte to leave negatively or positively charged sites, respectively, on the surface. The equilibrium reactions at these sites may be described by:
AOHFAO−+Hs+ (6)
AOH2+AOH+Hs+ (7)
where A denotes an exemplary metal, Hs+ represents a proton in the analyte solution 74, Eq. (6) describes proton donation by a surface group, and Eq. (7) describes proton acceptance by a surface group. It should be appreciated that the reactions given in Eqs. (6) and (7) also are present and need to be considered in the analysis of a passivation layer comprising metal nitrides, together with the equilibrium reaction:
ANH3+ANH2+H+, (7b)
wherein Eq. (7b) describes another proton acceptance equilibrium reaction. For purposes of the present discussion however, again only the proton donation and acceptance reactions given in Eqs. (6) and (7) are initially considered to illustrate the relevant concepts.
Based on the respective forward and backward reaction rate constants for each equilibrium reaction, intrinsic dissociation constants Ka (for the reaction of Eq. (6)) and Kb (for the reaction of Eq. (7)) may be calculated that describe the equilibrium reactions. These intrinsic dissociation constants in turn may be used to determine a surface charge density σ0 (in units of Coulombs/unit area) of the passivation layer 72 according to:
σ0=−qB, (8)
where the term B denotes the number of negatively charged surface groups minus the number of positively charged surface groups per unit area, which in turn depends on the total number of proton donor/acceptor sites per unit area NS on the passivation layer surface, multiplied by a factor relating to the intrinsic dissociation constants Ka and Kb of the respective proton donation and acceptance equilibrium reactions and the surface proton activity (or pHS). The effect of a small change in surface proton activity (pHS) on the surface charge density is given by:
where βint is referred to as the “intrinsic buffering capacity” of the surface. It should be appreciated that since the values of NS, Ka and Kb are material dependent, the intrinsic buffering capacity βint of the surface similarly is material dependent.
The fact that ionic species in the analyte solution 74 have a finite size and cannot approach the passivation layer surface any closer than the ionic radius results in a phenomenon referred to as a “double layer capacitance” proximate to the analyte solution/passivation layer interface. In the Gouy-Chapman-Stern model for the double layer capacitance as described in Bergveld, the surface charge density σ0 is balanced by an equal but opposite charge density in the analyte solution 74 at some position from the surface of the passivation layer 72. These two parallel opposite charges form a so-called “double layer capacitance” Cdl (per unit area), and the potential difference across the capacitance Cdl is defined as the surface potential Ψ0, according to:
σ0=CdlΨ0=−σdl (10)
where σdl is the charge density on the analyte solution side of the double layer capacitance. This charge density σdl in turn is a function of the concentration of all ion species or other analyte species (i.e., not just protons) in the bulk analyte solution 74; in particular, the surface charge density can be balanced not only by hydrogen ions but other ion species (e.g., Na+, K+) in the bulk analyte solution.
In the regime of relatively lower ionic strengths (e.g., <1 mole/liter), the Debye theory may be used to describe the double layer capacitance Cdl according to:
where k is the dielectric constant ∈/∈0 (for relatively lower ionic strengths, the dielectric constant of water may be used), and λ is the Debye screening length (i.e., the distance over which significant charge separation can occur). The Debye length λ is in turn inversely proportional to the square root of the strength of the ionic species in the analyte solution, and in water at room temperature is given by:
The ionic strength I of the bulk analyte is a function of the concentration of all ionic species present, and is given by:
where zs is the charge number of ionic species s and cs is the molar concentration of ionic species s. Accordingly, from Eqs. (10) through (13), it may be observed that the surface potential is larger for larger Debye screening lengths (i.e., smaller ionic strengths).
The relation between pH values present at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface and in the bulk solution is expressed in the relevant literature by Boltzman statistics with the surface potential Ψ0 as a parameter:
From Eqs. (9), (10) and (14), the sensitivity of the surface potential Ψ0 particularly to changes in the bulk pH of the analyte solution (i.e., “pH sensitivity”) is given by:
where the parameter α is a dimensionless sensitivity factor that varies between zero and one and depends on the double layer capacitance Cdl and the intrinsic buffering capacity of the surface βint as discussed above in connection with Eq. (9). In general, passivation layer materials with a high intrinsic buffering capacity βint render the surface potential Ψ0 less sensitive to concentration in the analyte solution 74 of ionic species other than protons (e.g., a is maximized by a large βint). From Eq. (15), at a temperature T of 298 degrees Kelvin, it may be appreciated that a theoretical maximum pH sensitivity of 59.2 mV/pH may be achieved at α=1. From Eqs. (4) and (5), as noted above, changes in the ISFET threshold voltage VTH directly track changes in the surface potential Ψ0; accordingly, the pH sensitivity of an ISFET given by Eq. (15) also may be denoted and referred to herein as ΔVTH for convenience. In exemplary conventional ISFETs employing a silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride passivation layer 72 for pH-sensitivity, pH sensitivities ΔVTH (i.e., a change in threshold voltage with change in pH of the analyte solution 74) over a range of approximately 30 mV/pH to 60 mV/pH have been observed experimentally.
Another noteworthy metric in connection with ISFET pH sensitivity relates to the bulk pH of the analyte solution 74 at which there is no net surface charge density σ0 and, accordingly, a surface potential Ψ0 of zero volts. This pH is referred to as the “point of zero charge” and denoted as pHpzc. With reference again to Eqs. (8) and (9), like the intrinsic buffering capacity βint, pHpzc is a material dependent parameter. From the foregoing, it may be appreciated that the surface potential at any given bulk pHB of the analyte solution 74 may be calculated according to:
Table 1 below lists various metal oxides and metal nitrides and their corresponding points of zero charge (pHpzc), pH sensitivities (ΔVTH), and theoretical maximum surface potential at a pH of 9:
Prior research efforts to fabricate ISFETs for pH measurements based on conventional CMOS processing techniques typically have aimed to achieve high signal linearity over a pH range from 1-14. Using an exemplary threshold sensitivity of approximately 50 mV/pH, and considering Eq. (3) above, this requires a linear operating range of approximately 700 mV for the source voltage VS. As discussed above in connection with
While the foregoing discussion relates primarily to a steady state analysis of ISFET response based on the equilibrium reactions given in Eqs. (6) and (7), the transient or dynamic response of a conventional ISFET to an essentially instantaneous change in ionic strength of the analyte solution 74 (e.g., a stepwise change in proton or other ionic species concentration) has been explored in some research efforts. One exemplary treatment of ISFET transient or dynamic response is found in “ISFET responses on a stepwise change in electrolyte concentration at constant pH,” J. C. van Kerkof, J. C. T. Eijkel and P. Bergveld, Sensors and Actuators B, 18-19 (1994), pp. 56-59, which is incorporated herein by reference.
For ISFET transient response, a stepwise change in the concentration of one or more ionic species in the analyte solution in turn essentially instantaneously changes the charge density σdl on the analyte solution side of the double layer capacitance Cdl. Because the instantaneous change in charge density σdl is faster than the reaction kinetics at the surface of the passivation layer 72, the surface charge density σ0 initially remains constant, and the change in ion concentration effectively results in a sudden change in the double layer capacitance Cdl. From Eq. (10), it may be appreciated that such a sudden change in the capacitance Cdl at a constant surface charge density σ0 results in a corresponding sudden change in the surface potential Ψ0.
As indicated in the bottom graph of
where Ψ1 is an equilibrium surface potential at an initial ion concentration in the analyte solution, Cdl,1 is the double layer capacitance per unit area at the initial ion concentration, Ψ2 is the surface potential corresponding to the ion-step stimulus, and Cdl,2 is the double layer capacitance per unit area based on the ion-step stimulus. The time decay profile 81 associated with the response 79 is determined at least in part by the kinetics of the equilibrium reactions at the analyte solution/passivation layer interface (e.g., as given by Eqs. (6) and (7) for metal oxides, and also Eq. (7b) for metal nitrides). One instructive treatment in this regard is provided by “Modeling the short-time response of ISFET sensors,” P. Woias et al., Sensors and Actuators B, 24-25 (1995) 211-217 (hereinafter referred to as “Woias”), which publication is incorporated herein by reference.
In the Woias publication, an exemplary ISFET having a silicon nitride passivation layer is considered. A system of coupled non-linear differential equations based on the equilibrium reactions given by Eqs. (6), (7), and (7a) is formulated to describe the dynamic response of the ISFET to a step (essentially instantaneous) change in pH; more specifically, these equations describe the change in concentration over time of the various surface species involved in the equilibrium reactions, based on the forward and backward rate constants for the involved proton acceptance and proton donation reactions and how changes in analyte pH affect one or more of the reaction rate constants. Exemplary solutions, some of which include multiple exponential functions and associated time constants, are provided for the concentration of each of the surface ion species as a function of time. In one example provided by Woias, it is assumed that the proton donation reaction given by Eq. (6) dominates the transient response of the silicon nitride passivation layer surface for relatively small step changes in pH, thereby facilitating a mono-exponential approximation for the time decay profile 81 of the response 79 according to:
Ψ0(t)=ΔΨ0e−t/τ, (18)
where the exponential function essentially represents the change in surface charge density as a function of time. In Eq. (16), the time constant τ is both a function of the bulk pH and material parameters of the passivation layer, according to:
τ=τ0×10pH/2, (19)
where τ0 denotes a theoretical minimum response time that only depends on material parameters. For silicon nitride, Woias provides exemplary values for τ0 on the order of 60 microseconds to 200 microseconds. For purposes of providing an illustrative example, using τ0=60 microseconds and a bulk pH of 9, the time constant τ given by Eq. (19) is 1.9 seconds. Exemplary values for other types of passivation materials may be found in the relevant literature and/or determined empirically.
Previous efforts to fabricate two-dimensional arrays of ISFETs based on the ISFET design of
As shown in
As also shown in
In the column design of Milgrew et al. shown in
It should also be appreciated that in the column design of Milgrew et al. shown in
Furthermore, in the design of Milgrew et al., the p-channel MOSFET required to implement the transmission gate S1 in each pixel (e.g., see S11P in
The array design of Milgrew et al. was implemented using a 0.35 micrometer (μm) conventional CMOS fabrication process. In this process, various design rules dictate minimum separation distances between features. For example, according to the 0.35 μm CMOS design rules, with reference to
In sum, the ISFET pixel design of Milgrew et al. is aimed at ensuring accurate hydrogen ion concentration measurements over a pH range of 1-14. To ensure measurement linearity, the source and body of each pixel's ISFET are electrically coupled together. To ensure a full range of pH measurements, a transmission gate S1 is employed in each pixel to transmit the source voltage of an enabled pixel. Thus, each pixel of Milgrew's array requires four transistors (p-channel ISFET, p-channel MOSFET, and two n-channel MOSFETs) and two separate n-wells (
As noted earlier, individual ISFETs and arrays of ISFETs similar to those discussed above have been employed as sensing devices in a variety of chemical and biological applications. In particular, ISFETs have been employed as pH sensors in the monitoring of various processes involving nucleic acids such as DNA. Some examples of employing ISFETs in various life-science related applications are given in the following publications, each of which is incorporated herein by reference: Massimo Barbaro, Annalisa Bonfiglio, Luigi Raffo, Andrea Alessandrini, Paolo Facci and Imrich Barák, “Fully electronic DNA hybridization detection by a standard CMOS biochip,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Volume 118, Issues 1-2, 2006, pp. 41-46; Toshinari Sakurai and Yuzuru Husimi, “Real-time monitoring of DNA polymerase reactions by a micro ISFET pH sensor,” Anal. Chem., 64(17), 1992, pp 1996-1997; S. Purushothaman, C. Toumazou, J. Georgiou, “Towards fast solid state DNA sequencing,” Circuits and Systems, vol. 4, 2002, pp. IV-169 to IV-172; S. Purushothaman, C. Toumazou, C. P. Ou, “Protons and single nucleotide polymorphism detection: A simple use for the Ion Sensitive Field Effect Transistor,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, Vol. 114, no. 2, 2006, pp. 964-968; A. L. Simonian, A. W. Flounders, J. R. Wild, “FET-Based Biosensors for The Direct Detection of Organophosphate Neurotoxins,” Electroanalysis, Vol. 16, No. 22, 2004, pp. 1896-1906; C. Toumazou, S. Purushothaman, “Sensing Apparatus and Method,” United States Patent Application 2004-0134798, published Jul. 15, 2004; and T. W. Koo, S. Chan, X. Su, Z. Jingwu, M. Yamakawa, V. M. Dubin, “Sensor Arrays and Nucleic Acid Sequencing Applications,” United States Patent Application 2006-0199193, published Sep. 7, 2006.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTIONThe invention relates in part to the use of chemically-sensitive FETs (i.e., chemFETs), more particularly chemFET arrays, and even more particularly large chemFET arrays (e.g., those comprising 256 FETs or sensors) for monitoring biological and/or chemical processes or reactions, including without limitation molecular interactions for the purpose of detecting analytes in a sample. These sensors may be used to detect and measure static and/or dynamic levels or concentrations of a variety of analytes (e.g., hydrogen or other ions, non-ionic molecules or compounds, nucleic acids, proteins, polysaccharides, small chemical compounds such as chemical combinatorial library members, and the like). Analytes may be naturally occurring or non-naturally occurring, whether synthesized in vivo or in vitro. Analytes may be used as markers of a reaction or interaction, or progression thereof.
Reactions, processes or interactions that may be monitored according to the invention include without limitation those occurring in cell or tissue cultures, those occurring between molecular entities such as receptor-ligand interactions, antibody-antigen interactions, nucleic acid-nucleic acid interactions, neural cell stimulation and/or triggering, interactions of cells or tissues with agents such as pharmaceutical candidate agents, and the like.
Samples may also be monitored according to the invention for the presence of analytes. Such samples may be naturally occurring or non-naturally occurring, including without limitation bodily samples to be analyzed for diagnostic, prognostic and/or therapeutic purposes, chemical or biological libraries to be screened for the presence of agents with particular structural or functional attributes, etc. Samples are typically liquid (or are dissolved in a liquid) and of small volume, and therefore are amenable to high-speed, high-density analysis such as analyte detection.
Accordingly, various embodiments of the present disclosure are directed generally to inventive methods and apparatuses that employ chemFETs and chemFET arrays, including large chemFET arrays (e.g., those that comprise 256 FETs or sensors, as the terms are used interchangeably herein) for measuring one or more analytes. FET arrays by definition include at least two FETs. An ISFET, as discussed above, is a particular type of chemFET that is configured for ion detection. It is to be understood that ISFETs may be employed in various embodiments disclosed herein. Other types of chemFETs contemplated by the present disclosure include enzyme FETs (EnFETs) which employ enzymes to detect analytes. It should be appreciated, however, that the present disclosure is not limited to ISFETs and EnFETs, but more generally relates to any FET that is configured to detect one or more analytes or one or more interactions. Typically, in these arrays, one or more chemFET-containing elements or “pixels” constituting the sensors are configured to monitor one or more independent biological or chemical reactions or events occurring in proximity to the pixels of the array.
In some exemplary implementations, individual chemFETs or chemFET arrays may be coupled to one or more microfluidics structures that form one or more reaction chambers, or “wells” or “microwells,” over individual sensors or groups of sensors (in the case of an array), and optionally to an apparatus that delivers samples to the reaction chambers and removes them from the reaction chambers between measurements. Even when reaction chambers are not employed (and therefore the volume above the sensors is continuous), the sensor array may be coupled to one or more microfluidics structures for the delivery of samples or agents to the pixels and for removal of samples, agents and/or analytes between measurements. Accordingly, inventive aspects of this disclosure, which are desired to be protected, include the various microfluidic structures which may be employed to flow samples and where appropriate other agents useful in for example the detection and measurement of analytes to and from the wells or pixels, methods and structures for coupling the arrayed wells with arrayed pixels, and the like.
Thus, in various aspects, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a chemFET array having disposed on its surface a biological array or a chemical array. The biological array may be a nucleic acid array, a protein array including but not limited to an enzyme array, an antibody array and an antibody fragment array, a cell array, and the like. The chemical array may be an organic molecule array, or an inorganic molecule array, and the like. The biological array or chemical array may be arranged into a plurality of “cells” or spatially defined regions, and each of these regions is situated over a different sensor in the chemFET array, in some embodiments.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting a nucleic acid comprising contacting a nucleic acid array disposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of a nucleic acid from the sample to one or more regions on the nucleic acid array.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting a protein comprising contacting a protein array disposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of a protein from the sample to one or more regions on the protein array.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting a nucleic acid comprising contacting a protein array disposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of a nucleic acid from the sample to one or more regions on the protein array.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting an antigen comprising contacting an antibody array disposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of an antigen from the sample to one or more regions on the antibody array.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting an enzyme substrate or inhibitor comprising contacting an enzyme array disposed on a chemFET array with a sample, and detecting binding of an entity from the sample to one or more regions on the enzyme array.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for detecting an analyte in a sample comprising contacting a sample to a plurality of biological or chemical agents attached to a chemFET array, and analyzing electrical output from a plurality of chemFET sensors in the chemFET array after contact with the sample, wherein electrical output from a chemFET sensor after contact with the sample indicates binding of an analyte to the biological or chemical agent attached to the array.
As noted above, the sample may be from a naturally occurring source (e.g., a subject) and optionally it may be a bodily fluid. It may comprise cells, nucleic acids, proteins (including glycoproteins, antibodies, etc.), polysaccharides, and the like.
In various embodiments, the plurality of biological or chemical agents is a plurality of proteins, or a plurality of nucleic acids, or it may be a mixture of proteins and nucleic acids. The biological or chemical agents may be non-naturally occurring or naturally-occurring, and if naturally-occurring may be synthesized in vivo or in vitro. The plurality of biological or chemical agents may be a homogenous plurality of biological or chemical agents. In other embodiments, the plurality of biological or chemical agents is not homogeneous.
In one embodiment, the analyte is present in the sample. In another embodiment, the analyte is generated following contact of the sample with the chemFET array or with other reagents in the solution in contact with the chemFET array.
In still other embodiments, each chemFET sensor in the chemFET array is coupled to a reaction chamber.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for monitoring a biological or chemical process comprising exposing a first agent to a second agent in proximity to a chemFET sensor, and measuring an electrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent, wherein an electrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent indicates an interaction between the first agent and the second agent, and wherein the chemFET sensor is present in a chemFET array having at least 2 chemFET sensors.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for monitoring a biological or chemical process comprising exposing a first agent to a second agent in proximity to a chemFET sensor, and measuring an electrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent, wherein an electrical output at the chemFET sensor after exposure of the first agent to the second agent indicates an interaction between the first agent and the second agent, wherein the chemFET sensor is present in a chemFET array having at least 2 chemFET sensors, and wherein each chemFET sensor is coupled to a separate reaction chamber.
In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising nucleic acids or a plurality of nucleic acids attached to a chemFET array comprising 104 chemFETs.
In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a protein or a plurality of proteins attached to a chemFET comprising 104 chemFETs.
In another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a peptide or a plurality of peptides attached to a chemFET array comprising 104 chemFET sensors.
In various embodiments, the chemFET is coupled to a reaction chamber array.
In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a cell culture disposed on a chemFET or a chemFET array.
In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a nucleic acid array disposed on a chemFET array, optionally comprising a coupled array of reaction chambers.
In still another aspect, the invention provides an apparatus comprising a nucleic acid array comprising a plurality of nucleic acids bound to physically defined regions of a solid support disposed on a chemFET array. In one embodiment, each of the physically defined regions is associated with at least one chemFET in the array. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid array comprises a plurality of reaction chambers. In one embodiment, each physically defined region is associated with a single reaction chamber.
It is to be understood that any of the chemFET arrays described herein may comprise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, or more chemFET sensors. In some embodiments, the chemFET array comprises 104 chemFET or more than 104 chemFET. When used, reaction chamber arrays that are in contact with or capacitively coupled to chemFET arrays similarly may comprise 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, or more reaction chambers. It is also to be understood that, as used herein particularly with respect to arrays, an array that comprises, for example, 5 elements (such as sensors or reaction chambers) has at least 5 elements and may have more. An array that comprises more than, for example, 5 elements has at least 6 elements and may have more. It is further intended that aspects and embodiments described herein that “comprise” elements and/or steps also fully support and embrace aspects and embodiments that “consist of” or “consist essentially of” such elements and/or steps.
In some embodiments, the center-to-center distance between adjacent sensors and/or adjacent reaction chambers is about 1-10 μm, about 1-9 μm, or about 2-9 μm, about 1 μm, about 2 μm, about 3 μm, about 4 μm, about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm, about 8 μm, or about 9 μm.
In one embodiment the plurality of nucleic acids is homogeneous, while in another embodiment the plurality of nucleic acids is not homogeneous. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid has a length of less than 1000 bases in length, or the plurality of nucleic acid has an average length of less than 1000 bases in length.
In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids is single stranded. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids is double stranded.
In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids is DNA, RNA, miRNA, or cDNA. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid or the plurality of nucleic acids is an aptamer.
In various embodiments, the protein is an antibody or an antigen-binding antibody fragment, a tyrosine kinase receptor, a transcription factor, a hormone, or an enzyme.
In one embodiment, the nucleic acid or the protein is attached covalently to the chemFET array. In another embodiment, the nucleic acid or the protein is attached non-covalently to the chemFET array.
In other embodiments, the analyte of interest is hydrogen ion, and/or the ISFET arrays are specifically configured to measure changes in H+ concentration (i.e., changes in pH).
In other embodiments, biological or chemical reactions may be monitored, and the chemFET arrays may be specifically configured to measure hydrogen ions and/or one or more other analytes that provide relevant information relating to the occurrence and/or progress of a particular biological or chemical process of interest.
Various embodiments may be embraced in the various foregoing aspects of the invention and these are recited below once for convenience and brevity.
In various embodiments, the chemFET comprises a silicon nitride passivation layer. In some embodiments, the chemFET comprises a passivation layer attached to inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi) receptors. The chemFET may comprise a passivation layer that is or is not attached (whether covalently or non-covalently) to a nucleic acid or a protein or a polysaccharide.
In some embodiments, each reaction chamber is in contact or is capacitively coupled with a single chemFET.
In some embodiments, the reaction chamber has a volume of equal to or less than about 1 picoliter (pL), including less than 0.5 μL, less than 0.1 μL, less than 0.05 μL, less than 0.01 μL, less than 0.005 μL.
In some embodiments, the chemFET array comprises equal rows and columns of sensors such as 512 rows and 512 columns of sensors, although it not so limited.
The reaction chambers may have a square cross section, for example at their base or bottom. Examples include an 8 μm by 8 μm cross section, a 4 μm by 4 μm cross section, or a 1.5 μm by 1.5 μm cross section. Alternatively, they may have a rectangular cross section, for example at their base or bottom. Examples include an 8 μm by 12 μm cross section, a 4 μm by 6 μm cross section, or a 1.5 μm by 2.25 μm cross section.
In various aspects, the chemFET arrays may be fabricated using conventional CMOS (or biCMOS or other suitable) processing technologies, and are particularly configured to facilitate the rapid acquisition of data from the entire array (scanning all of the pixels to obtain corresponding pixel output signals).
With respect to analyte detection and measurement, it should be appreciated that in various embodiments discussed herein, one or more analytes measured by a chemFET array according to the present disclosure may include any of a variety of biological or chemical substances that provide relevant information regarding a biological or chemical process (e.g., binding events such as hybridization of nucleic acids to each other, antigen-antibody binding, receptor-ligand binding, enzyme-inhibitor binding, enzyme-substrate binding, and the like). In some aspects, the ability to measure absolute or relative as well as static and/or dynamic levels and/or concentrations of one or more analytes, in addition to merely determining the presence or absence of an analyte, provides valuable information in connection with biological and chemical processes. In other aspects, mere determination of the presence or absence of an analyte or analytes of interest may provide valuable information may be sufficient.
A chemFET array according to various inventive embodiments of the present disclosure may be configured for sensitivity to any one or more of a variety of analytes. In one embodiment, one or more chemFETs of an array may be particularly configured for sensitivity to one or more analytes, and in other embodiments different chemFETs of a given array may be configured for sensitivity to different analytes. For example, in one embodiment, one or more sensors (pixels) of the array may include a first type of chemFET configured to be sensitive to a first analyte, and one or more other sensors of the array may include a second type of chemFET configured to be sensitive to a second analyte different from the first analyte. In one embodiment, the first and second analytes may be related to each other. As an example, the first and second analytes may be byproducts of the same biological or chemical reaction/process and therefore they may be detected concurrently to confirm the occurrence of a reaction (or lack thereof). Such redundancy is preferred in some analyte detection methods. Of course, it should be appreciated that more than two different types of chemFETs may be employed in any given array to detect and/or measure different types of analytes, and optionally to monitor biological or chemical processes such as binding events. In general, it should be appreciated in any of the embodiments of sensor arrays discussed herein that a given sensor array may be “homogeneous” and thereby consist of chemFETs of substantially similar or identical type that detect and/or measure the same analyte (e.g., pH or other ion concentration), or a sensor array may be “heterogeneous” and include chemFETs of different types to detect and/or measure different analytes. In another embodiment, the sensors in an array may be configured to detect and/or measure a single type (or class) of analyte even though the species of that type (or class) detected and/or measured may be different between sensors. As an example, all the sensors in an array may be configured to detect and/or measure nucleic acids, but each sensor detects and/or measures a different nucleic acid.
The invention has specifically improved upon the ISFET array design of Milgrew et al. discussed above in connection with
With respect to chemFET array fabrication, it has been further recognized and appreciated that various techniques employed in a conventional CMOS fabrication process, as well as various post-fabrication processing steps (wafer handling, cleaning, dicing, packaging, etc.), may in some instances adversely affect performance of the resulting chemFET array. For example, with reference again to
Accordingly, one embodiment of the present invention is directed to an apparatus, comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising one chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements) and occupying an area on a surface of the array of 10 μm2 or less.
Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array comprising a two-dimensional array of electronic sensors including at least 512 rows and at least 512 columns of the electronic sensors, each sensor comprising one chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements) configured to provide at least one output signal representing a presence and/or concentration of an analyte proximate to a surface of the two-dimensional array.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising one chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements). The array of CMOS-fabricated sensors includes more than 256 sensors, and a collection of chemFET output signals from all chemFETs of the array constitutes a frame of data. The apparatus further comprises control circuitry coupled to the array and configured to generate at least one array output signal to provide multiple frames of data from the array at a frame rate of at least 1 frame per second. In one aspect, the frame rate may be at least 10 frames per second. In another aspect, the frame rate may be at least 20 frames per second. In yet other aspects, the frame rate may be at least 30, 40, 50, 70 or up to 100 frames per second.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET (and in some cases, consisting of one chemFET but optionally having other elements). The chemFET comprises a floating gate structure, and a source and a drain having a first semiconductor type and fabricated in a region having a second semiconductor type, wherein there is no electrical conductor that electrically connects the region having the second semiconductor type to either the source or the drain.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of electronic sensors, each sensor consisting of three FETs including one chemFET.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of electronic sensors, each sensor comprising three or fewer FETs, wherein the three or fewer FETs includes one chemFET.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of electronic sensors, each sensor comprising a plurality of FETs including one chemFET, and a plurality of electrical conductors electrically connected to the plurality of FETs, wherein the plurality of FETs are arranged such that the plurality of electrical conductors includes no more than four conductors traversing an area occupied by each sensor and interconnecting multiple sensors of the array.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a plurality of FETs including one chemFET, wherein all of the FETs in each sensor are of a same channel type and are implemented in a single semiconductor region of an array substrate.
Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array comprising a plurality of electronic sensors arranged in a plurality of rows and a plurality of columns. Each sensor comprises one chemFET configured to provide at least one and in some instances at least two output signals representing a presence and/or a concentration of an analyte proximate to a surface of the array. For each column of the plurality of columns, the array further comprises column circuitry configured to provide a constant drain current and a constant drain-to-source voltage to respective chemFETs in the column, the column circuitry including two operational amplifiers and a diode-connected FET arranged in a Kelvin bridge configuration with the respective chemFETs to provide the constant drain-to-source voltage.
Another embodiment is directed to a sensor array, comprising a plurality of electronic sensors arranged in a plurality of rows and a plurality of columns. Each sensor comprises one chemFET configured to provide at least one output signal and in some instances at least two output signals representing a concentration of ions in a solution proximate to a surface of the array. The array further comprises at least one row select shift register to enable respective rows of the plurality of rows, and at least one column select shift register to acquire chemFET output signals from respective columns of the plurality of columns.
Another embodiment is directed to an apparatus, comprising an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET. The chemFET comprises a floating gate structure, and a source and a drain having a first semiconductor type and fabricated in a region having a second semiconductor type, wherein there is no electrical conductor that electrically connects the region having the second semiconductor type to either the source or the drain. The array includes a two-dimensional array of at least 512 rows and at least 512 columns of the CMOS-fabricated sensors. Each sensor consists of three FETs including the chemFET, and each sensor includes a plurality of electrical conductors electrically connected to the three FETs. The three FETs are arranged such that the plurality of electrical conductors includes no more than four conductors traversing an area occupied by each sensor and interconnecting multiple sensors of the array. All of the FETs in each sensor are of a same channel type and implemented in a single semiconductor region of an array substrate. A collection of chemFET output signals from all chemFETs of the array constitutes a frame of data. The apparatus further comprises control circuitry coupled to the array and configured to generate at least one array output signal to provide multiple frames of data from the array at a frame rate of at least 20 frames per second.
Another embodiment is directed to a method for processing an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors, each sensor comprising a chemFET. The method comprises a) dicing a semiconductor wafer including the array to form at least one diced portion including the array, and b) performing a forming gas anneal on the at least one diced portion.
Another embodiment is directed to a method for manufacturing an array of chemFETs. The method comprises fabricating an array of chemFETs, depositing on the array a dielectric material, applying a forming gas anneal to the array before a dicing step, dicing the array, and applying a forming gas anneal after the dicing step. The method may further comprise testing the semiconductor wafer between one or more deposition steps.
Another embodiment is directed to a method for processing an array of CMOS-fabricated sensors. Each sensor comprises a chemFET having a chemically-sensitive passivation layer of silicon nitride and/or silicon oxynitride deposited via plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The method comprises depositing at least one additional passivation material on the chemically-sensitive passivation layer so as to reduce a porosity and/or increase a density of the passivation layer.
It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing concepts and additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided such concepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. In particular, all combinations of claimed subject matter appearing at the end of this disclosure are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. It should also be appreciated that terminology explicitly employed herein that also may appear in any disclosure incorporated by reference should be accorded a meaning most consistent with the particular concepts disclosed herein.
In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. Also, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon generally illustrating the various concepts discussed herein.
FIGS. 11B(1)-(3) provide the chemical structures of ten PPi receptors (compounds 1 through 10).
FIG. 11C(1) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 7 from FIG. 11B(3).
FIG. 11C(2) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 8 from FIG. 11B(3).
FIG. 11C(3) is a schematic of a synthesis protocol for compound 9 from FIG. 11B(3).
FIGS. 11D(1) and (2) are schematics illustrating a variety of chemistries that can be applied to the passivation layer in order to bind molecular recognition compounds (such as but not limited to PPi receptors).
FIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 provide top views of each of the fabrication layers shown in
FIGS. 12B1 through 12B12 provide top views of each of the fabrication layers shown in
FIG. 42F1 is a diagrammatic illustration of an example of a ceiling baffle arrangement for a flow cell in which fluid is introduced at one corner of the chip and exits at a diagonal corner, the baffle arrangement facilitating a desired fluid flow across the array.
FIGS. 42F2-42F8 comprise a set of illustrations of an exemplary flow cell member that may be manufactured by injection molding and may incorporate baffles to facilitate fluid flow, as well as a metalized surface for serving as a reference electrode, including an illustration of said member mounted to a sensor array package over a sensor array, to form a flow chamber thereover.
Following below are more detailed descriptions of various concepts related to, and embodiments of, inventive methods and apparatus relating to large scale chemFET arrays for detection and/or measurement or analytes. It should be appreciated that various concepts introduced above and discussed in greater detail below may be implemented in any of numerous ways, as the disclosed concepts are not limited to any particular manner of implementation. Examples of specific implementations and applications are provided primarily for illustrative purposes.
Various inventive embodiments according to the present disclosure are directed at least in part to a semiconductor-based/microfluidic hybrid system that combines the power of microelectronics with the biocompatibility of a microfluidic system. In some examples below, the microelectronics portion of the hybrid system is implemented in CMOS technology for purposes of illustration. It should be appreciated, however, that the disclosure is not intended to be limiting in this respect, as other semiconductor-based technologies may be utilized to implement various aspects of the microelectronics portion of the systems discussed herein.
One embodiment disclosed herein is directed to a large sensor array of chemFETs, wherein the individual chemFET sensor elements or “pixels” of the array are configured to detect analyte presence (or absence), analyte levels (or amounts), and/or analyte concentration in an unmanipulated sample, or as a result of chemical and/or biological processes (e.g., chemical reactions, cell cultures, neural activity, nucleic acid sequencing processes, etc.) occurring in proximity to the array. Examples of chemFETs contemplated by various embodiments discussed in greater detail below include, but are not limited to, ISFETs and EnFETs. In one exemplary implementation, one or more microfluidic structures is/are fabricated above the chemFET sensor array to provide for containment and/or confinement of a biological or chemical reaction in which an analyte of interest may be produced or consumed, as the case may be. For example, in one implementation, the microfluidic structure(s) may be configured as one or more “wells” (e.g., small reaction chambers or “reaction wells”) disposed above one or more sensors of the array, such that the one or more sensors over which a given well is disposed detect and measure analyte presence, level, and/or concentration in the given well.
In important aspects and embodiments, the chemFET array comprises 104 chemFET and/or the center-to-center spacing between adjacent chemFETs is 1-10 μm.
In another exemplary implementation, the invention encompasses a system for high-throughput sequencing comprising at least one two-dimensional array of reaction chambers, wherein each reaction chamber is coupled to a chemFET and each reaction chamber is no greater than 10 μm3 (i.e., 1 μL) in volume. Preferably, each reaction chamber is no greater than 0.34 μL, and more preferably no greater than 0.096 μL or even 0.012 μL in volume. A reaction chamber can optionally be 22, 32, 42, 52, 62, 72, 82, 92, or 102 square microns in cross-sectional area at the top. Preferably, the array has at least 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, or 1,000,000 reaction chambers. The reaction chambers may be capacitively coupled to the chemFETs, and preferably are capacitively coupled to the chemFETs.
The device may comprise an array of chemFETs with an array of microfluidic reaction chambers and/or a semiconductor material coupled to a dielectric material.
The above-described method may be automated via robotics. In addition, the information obtained via the signal from the chemFET may be provided to a personal computer, a personal digital assistant, a cellular phone, a video game system, or a television so that a user can monitor the progress of reactions remotely.
In some embodiments, such a chemFET array/microfluidics hybrid structure may be used to analyze solution(s)/material(s) of interest potentially containing analytes such as nucleic acids. For example, such structures may be employed to monitor sequencing of nucleic acids. Detection and/or sequencing of analytes such as nucleic acids may be performed to determine partial or complete nucleotide sequence of a nucleic acid, to detect the presence and in some instances nature of a single nucleotide polymorphism in a nucleic acid, to determine what therapeutic regimen will be most effective to treat a subject having a particular condition as can be determined by the subject's genetic make-up, to determine and compare nucleic acid expression profiles of two or more states (e.g., comparing expression profiles of diseased and normal tissue, or comparing expression profiles of untreated tissue and tissue treated with drug, enzymes, radiation or chemical treatment), to haplotype a sample (e.g., comparing genes or variations in genes on each of the two alleles present in a human subject), to karyotype a sample (e.g., analyzing chromosomal make-up of a cell or a tissue such as an embryo, to detect gross chromosomal or other genomic abnormalities), and to genotype (e.g., analyzing one or more genetic loci to determine for example carrier status and/or species-genus relationships).
The systems described herein can also be used to aid in the identification and treatment of disease. For example, the system can be used for identifying a sequence associated with a particular disease or for identifying a sequence associated with a positive response to a particular active ingredient.
In one embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for identifying a sequence associated with a condition comprising delivering nucleic acids from a plurality of subjects having the condition to a sequencing apparatus comprising a two-dimensional array of reaction chambers, wherein each of the reaction chambers is capacitively coupled to a chemFET, determining sequences of the nucleic acids from signal from said chemFETs, and identifying a common sequence between the DNA from the plurality of subjects. Preferably, the subject is a mammal, and more preferably a human. Preferably, the condition is cancer, an immunosuppressant condition, a neurological condition, or a viral infection.
In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for identifying a sequence associated with a positive response to a particular active agent, comprising sequencing DNA from a plurality of subjects that have exhibited a positive response and from a plurality of subjects having a negative response to an active agent using one or more sequencing apparatuses, wherein each sequencing apparatus comprises an array of chemFETs; and identifying a common DNA sequence in the plurality of subjects that have exhibited a positive response or from the subjects that have exhibited a negative response that is not present in the other plurality of subjects. Preferably, the subject is a mammal, and more preferably a human.
It should be appreciated, however, that while some illustrative examples of the concepts disclosed herein focus on nucleic acid processing, the invention contemplates a broader application of these concepts and is not intended to be limited to these examples.
The system 1000 includes a semiconductor/microfluidics hybrid structure 300 comprising an ISFET sensor array 100 and a microfluidics flow cell 200. In one aspect, the flow cell 200 may comprise a number of wells (not shown in
As illustrated in
In still other embodiments, the wells can be coated with one or more nucleic acids, including for example a pair of primer nucleic acids, and a nucleic acid having adaptor nucleotide sequences complementary to the primer nucleotide sequence may be introduced into the wells. These and other agents useful in immobilizing nucleic acids may be provided to the sensor array, to individual dies as part of the chip packaging, or to wells immediately before the processing of a sample. Other methods involving solgels may be used to immobilize agents such as nucleic acids near the surface of the ISFET array.
As will be discussed in greater detail herein, in some aspects contemplated by the invention, nucleic acids may be amplified prior to or after placement in the well. Various methods exist to amplify nucleic acids. Thus, in one aspect, once a nucleic acid is loaded into a well, amplification may be performed in the well, and the resulting amplified product may be further analyzed. Amplification methods include but are not limited to bridge amplification, rolling circle amplification, or other strategies using isothermal or non-isothermal amplification techniques.
In sum, the flow cell 200 in the system of
In the system 1000 of
As will be discussed in greater detail herein, various embodiments of the present invention may relate to monitoring/measurement techniques that involve the static and/or dynamic responses of an ISFET. In one embodiment relating to detection of nucleotide incorporation during a nucleic acid synthesis or sequencing reaction, detection/measurement techniques particularly rely on the transient or dynamic response of an ISFET (ion-step response, or “ion pulse” output), as discussed above in connection with
In one exemplary implementation, beyond the step-wise or essentially instantaneous pH changes in the analyte solution contemplated by prior research efforts, detection/measurement techniques relying on the dynamic response of an ISFET according to some embodiments of the present invention are based at least in part on the differential diffusion of various ionic species proximate to the analyte/passivation layer interface of the ISFET(s) (e.g., at the bottom of a reaction well over an ISFET). In particular, it has been recognized and appreciated that if a given stimulus constituted by a change in ionic strength proximate to the analyte/passivation layer interface, due to the appropriate diffusion of respective species of interest, occurs at a rate that is significantly faster than the ability of the passivation layer to adjust its surface charge density in response to the stimulus of the concentration change (e.g., faster than a characteristic response time constant τ associated with the passivation layer surface), a step-wise or essentially instantaneous change in ionic strength is not necessarily required to observe an ion pulse output from the ISFET. This principle is applicable not only to the example of DNA sequencing, but also to other types of chemical and chemical reaction sensing, as well.
As noted above, the ISFET may be employed to measure steady state pH values, since in some embodiments pH change is proportional to the number of nucleotides incorporated into the newly synthesized nucleic acid strand. In other embodiments discussed in greater detail below, the FET sensor array may be particularly configured for sensitivity to other analytes that may provide relevant information about the chemical reactions of interest. An example of such a modification or configuration is the use of analyte-specific receptors to bind the analytes of interest, as discussed in greater detail herein.
Via an array controller 250 (also under operation of the computer 260), the ISFET array may be controlled so as to acquire data (e.g., output signals of respective ISFETs of the array) relating to analyte detection and/or measurements, and collected data may be processed by the computer 260 to yield meaningful information associated with the processing (including sequencing) of the template nucleic acid.
With respect to the ISFET array 100 of the system 1000 shown in
The ISFET array 100 is not limited to any particular size, as one- or two-dimensional arrays, including but not limited to as few as two to 256 pixels (e.g., 16 by 16 pixels in a two-dimensional implementation) or as many as 54 mega-pixels (e.g., 7400 by 7400 pixels in a two-dimensional implementation) or even greater may be fabricated and employed for various chemical/biological analysis purposes pursuant to the concepts disclosed herein. In one embodiment of the exemplary system shown in
More generally, a chemFET array according to various embodiments of the present disclosure may be configured for sensitivity to any one or more of a variety of analytes. In one embodiment, one or more chemFETs of an array may be particularly configured for sensitivity to one or more analytes and/or one or more binding events, and in other embodiments different chemFETs of a given array may be configured for sensitivity to different analytes. For example, in one embodiment, one or more sensors (pixels) of the array may include a first type of chemFET configured to be sensitive to a first analyte, and one or more other sensors of the array may include a second type of chemFET configured to be sensitive to a second analyte different from the first analyte. In one exemplary implementation, both a first and a second analyte may indicate a particular reaction such as for example nucleotide incorporation in a sequencing-by-synthesis method. Of course, it should be appreciated that more than two different types of chemFETs may be employed in any given array to detect and/or measure different types of analytes and/or other reactions. In general, it should be appreciated in any of the embodiments of sensor arrays discussed herein that a given sensor array may be “homogeneous” and include chemFETs of substantially similar or identical types to detect and/or measure a same type of analyte (e.g., pH or other ion concentration), or a sensor array may be “heterogeneous” and include chemFETs of different types to detect and/or measure different analytes. For simplicity of discussion, again the example of an ISFET is discussed below in various embodiments of sensor arrays, but the present disclosure is not limited in this respect, and several other options for analyte sensitivity are discussed in further detail below (e.g., in connection with
The chemFET arrays configured for sensitivity to any one or more of a variety of analytes may be disposed in electronic chips, and each chip may be configured to perform one or more different biological reactions. The electronic chips can be connected to the portions of the above-described system which read the array output by means of pins coded in a manner such that the pins convey information to the system as to characteristics of the array and/or what kind of biological reaction(s) is(are) to be performed on the particular chip.
In one embodiment, the invention encompasses an electronic chip configured for conducting biological reactions thereon, comprising one or more pins for delivering information to a circuitry identifying a characteristic of the chip and/or a type of reaction to be performed on the chip. Such t may include, but are not limited to, a short nucleotide polymorphism detection, short tandem repeat detection, or sequencing.
In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a system adapted to performing more than one biological reaction on a chip comprising: a chip receiving module adapted for receiving the chip; and a receiver for detecting information from the electronic chip, wherein the information determines a biological reaction to be performed on the chip. Typically, the system further comprises one or more reagents to perform the selected biological reaction.
In another embodiment, the invention encompasses an apparatus for sequencing a polymer template comprising: at least one integrated circuit that is configured to relay information about spatial location of a reaction chamber, type of monomer added to the spatial location, time required to complete reaction of a reagent comprising a plurality of the monomers with an elongating polymer.
In exemplary implementations based on 0.35 micrometer CMOS processing techniques (or CMOS processing techniques capable of smaller feature sizes), each pixel of the ISFET array 100 may include an ISFET and accompanying enable/select components, and may occupy an area on a surface of the array of approximately ten micrometers by ten micrometers (i.e., 100 micrometers2) or less; stated differently, arrays having a pitch (center of pixel-to-center of pixel spacing) on the order of 10 micrometers or less may be realized. An array pitch on the order of 10 micrometers or less using a 0.35 micrometer CMOS processing technique constitutes a significant improvement in terms of size reduction with respect to prior attempts to fabricate ISFET arrays, which resulted in pixel sizes on the order of at least 12 micrometers or greater.
More specifically, in some embodiments discussed further below based on the inventive concepts disclosed herein, an array pitch of approximately nine (9) micrometers allows an ISFET array including over 256,000 pixels (e.g., a 512 by 512 array), together with associated row and column select and bias/readout electronics, to be fabricated on a 7 millimeter by 7 millimeter semiconductor die, and a similar sensor array including over four million pixels (e.g., a 2048 by 2048 array yielding over 4 Mega-pixels) to be fabricated on a 21 millimeter by 21 millimeter die. In other examples, an array pitch of approximately 5 micrometers allows an ISFET array including approximately 1.55 Mega-pixels (e.g., a 1348 by 1152 array) and associated electronics to be fabricated on a 9 millimeter by 9 millimeter die, and an ISFET sensor array including over 14 Mega-pixels and associated electronics on a 22 millimeter by 20 millimeter die. In yet other implementations, using a CMOS fabrication process in which feature sizes of less than 0.35 micrometers are possible (e.g., 0.18 micrometer CMOS processing techniques), ISFET sensor arrays with a pitch significantly below 5 micrometers may be fabricated (e.g., array pitch of 2.6 micrometers or pixel area of less than 8 or 9 micrometers2), providing for significantly dense ISFET arrays. Of course, it should be appreciated that pixel sizes greater than 10 micrometers (e.g., on the order of approximately 20, 50, 100 micrometers or greater) may be implemented in various embodiments of chemFET arrays according to the present disclosure also.
As will be understood by those of skill in the art, the ability to miniaturize sequencing reactions reduces the time, cost and labor involved in sequencing of large genomes (such as the human genome).
In other aspects of the system shown in
As used herein, an array is planar arrangement of elements such as sensors or wells. The array may be one or two dimensional. A one dimensional array is an array having one column (or row) of elements in the first dimension and a plurality of columns (or rows) in the second dimension. An example of a one dimensional array is a 1×5 array. A two dimensional array is an array having a plurality of columns (or rows) in both the first and the second dimension. The number of columns (or rows) in the first and second dimensions may or may not be the same. An example of a two dimensional array is a 5×10 array.
Having provided a general overview of the role of a chemFET (e.g., ISFET) array 100 in an exemplary system 1000 for measuring one or more analytes, following below are more detailed descriptions of exemplary chemFET arrays according to various inventive embodiments of the present disclosure that may be employed in a variety of applications. Again, for purposes of illustration, chemFET arrays according to the present disclosure are discussed below using the particular example of an ISFET array, but other types of chemFETs may be employed in alternative embodiments. Also, again, for purposes of illustration, chemFET arrays are discussed in the context of nucleic acid sequencing applications, however, the invention is not so limited and rather contemplates a variety of applications for the chemFET arrays described herein.
As noted above, various inventive embodiments disclosed herein specifically improve upon the ISFET array design of Milgrew et al. discussed above in connection with
To this end,
In one aspect of the embodiment shown in
As illustrated in
By employing the diode-connected MOSFET Q6 in the bias/readout circuitry 110j of
In
In another aspect of the embodiment shown in
In yet another aspect of the embodiment shown in
By not tying the body connection of each ISFET to its source, the possibility of some non-zero source-to-body voltage VSB may give rise to the “body effect,” as discussed above in connection with
In the top view of
With reference now to the cross-sectional view of
In the composite cross-sectional view of
Above the substrate, gate oxide, and polysilicon layers shown in
As indicated above, FIGS. 12A1 through 12A12 provide top views of each of the fabrication layers shown in
Applicants have recognized and appreciated that, at least in some applications, pixel capacitance may be a salient parameter for some type of analyte measurements. Accordingly, in another embodiment related to pixel layout and design, various via and metal layers may be reconfigured so as to at least partially mitigate the potential for parasitic capacitances to arise during pixel operation. For example, in one such embodiment, pixels are designed such that there is a greater vertical distance between the signal lines 1121, 1141, 1161 and 1181, and the topmost metal layer 304 constituting the floating gate structure 170.
In the embodiment described immediately above, with reference again to
To this end, in another embodiment some via and metal layers are reconfigured such that the signal lines 1121, 1141, 1161 and 1181 are implemented in the Metal1 and Metal2 layers, and the Metal3 layer is used only as a jumper between the Metal2 layer component of the floating gate structure 170 and the topmost metal layer 304, thereby ensuring a greater distance between the signal lines and the metal layer 304.
In
With reference now to the cross-sectional view of
More specifically, as in the embodiment of
Accordingly, by consolidating the signal lines 1121, 1141, 1161 and 1181 to the Metal1 and Metal2 layers and thereby increasing the distance between these signal lines and the topmost layer 304 of the floating gate structure 170 in the Metal4 layer, parasitic capacitances in the ISFET may be at least partially mitigated. It should be appreciated that this general concept (e.g., including one or more intervening metal layers between signal lines and topmost layer of the floating gate structure) may be implemented in other fabrication processes involving greater numbers of metal layers. For example, distance between pixel signal lines and the topmost metal layer may be increased by adding additional metal layers (more than four total metal layers) in which only jumpers to the topmost metal layer are formed in the additional metal layers. In particular, a six-metal-layer fabrication process may be employed, in which the signal lines are fabricated using the Metal1 and Metal2 layers, the topmost metal layer of the floating gate structure is formed in the Metal6 layer, and jumpers to the topmost metal layer are formed in the Metal3, Metal4 and Metal5 layers, respectively (with associated vias between the metal layers). In another exemplary implementation based on a six-metal-layer fabrication process, the general pixel configuration shown in
In yet another aspect relating to reduced capacitance, a dimension “f” of the topmost metal layer 304 (and thus the ISFET sensitive area 178) may be reduced so as to reduce cross-capacitance between neighboring pixels. As may be observed in
Thus, the pixel chip layout designs respectively shown in
In one exemplary implementation, the gate oxide 165 for the ISFET may be fabricated to have a thickness on the order of approximately 75 Angstroms, giving rise to a gate oxide capacitance per unit area Cox of 4.5 fF/μm2. Additionally, the polysilicon gate 164 may be fabricated with dimensions corresponding to a channel width W of 1.2 μm and a channel length L of from 0.35 to 0.6 μm (i.e., W/L ranging from approximately 2 to 3.5), and the doping of the region 160 may be selected such that the carrier mobility for the p-channel is 190 cm2/V·s (i.e., 1.9E10 μm2/V·s). From Eq. (2) above, this results in an ISFET transconductance parameter β on the order of approximately 170 to 300 μA/V2. In other aspects of this exemplary implementation, the analog supply voltage VDDA is 3.3 Volts, and VB1 and VB2 are biased so as to provide a constant ISFET drain current IDj on the order of 5 μA (in some implementations, VB1 and VB2 may be adjusted to provide drain currents from approximately 1 μA to 20 μA). Additionally, the MOSFET Q6 (see bias/readout circuitry 110j in
With respect to the analyte-sensitive passivation layer 172 shown in
For CMOS processes involving aluminum as the metal (which has a melting point of approximately 650 degrees Celsius), a silicon nitride and/or silicon oxynitride passivation layer generally is formed via plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), in which a glow discharge at 250-350 degrees Celsius ionizes the constituent gases that form silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride, creating active species that react at the wafer surface to form a laminate of the respective materials. In one exemplary process, a passivation layer having a thickness on the order of approximately 1.0 to 1.5 μm may be formed by an initial deposition of a thin layer of silicon oxynitride (on the order of 0.2 to 0.4 μm) followed by a slighting thicker deposition of silicon oxynitride (on the order of 0.5 μm) and a final deposition of silicon nitride (on the order of 0.5 μm). Because of the low deposition temperature involved in the PECVD process, the aluminum metallization is not adversely affected.
However, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that while a low-temperature PECVD process provides adequate passivation for conventional CMOS devices, the low-temperature process results in a generally low-density and somewhat porous passivation layer, which in some cases may adversely affect ISFET threshold voltage stability. In particular, during ISFET device operation, a low-density porous passivation layer over time may absorb and become saturated with ions from the solution, which may in turn cause an undesirable time-varying drift in the ISFETs threshold voltage VTH, making accurate measurements challenging.
In view of the foregoing, in one embodiment a CMOS process that uses tungsten metal instead of aluminum may be employed to fabricate ISFET arrays according to the present disclosure. The high melting temperature of Tungsten (above 3400 degrees Celsius) permits the use of a higher temperature low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) process (e.g., approximately 700 to 800 degrees Celsius) for a silicon nitride or silicon oxynitride passivation layer. The LPCVD process typically results in significantly more dense and less porous films for the passivation layer, thereby mitigating the potentially adverse effects of ion absorption from the analyte solution leading to ISFET threshold voltage drift.
In yet another embodiment in which an aluminum-based CMOS process is employed to fabricate ISFET arrays according to the present disclosure, the passivation layer 172 shown in
Examples of materials suitable for the second portion 172B (or other additional portions) of the passivation layer 172 include, but are not limited to, silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, aluminum oxide (Al2O3), tantalum oxide (Ta3O5), tin oxide (SnO2) and silicon dioxide (SiO2). In one aspect, the second portion 172B (or other additional portions) may be deposited via a variety of relatively low-temperature processes including, but not limited to, RF sputtering, DC magnetron sputtering, thermal or e-beam evaporation, and ion-assisted depositions. In another aspect, a pre-sputtering etch process may be employed, prior to deposition of the second portion 172B, to remove any native oxide residing on the first portion 172A (alternatively, a reducing environment, such as an elevated temperature hydrogen environment, may be employed to remove native oxide residing on the first portion 172A). In yet another aspect, a thickness of the second portion 172B may be on the order of approximately 0.04 μm to 0.06 μm (400 to 600 Angstroms) and a thickness of the first portion may be on the order of 1.0 to 1.5 μm, as discussed above. In some exemplary implementations, the first portion 172A may include multiple layers of silicon oxynitride and silicon nitride having a combined thickness of 1.0 to 1.5 μm, and the second portion 172B may include a single layer of either aluminum oxide or tantalum oxide having a thickness of approximately 400 to 600 Angstroms. Again, it should be appreciated that the foregoing exemplary thicknesses are provided primarily for purposes of illustration, and that the disclosure is not limited in these respects.
It has been found according to the invention that hydrogen ion sensitive passivation layers are also sensitive to other analytes including but not limited to PPi and unincorporated nucleotide triphosphates. As an example, a silicon nitride passivation layer is able to detect changes in the concentration of PPi and nucleotide triphosphates. The ability to measure the concentration change of these analytes using the same chemFET greatly facilitates the ability to sequence a nucleic acid using a single array, thereby simplifying the sequencing method.
Thus it is to be understood that the chemFET arrays described herein may be used to detect and/or measure various analytes and, by doing so, may monitor a variety of reactions and/or interactions. It is also to be understood that the discussion herein relating to hydrogen ion detection (in the form of a pH change) is for the sake of convenience and brevity and that static or dynamic levels/concentrations of other analytes (including other ions) can be substituted for hydrogen in these descriptions. In particular, sufficiently fast concentration changes of any one or more of various ion species present in the analyte may be detected via the transient or dynamic response of a chemFET, as discussed above in connection with
The chemFETs, including ISFETs, described herein are capable of detecting any analyte that is itself capable of inducing a change in electric field when in contact with or otherwise sensed or detected by the chemFET surface. The analyte need not be charged in order to be detected by the sensor. For example, depending on the embodiment, the analyte may be positively charged (i.e., a cation), negatively charged (i.e., an anion), zwitterionic (i.e., capable of having two equal and opposite charges but being neutral overall), and polar yet neutral. This list is not intended as exhaustive as other analyte classes as well as species within each class will be readily contemplated by those of ordinary skill in the art based on the disclosure provided herein.
In the broadest sense of the invention, the passivation layer may or may not be coated and the analyte may or may not interact directly with the passivation layer. As an example, the passivation layer may be comprised of silicon nitride and the analyte may be something other than hydrogen ions. As a specific example, the passivation layer may be comprised of silicon nitride and the analyte may be PPi. In these instances, PPi is detected directly (i.e., in the absence of PPi receptors attached to the passivation layer either directly or indirectly).
If the analyte being detected is hydrogen (or alternatively hydroxide), then it is preferable to use weak buffers so that changes in either ionic species can be detected at the passivation layer. If the analyte being detected is something other than hydrogen (or hydroxide) but there is some possibility of a pH change in the solution during the reaction or detection step, then it is preferable to use a strong buffer so that changes in pH do not interfere with the detection of the analyte. A buffer is an ionic molecule (or a solution comprising an ionic molecule) that resists to varying extents changes in pH. Some buffers are able to neutralize acids or bases added to or generated in a solution, resulting in no effective pH change in the solution. It is to be understood that any buffer is suitable provided it has a pKa in the desired range. For some embodiments, a suitable buffer is one that functions in about the pH range of 6 to 9, and more preferably 6.5 to 8.5. In other embodiments, a suitable buffer is one that functions in about the pH range of 7-10, including 8.5-9.5.
The strength of a buffer is a relative term since it depends on the nature, strength and concentration of the acid or base added to or generated in the solution of interest. A weak buffer is a buffer that allows detection (and therefore is not able to otherwise control) pH changes of about at least +/−0.005, about at least +/−0.01, about at least +/−0.015, about at least +/−0.02, about at least +/−0.03, about at least +/−0.04, about at least +/−0.05, about at least +/−0.10, about at least +/−0.15, about at least +/−0.20, about at least +/−0.25, about at least +/−0.30, about at least +/−0.35, about at least +/−0.45, about at least +/−0.50, or more.
A strong buffer is a buffer that controls pH changes of about at least +/−0.005, about at least +/−0.01, about at least +/−0.015, about at least +/−0.02, about at least +/−0.03, about at least +/−0.04, about at least +/−0.05, about at least +/−0.10, about at least +/−0.15, about at least +/−0.20, about at least +/−0.25, about at least +/−0.30, about at least +/−0.35, about at least +/−0.45, about at least +/−0.50, or more.
Buffer strength can be varied by varying the concentration of the buffer species itself. Thus low concentration buffers can be low strength buffers. Examples include those having less than 1 mM (e.g., 50-100 μM) buffer species. A non-limiting example of a weak buffer suitable for the sequencing reactions described herein wherein pH change is the readout is 0.1 mM Tris or Tricine. Examples of suitable weak buffers are provided in the Examples and are also known in the art. Higher concentration buffers can be stronger buffers. Examples include those having 1-25 mM buffer species. A non-limiting example of a strong buffer suitable for the sequencing reactions described herein wherein PPi and/or nucleotide triphosphates are read directly is 1, 5 or 25 mM (or more) Tris or Tricine. One of ordinary skill in the art will be able to determine the optimal buffer for use in the reactions and detection methods encompassed by the invention.
In some embodiments, the passivation layer and/or the layers and/or molecules coated thereon dictate the analyte specificity of the array readout.
Detection of hydrogen ions (in the form of pH), and other analytes as determined by the invention, can be carried out using a passivation layer made of silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon oxynitride (Si2N2O), silicon oxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5), tin oxide or stannic oxide (SnO2), and the like.
The passivation layer can also detect other ion species directly including but not limited to calcium, potassium, sodium, iodide, magnesium, chloride, lithium, lead, silver, cadmium, nitrate, phosphate, dihydrogen phosphate, and the like.
In some embodiments, the passivation layer is coated with a receptor for the analyte of interest. Preferably, the receptor binds selectively to the analyte of interest or in some instances to a class of agents to which the analyte belongs. As used herein, a receptor that binds selectively to an analyte is a molecule that binds preferentially to that analyte (i.e., its binding affinity for that analyte is greater than its binding affinity for any other analyte). Its binding affinity for the analyte of interest may be 2-fold, 3-fold, 4-fold, 5-fold, 6-fold, 7-fold, 8-fold, 9-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 40-fold, 50-fold, 100-fold or more than its binding affinity for any other analyte. In addition to its relative binding affinity, the receptor must also have an absolute binding affinity that is sufficiently high to efficiently bind the analyte of interest (i.e., it must have a sufficient sensitivity). Receptors having binding affinities in the picomolar to micromolar range are suitable. Preferably such interactions are reversible.
The receptor may be of any nature (e.g., chemical, nucleic acid, peptide, lipid, combinations thereof and the like). In such embodiments, the analyte too may be of any nature provided there exists a receptor that binds to it selectively and in some instances specifically. It is to be understood however that the invention further contemplates detection of analytes in the absence of a receptor. An example of this is the detection of PPi and Pi by the passivation layer in the absence of PPi or Pi receptors.
In one aspect, the invention contemplates receptors that are ionophores. As used herein, an ionophore is a molecule that binds selectively to an ionic species, whether anion or cation. In the context of the invention, the ionophore is the receptor and the ion to which it binds is the analyte. Ionophores of the invention include art-recognized carrier ionophores (i.e., small lipid-soluble molecules that bind to a particular ion) derived from microorganisms. Various ionophores are commercially available from sources such as Calbiochem.
Detection of some ions can be accomplished through the use of the passivation layer itself or through the use of receptors coated onto the passivation layer. For example, potassium can be detected selectively using polysiloxane, valinomycin, or salinomycin; sodium can be detected selectively using monensin, nystatin, or SQI-Pr; calcium can be detected selectively using ionomycin, calcimycine (A23187), or CA 1001 (ETH 1001).
Receptors able to bind more than one ion can also be used in some instances. For example, beauvericin can be used to detect calcium and/or barium ions, nigericin can be used to detect potassium, hydrogen and/or lead ions, and gramicidin can be used to detect hydrogen, sodium and/or potassium ions. One of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that these compounds can be used in applications in which single ion specificity is not required or in which it is unlikely (or impossible) that other ions which the compounds bind will be present or generated. Similarly, receptors that bind multiple species of a particular genus may also be useful in some embodiments including those in which only one species within the genus will be present or in which the method does not require distinction between species.
In other embodiments, including but not limited to nucleic acid sequencing applications, receptors that bind selectively to PPi can be used. Examples of PPi receptors include those compounds shown in FIG. 11B(1)-(3) (compounds 1-10). Compound 1 is described in Angew Chem Int Ed 2004 43:4777-4780 and US 2005/0119497 A1 and is referred to as p-naphthyl-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl)amino)methyl]phenol. Compound 2 is described in J Am Chem Soc 2003 125:7752-7753 and US 2005/0119497 A1 and is referred to as p-(p-nitrophenylazo)-bis[bis(2-pyridylmethyl-1)amino)methyl]phenol (or its dinuclear Zn complex). Synthesis schemes for compounds 1 and 2 are shown provided in US 2005/0119497 A1. Compound 3 is described in by Lee et al. Organic Letters 2007 9(2):243-246, and Sensors and Actuators B 1995 29:324-327. Compound 4 is described in Angew Chem Int Ed 2002 41(20):3811-3814. Compound 5 is described in WO 2007/002204 and is referred to therein as bis-Zn2+-dipicolylamine (Zn2+-DPA). Compound 6 is illustrated bound to PPi. (McDonough et al. Chem. Commun. 2006 2971-2973.) Exemplary syntheses for compounds 7, 8 and 9 are shown in FIGS. 11C(1)-(3) respectively. Attachment of compound 7 to a metal oxide surface is shown in
As another example, receptors for neurotoxins are described in Simonian Electroanalysis 2004, 16: 1896-1906.
Receptors may be attached to the passivation layer covalently or non-covalently. Covalent attachment of a receptor to the passivation layer may be direct or indirect (e.g., through a linker). FIGS. 11D(1) and (2) illustrate the use of silanol chemistry to covalently bind receptors to the passivation layer. Receptors may be immobilized on the passivation layer using for example aliphatic primary amines (bottom left panel) or aryl isothiocyanates (bottom right panel). In these and other embodiments, the passivation layer which itself may be comprised of silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, tantalum pentoxide, or the like, is bonded to a silanation layer via its reactive surface groups. For greater detail on silanol chemistry for covalent attachment to the FET surface, reference can be made to at least the following publications: for silicon nitride, see Sensors and Actuators B 1995 29:324-327, Jpn J Appl Phys 1999 38:3912-3917 and Langmuir 2005 21:395-402; for silicon oxide, see Protein Sci 1995 4:2532-2544 and Am Biotechnol Lab 2002 20(7):16-18; and for aluminum oxide, see Colloids and Surfaces 1992 63:1-9, Sensors and Actuators B 2003 89:40-47, and Bioconjugate Chem 1997 8:424-433. The receptor is then conjugated to the silanation layer reactive groups. This latter binding can occur directly or indirectly through the use of a bifunctional linker, as illustrated in FIGS. 11D(1) and (2).
A bifunctional linker is a compound having at least two reactive groups to which two entities may be bound. In some instances, the reactive groups are located at opposite ends of the linker. In some embodiments, the bifunctional linker is a universal bifunctional linker such as that shown in FIGS. 11D(1) and (2). A universal linker is a linker that can be used to link a variety of entities. It should be understood that the chemistries shown in FIGS. 11D(1) and (2) are meant to be illustrative and not limiting.
The bifunctional linker may be a homo-bifunctional linker or a hetero-bifunctional linker, depending upon the nature of the molecules to be conjugated. Homo-bifunctional linkers have two identical reactive groups. Hetero-bifunctional linkers are have two different reactive groups. Various types of commercially available linkers are reactive with one or more of the following groups: primary amines, secondary amines, sulphydryls, carboxyls, carbonyls and carbohydrates. Examples of amine-specific linkers are bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate, bis[2-(succinimidooxycarbonyloxy)ethyl]sulfone, disuccinimidyl suberate, disuccinimidyl tartarate, dimethyl adipimate.2HCl, dimethyl pimelimidate.2HCl, dimethyl suberimidate.2HCl, and ethylene glycolbis-[succinimidyl-[succinate]]. Linkers reactive with sulfhydryl groups include bismaleimidohexane, 1,4-di-[3′-(2′-pyridyldithio)-propionamido)] butane, 1-[p-azidosalicylamido]-4-[iodoacetamido] butane, and N-[4-(p-azidosalicylamido) butyl]-3′[2′-pyridyldithio] propionamide. Linkers preferentially reactive with carbohydrates include azidobenzoyl hydrazine. Linkers preferentially reactive with carboxyl groups include 4-[p-azidosalicylamido] butylamine.
Heterobifunctional linkers that react with amines and sulfhydryls include N-succinimidyl-3-[2-pyridyldithio] propionate, succinimidyl [4-iodoacetyl]aminobenzoate, succinimidyl 4-[N-maleimidomethyl]cyclohexane-1-carboxylate, m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester, sulfosuccinimidyl 6-[3-[2-pyridyldithio]propionamido]hexanoate, and sulfosuccinimidyl 4-[N-maleimidomethyl] cyclohexane-1-carboxylate. Heterobifunctional linkers that react with carboxyl and amine groups include 1-ethyl-3-[3-dimethylaminopropyl]-carbodiimide hydrochloride. Heterobifunctional linkers that react with carbohydrates and sulfhydryls include 4-[N-maleimidomethyl]-cyclohexane-1-carboxylhydrazide.2HCl, 4-(4-N-maleimidophenyl)-butyric acid hydrazide.2HCl, and 3-[2-pyridyldithio] propionyl hydrazide.
Alternatively, receptors may be non-covalently coated onto the passivation layer. Non-covalent deposition of the receptor onto the passivation layer may involve the use of a polymer matrix. The polymer may be naturally occurring or non-naturally occurring and may be of any type including but not limited to nucleic acid (e.g., DNA, RNA, PNA, LNA, and the like, or mimics, derivatives, or combinations thereof), amino acid (e.g., peptides, proteins (native or denatured), and the like, or mimics, derivatives, or combinations thereof, lipids, polysaccharides, and functionalized block copolymers. The receptor may be adsorbed onto and/or entrapped within the polymer matrix. The nature of the polymer will depend on the nature of the receptor being used and/or analyte being detected.
Alternatively, the receptor may be covalently conjugated or crosslinked to the polymer (e.g., it may be “grafted” onto a functionalized polymer).
An example of a suitable peptide polymer is poly-lysine (e.g., poly-L-lysine). Examples of other polymers include block copolymers that comprise polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyamides, polycarbonates, polyalkylenes, polyalkylene glycols, polyalkylene oxides, polyalkylene terepthalates, polyvinyl alcohols, polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl esters, polyvinyl halides, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyglycolides, polysiloxanes, polyurethanes, alkyl cellulose, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, cellulose ethers, cellulose esters, nitrocelluloses, polymers of acrylic and methacrylic esters, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, hydroxybutyl methyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose propionate, cellulose acetate butyrate, cellulose acetate phthalate, carboxylethyl cellulose, cellulose triacetate, cellulose sulphate sodium salt, poly(methyl methacrylate), poly(ethyl methacrylate), poly(butylmethacrylate), poly(isobutyl methacrylate), poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecyl methacrylate), poly(lauryl methacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate), poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutyl acrylate), poly(octadecyl acrylate), polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(ethylene glycol), poly(ethylene oxide), poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly(vinyl alcohols), polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyhyaluronic acids, casein, gelatin, glutin, polyanhydrides, polyacrylic acid, alginate, chitosan, poly(methyl methacrylates), poly(ethyl methacrylates), poly(butylmethacrylate), poly(isobutyl methacrylate), poly(hexylmethacrylate), poly(isodecyl methacrylate), poly(lauryl methacrylate), poly(phenyl methacrylate), poly(methyl acrylate), poly(isopropyl acrylate), poly(isobutyl acrylate), and poly(octadecyl acrylate), poly(lactide-glycolide), copolyoxalates, polycaprolactones, polyesteramides, polyorthoesters, polyhydroxybutyric acid, polyanhydrides, poly(styrene-b-isobutylene-b-styrene) (SIBS) block copolymer, ethylene vinyl acetate, poly(meth)acrylic acid, polymers of lactic acid and glycolic acid, polyanhydrides, poly(ortho)esters, polyurethanes, poly(butic acid), poly(valeric acid), and poly(lactide-cocaprolactone), and natural polymers such as alginate and other polysaccharides including dextran and cellulose, collagen, albumin and other hydrophilic proteins, zein and other prolamines and hydrophobic proteins, copolymers and mixtures thereof, and chemical derivatives thereof including substitutions and/or additions of chemical groups, for example, alkyl, alkylene, hydroxylations, oxidations, and other modifications routinely made by those skilled in the art.
Another issue that relates to ISFET threshold voltage stability and/or predictability involves trapped charge that may accumulate (especially) on metal layers of CMOS-fabricated devices as a result of various processing activities during or following array fabrication (e.g., back-end-of-line processing such as plasma metal etching, wafer cleaning, dicing, packaging, handling, etc.). In particular, with reference to
One opportunity for trapped charge to accumulate includes plasma etching of the topmost metal layer 304. Applicants have recognized and appreciated that other opportunities for charge to accumulate on one or more conductors of the floating gate structure or other portions of the FETs includes wafer dicing, during which the abrasive process of a dicing saw cutting through a wafer generates static electricity, and/or various post-processing wafer handling/packaging steps, such as die-to-package wire bonding, where in some cases automated machinery that handles/transports wafers may be sources of electrostatic discharge (ESD) to conductors of the floating gate structure. If there is no connection to the silicon substrate (or other semi-conductor substrate) to provide an electrical path to bleed off such charge accumulation, charge may build up to the point of causing undesirable changes or damage to the gate oxide 165 (e.g., charge injection into the oxide, or low-level oxide breakdown to the underlying substrate). Trapped charge in the gate oxide or at the gate oxide-semiconductor interface in turn can cause undesirable and/or unpredictable variations in ISFET operation and performance, such as fluctuations in threshold voltage.
In view of the foregoing, other inventive embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to methods and apparatus for improving ISFET performance by reducing trapped charge or mitigating the antenna effect. In one embodiment, trapped charge may be reduced after a sensor array has been fabricated, while in other embodiments the fabrication process itself may be modified to reduce trapped charge that could be induced by some conventional process steps. In yet other embodiments, both “during fabrication” and “post fabrication” techniques may be employed in combination to reduce trapped charge and thereby improve ISFET performance.
With respect to alterations to the fabrication process itself to reduce trapped charge, in one embodiment the thickness of the gate oxide 165 shown in
In another embodiment, the topmost metal layer 304 of the ISFETs floating gate structure 170 shown in
In yet another embodiment, the metal etch process for the topmost metal layer 304 may be modified to include wet chemistry or ion-beam milling rather than plasma etching. For example, the metal layer 304 could be etched using an aqueous chemistry selective to the underlying dielectric (e.g., see website for Transene relating to aluminum, which is hereby incorporated herein by reference). Another alternative approach employs ion-milling rather than plasma etching for the metal layer 304. Ion-milling is commonly used to etch materials that cannot be readily removed using conventional plasma or wet chemistries. The ion-milling process does not employ an oscillating electric field as does a plasma, so that charge build-up does not occur in the metal layer(s). Yet another metal etch alternative involves optimizing the plasma conditions so as to reduce the etch rate (i.e. less power density).
In yet another embodiment, architecture changes may be made to the metal layer to facilitate complete electrical isolation during definition of the floating gate. In one aspect, designing the metal stack-up so that the large area ISFET floating gate is not connected to anything during its final definition may require a subsequent metal layer serving as a “jumper” to realize the electrical connection to the floating gate of the transistor. This “jumper” connection scheme prevents charge flow from the large floating gate to the transistor. This method may be implemented as follows (M=metal layer): i) M1 contacting Poly gate electrode; ii) M2 contacting M1; iii) M3 defines floating gate and separately connects to M2 with isolated island; iv) M4 jumper, having very small area being etched over the isolated islands and connections to floating gate M3, connects the M3 floating gate to the M1/M2/M3 stack connected to the Poly gate immediately over the transistor active area; and v) M3 to M4 interlayer dielectric is removed only over the floating gate so as to expose the bare M3 floating gate. In the method outlined immediately above, step v) need not be done, as the ISFET architecture according to some embodiments discussed above leaves the M4 passivation in place over the M4 floating gate. In one aspect, removal may nonetheless improve ISFET performance in other ways (i.e. sensitivity). In any case, the final sensitive passivation layer may be a thin sputter-deposited ion-sensitive metal-oxide layer. It should be appreciated that the over-layer jumpered architecture discussed above may be implemented in the standard CMOS fabrication flow to allow any of the first three metal layers to be used as the floating gates (i.e. M1, M2 or M3).
With respect to post-fabrication processes to reduce trapped charge, in one embodiment a “forming gas anneal” may be employed as a post-fabrication process to mitigate potentially adverse effects of trapped charge. In a forming gas anneal, CMOS-fabricated ISFET devices are heated in a hydrogen and nitrogen gas mixture. The hydrogen gas in the mixture diffuses into the gate oxide 165 and neutralizes certain forms of trapped charges. In one aspect, the forming gas anneal need not necessarily remove all gate oxide damage that may result from trapped charges; rather, in some cases, a partial neutralization of some trapped charge is sufficient to significantly improve ISFET performance. In exemplary annealing processes according to the present disclosure, ISFETs may be heated for approximately 30 to 60 minutes at approximately 400 to 425 degrees Celsius in a hydrogen/nitrogen mixture that includes 10% to 15% hydrogen. In one particular implementation, annealing at 425 degrees Celsius at 30 minutes in a hydrogen/nitrogen mixture that includes 10% hydrogen is observed to be particularly effective at improving ISFET performance. For aluminum CMOS processes, the temperature of the anneal should be kept at or below 450 degrees Celsius to avoid damaging the aluminum metallurgy. In another aspect of an annealing process according to the present disclosure, the forming gas anneal is performed after wafers of fabricated ISFET arrays are diced, so as to ensure that damage due to trapped charge induced by the dicing process itself, and/or other pre-dicing processing steps (e.g., plasma etching of metals) may be effectively ameliorated. In yet another aspect, the forming gas anneal may be performed after die-to-package wirebonding to similarly ameliorate damage due to trapped charge. At this point in the assembly process, a diced array chip is typically in a heat and chemical resistant ceramic package, and low-tolerance wirebonding procedures as well as heat-resistant die-to-package adhesives may be employed to withstand the annealing procedure. Thus, in one exemplary embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for manufacturing an array of FETs, each having or coupled to a floating gate having a trapped charge of zero or substantially zero comprising: fabricating a plurality of FETs in a common semiconductor substrate, each of a plurality of which is coupled to a floating gate; applying a forming gas anneal to the semiconductor prior to a dicing step; dicing the semiconductor; and applying a forming gas anneal to the semiconductor after the dicing step. Preferably, the semiconductor substrate comprises at least 100,000 FETs. Preferably, the plurality of FETs are chemFETs. The method may further comprise depositing a passivation layer on the semiconductor, depositing a polymeric, glass, ion-reactively etchable or photodefineable material layer on the passivation layer and etching the polymeric, glass ion-reactively etchable or photodefineable material to form an array of reaction chambers in the glass layer.
In yet other processes for mitigating potentially adverse effects of trapped charge according to embodiments of the present disclosure, a variety of “electrostatic discharge (ESD)-sensitive protocols” may be adopted during any of a variety of wafer post-fabrication handling/packaging steps. For example, in one exemplary process, anti-static dicing tape may be employed to hold wafer substrates in place (e.g., during the dicing process). Also, although high-resistivity (e.g., 10 MΩ) deionized water conventionally is employed in connection with cooling of dicing saws, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure less resistive/more conductive water may be employed for this purpose to facilitate charge conduction via the water; for example, deionized water may be treated with carbon dioxide to lower resistivity and improve conduction of charge arising from the dicing process. Furthermore, conductive and grounded die-ejection tools may be used during various wafer dicing/handling/packaging steps, again to provide effective conduction paths for charge generated during any of these steps, and thereby reduce opportunities for charge to accumulate on one or more conductors of the floating gate structure of respective ISFETs of an array.
In yet another embodiment involving a post-fabrication process to reduce trapped charge, the gate oxide region of an ISFET may be irradiated with UV radiation. With reference again to
To facilitate a UV irradiation process to reduce trapped charge, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that materials other than silicon nitride and silicon oxynitride generally need to be employed in the passivation layer 172 shown in
In another aspect of an embodiment involving UV irradiation, each ISFET of a sensor array must be appropriately biased during a UV irradiation process to facilitate reduction of trapped charge. In particular, high energy photons from the UV irradiation, impinging upon the bulk silicon region 160 in which the ISFET conducting channel is formed, create electron-hole pairs which facilitate neutralization of trapped charge in the gate oxide as current flows through the ISFETs conducting channel. To this end, an array controller, discussed further below in connection with
Utilizing at least one of the above-described techniques for reducing trapped charge, we have been able to fabricate FETs floating gates having a trapped charge of zero or substantially zero. Thus, in some embodiments, an aspect of the invention encompasses a floating gate having a surface area of about 4 μm2 to about 50 μm2 having baseline threshold voltage and preferably a trapped charge of zero or substantially zero. Preferably the FETs are chemFETs. The trapped charge should be kept to a level that does not cause appreciable variations from FET to FET across the array, as that would limit the dynamic range of the devices, consistency of measurements, and otherwise adversely affect performance.
Also, as discussed above, it should be appreciated that arrays according to various embodiments of the present invention may be fabricated according to conventional CMOS fabrications techniques, as well as modified CMOS fabrication techniques (e.g., to facilitate realization of various functional aspects of the chemFET arrays discussed herein, such as additional deposition of passivation materials, process steps to mitigate trapped charge, etc.) and other semiconductor fabrication techniques beyond those conventionally employed in CMOS fabrication. Additionally, various lithography techniques may be employed as part of an array fabrication process. For example, in one exemplary implementation, a lithography technique may be employed in which appropriately designed blocks are “stitched” together by overlapping the edges of a step and repeat lithography exposures on a wafer substrate by approximately 0.2 micrometers. In a single exposure, the maximum die size typically is approximately 21 millimeters by 21 millimeters. By selectively exposing different blocks (sides, top & bottoms, core, etc.) very large chips can be defined on a wafer (up to a maximum, in the extreme, of one chip per wafer, commonly referred to as “wafer scale integration”).
In one aspect of the array 100 shown in
In yet another implementation of an array similar to that shown in
In
Regarding the column select shift registers 1941 and 1942, these are implemented in a manner similar to that of the row select shift registers, with each column select shift register comprising 256 series-connected flip-flops and responsible for enabling readout from either the odd columns of the array or the even columns of the array. For example,
With reference again for the moment to
In the embodiment of
In one exemplary implementation, the switches of both the even and odd output drivers 1981 and 1982 (e.g., the switches 1912, 1914, . . . 191512 shown in
The ability of the bus 175 to settle quickly following enabling of successive switches in turn facilitates rapid data acquisition from the array. To this end, in some embodiments the switches 191 of the output drivers 1981 and 1982 are particularly configured to significantly reduce the settling time of the bus 175. Both the n-channel and the p-channel MOSFETs of a given switch add to the capacitance of the bus 175; however, n-channel MOSFETs generally have better frequency response and current drive capabilities than their p-channel counterparts. In view of the foregoing, Applicants have recognized and appreciated that some of the superior characteristics of n-channel MOSFETs may be exploited to improve settling time of the bus 175 by implementing “asymmetric” switches in which respective sizes for the n-channel MOSFET and p-channel MOSFET of a given switch are different.
For example, in one embodiment, with reference to
While the example above describes asymmetric switches 191 for the output drivers 1981 and 1982 in which the n-channel MOSFET is larger than the p-channel MOSFET, it should be appreciated that in another embodiment, the converse may be implemented, namely, asymmetric switches in which the p-channel MOSFET is larger than the n-channel MOSFET. In one aspect of this embodiment, with reference again to
In yet another embodiment directed to facilitating rapid settling of the bus 175 shown in
For purposes of illustration, the bus 175 may have a capacitance in the range of approximately 5 pF to 20 pF in any of the embodiments discussed immediately above (e.g. symmetric switches, asymmetric switches, greater numbers of output drivers, etc.). Of course, it should be appreciated that the capacitance of the bus 175 is not limited to these exemplary values, and that other capacitance values are possible in different implementations of an array according to the present disclosure.
In one aspect of the array design discussed above in connection with
Generally, the array controller 250 provides various supply voltages and bias voltages to the array 100, as well as various signals relating to row and column selection, sampling of pixel outputs and data acquisition. In particular, the array controller 250 reads one or more analog output signals (e.g., Vout1 and Vout2) including multiplexed respective pixel voltage signals from the array 100 and then digitizes these respective pixel signals to provide measurement data to the computer 260, which in turn may store and/or process the data. In some implementations, the array controller 250 also may be configured to perform or facilitate various array calibration and diagnostic functions, and an optional array UV irradiation treatment as discussed above in connection with
As illustrated in
In another aspect, the power supply 258 includes one or more digital-to-analog converters (DACs) that may be controlled by the computer 260 to allow any or all of the bias voltages, reference voltage, and supply voltages to be changed under software control (i.e., programmable bias settings). For example, a power supply 258 responsive to computer control (e.g., via software execution) may facilitate adjustment of one or more of the supply voltages (e.g., switching between 3.3 Volts and 1.8 Volts depending on chip type as represented by an identification code), and or adjustment of one or more of the bias voltages VB1 and VB2 for pixel drain current, VB3 for column bus drive, VB4 for column amplifier bandwidth, and VBO0 for column output buffer current drive. In some aspects, one or more bias voltages may be adjusted to optimize settling times of signals from enabled pixels. Additionally, the common body voltage VBODY for all ISFETs of the array may be grounded during an optional post-fabrication UV irradiation treatment to reduce trapped charge, and then coupled to a higher voltage (e.g., VDDA) during diagnostic analysis, calibration, and normal operation of the array for measurement/data acquisition. Likewise, the reference voltage VREF may be varied to facilitate a variety of diagnostic and calibration functions.
As also shown in
Regarding data acquisition from the array 100, in one embodiment the array controller 250 of
The array controller 250 of
In the embodiment of
In the example of
For example, with respect to the method for detecting nucleotide incorporation, discussed above, in which one or more ion pulses are generated in the output signal of a given ISFET pixel of the array during a nucleic acid synthesis or sequencing reaction in a reaction well above the ISFET, appropriate frame rates may be chosen to sufficiently sample the ISFET's output signal so as to effectively detect the presence of one or more pulses and the time interval between pulses. In some exemplary implementations, one or more ion pulses may be generated having a full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) on the order of approximately 1 second to approximately 2.5 seconds, and time intervals between successive pulse peaks (if multiple pulses are generated) on the order of approximately 1 to 20 seconds, depending on the number of nucleotide incorporation events. Given these exemplary values, a frame rate (or pixel sampling rate) of 20 Hz is sufficient to reliably resolve the one or more pulses in a given pixel's output signal. Again, the pulse characteristics and frame rate given in this example are provided primarily for purposes of illustration, and different pulse characteristics and frame rates may be involved in other implementations.
In one implementation, the array controller 250 controls the array 100 to enable rows successively, one at a time. For example, with reference again for the moment to
In
As discussed above in connection with
In one embodiment, once pixel values are sampled and digitized by the ADC(s) 254, the computer 260 may be programmed to process pixel data obtained from the array 100 and the array controller 250 so as to facilitate high data acquisition rates that in some cases may exceed a sufficient settling time for pixel voltages represented in a given array output signal. A flow chart illustrating an exemplary method according to one embodiment of the present invention that may be implemented by the computer 260 for processing and correction of array data acquired at high acquisition rates is illustrated in
Regarding pixel settling time, with reference again to
ΔVPIX(t)=A(1−e−t/k), (PP)
where A is the difference (VCOLj−VCOLj-1) between two pixel voltage values and k is a time constant associated with a capacitance of the bus 175.
For purposes of the present discussion, pixel “settling time” tsettle is defined as the time t at which ΔVPIX (t) attains a value that differs from it's final value by an amount that is equal to the peak noise level of the array output signal. If the peak noise level of the array output signal is denoted as np, then the voltage at the settling time tsettle is given by ΔVPIX(tsettle)=A[1−(np/A)]. Substituting in Eq. (PP) and solving for tsettle yields
As indicated above, in one embodiment pixel data may be acquired from the array at data rates that exceed those dictated by the pixel settling time.
Subsequently, in block 506 of
In block 510 of
In addition to controlling the sensor array and ADCs, the timing generator 256 may be configured to facilitate various array calibration and diagnostic functions, as well as an optional UV irradiation treatment. To this end, the timing generator may utilize the signal LSTV indicating the selection of the last row of the array and the signal LSTH to indicate the selection of the last column of the array. The timing generator 256 also may be responsible for generating the CAL signal which applies the reference voltage VREF to the column buffer amplifiers, and generating the UV signal which grounds the drains of all ISFETs in the array during a UV irradiation process (see
With respect to the computer interface 252 of the array controller 250, in one exemplary implementation the interface is configured to facilitate a data rate of approximately 200 MB/sec to the computer 260, and may include local storage of up to 400 MB or greater. The computer 260 is configured to accept data at a rate of 200 MB/sec, and process the data so as to reconstruct an image of the pixels (e.g., which may be displayed in false-color on a monitor). For example, the computer may be configured to execute a general-purpose program with routines written in C++ or Visual Basic to manipulate the data and display is as desired.
The systems described herein, when used for sequencing, typically involve a chemFET array supporting reaction chambers, the chemFETs being coupled to an interface capable of executing logic that converts the signals from the chemFETs into sequencing information.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferably computer executable logic) for polymer sequencing, comprising logic for determining ion pulses associated with an ionic interaction with a PPi or a dNTP or both. Typically, the logic converts characteristic(s) of the ion pulses into polymer sequencing information.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferably computer executable logic) comprising logic for determining a sequence of a nucleic acid template based on time between ion pulses or a characteristic of a single ion pulse. The logic may optionally further comprise logic for determining spatial location of the ion pulse on an array of chemFETs.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferably computer executable logic) comprising logic for determining a sequence of a nucleic acid template based on a duration of time it takes for a particular dNTP to be utilized in a sequencing reaction. Typically, the logic receives signal from one or more chemFETs. Preferably, the sequence is displayed in substantially real time.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses logic (preferably computer executable logic) for processing ion pulses from an array of chemFETs to determine the sequence of a polymer of interest. The logic may optionally further comprise logic for file management, file storage, and visualization. The logic may also optionally further comprise logic for converting the ion pulses into nucleotide sequences. Preferably, the sequence is displayed in substantially real time.
The sequencing information obtained from the system may be delivered to a handheld computing device, such as a personal digital assistant. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention encompasses logic for displaying a complete genome of an organism on a handheld computing device. The invention also encompasses logic adapted for sending data from a chemFET array to a handheld computing device. Any of such logic may be computer-implemented.
Having discussed several aspects of an exemplary ISFET array and an array controller according to the present disclosure,
In one aspect of the embodiment shown in
In particular,
For each of the first and second groups of rows, the array 100A of
In one exemplary implementation of the array 100A of
Like the array 100 of
As noted in
While the exemplary arrays discussed above in connection with
The array 100D of
The array 100E of
Thus, in various examples of ISFET arrays based on the inventive concepts disclosed herein, an array pitch of approximately nine (9) micrometers (e.g., a sensor surface area of less than ten micrometers by ten micrometers) allows an ISFET array including over 256,000 pixels (i.e., a 512 by 512 array), together with associated row and column select and bias/readout electronics, to be fabricated on a 7 millimeter by 7 millimeter semiconductor die, and a similar sensor array including over four million pixels (i.e., a 2048 by 2048 array, over 4 Mega-pixels) to be fabricated on a 21 millimeter by 21 millimeter die. In other examples, an array pitch of approximately 5 micrometers allows an ISFET array including approximately 1.55 Mega-pixels (i.e., a 1348 by 1152 array) and associated electronics to be fabricated on a 9 millimeter by 9 millimeter die, and an ISFET sensor array including over 14 Mega-pixels and associated electronics on a 22 millimeter by 20 millimeter die. In yet other implementations, using a CMOS fabrication process in which feature sizes of less than 0.35 micrometers are possible (e.g., 0.18 micrometer CMOS processing techniques), ISFET sensor arrays with a pixel size/pitch significantly below 5 micrometers may be fabricated (e.g., array pitch of 2.6 micrometers or pixel/sensor area of less than 8 or 9 micrometers2), providing for significantly dense ISFET arrays.
In the embodiments of ISFET arrays discussed above, array pixels employ a p-channel ISFET, as discussed above in connection with
For example,
One of the primary differences between the n-channel ISFET pixel design of
In addition to the pixel designs shown in
In
In
Turning from the sensor discussion, we will now be addressing the combining of the ISFET array with a microwell array and the attendant fluidics. As most of the drawings of the microwell array structure are presented only in cross-section or showing that array as only a block in a simplified diagram,
Fluidic System: Apparatus and Method for Use with High Density Electronic Sensor Arrays
For many uses, to complete a system for sensing chemical reactions or chemical agents using the above-explained high density electronic arrays, techniques and apparatus are required for delivery to the array elements (called “pixels”) fluids containing chemical or biochemical components for sensing. In this section, exemplary techniques and methods will be illustrated, which are useful for such purposes, with desirable characteristics.
As high speed operation of the system may be desired, it is preferred that the fluid delivery system, insofar as possible, not limit the speed of operation of the overall system.
Accordingly, needs exist not only for high-speed, high-density arrays of ISFETs or other elements sensitive to ion concentrations or other chemical attributes, or changes in chemical attributes, but also for related mechanisms and techniques for supplying to the array elements the samples to be evaluated, in sufficiently small reaction volumes as to substantially advance the speed and quality of detection of the variable to be sensed.
There are two and sometimes three components or subsystems, and related methods, involved in delivery of the subject chemical samples to the array elements: (1) macrofluidic system of reagent and wash fluid supplies and appropriate valving and ancillary apparatus, (2) a flow cell and (3) in many applications, a microwell array. Each of these subsystems will be discussed, though in reverse order.
Microwell Array
As discussed elsewhere, for many uses, such as in DNA sequencing, it is desirable to provide over the array of semiconductor sensors a corresponding array of microwells, each microwell being small enough preferably to receive only one DNA-loaded bead, in connection with which an underlying pixel in the array will provide a corresponding output signal.
The use of such a microwell array involves three stages of fabrication and preparation, each of which is discussed separately: (1) creating the array of microwells to result in a chip having a coat comprising a microwell array layer; (2) mounting of the coated chip to a fluidic interface; and in the case of DNA sequencing, (3) loading DNA-loaded bead or beads into the wells. It will be understood, of course, that in other applications, beads may be unnecessary or beads having different characteristics may be employed.
The systems described herein can include an array of microfluidic reaction chambers integrated with a semiconductor comprising an array of chemFETs. In some embodiments, the invention encompasses such an array. The reaction chambers may, for example, be formed in a glass, dielectric, photodefineable or etchable material. The glass material may be silicon dioxide.
Preferably, the array comprises at least 100,000 chambers. Preferably, each reaction chamber has a horizontal width and a vertical depth that has an aspect ratio of about 1:1 or less. Preferably, the pitch between the reaction chambers is no more than about 10 microns.
The above-described array can also be provided in a kit for sequencing. Thus, in some embodiments, the invention encompasses a kit comprising an array of microfluidic reaction chambers integrated with an array of chemFETs, and one or more amplification reagents.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing apparatus comprising a dielectric layer overlying a chemFET, the dielectric layer having a recess laterally centered atop the chemFET. Preferably, the dielectric layer is formed of silicon dioxide.
Microwell Array Fabrication
Microwell fabrication may be accomplished in a number of ways. The actual details of fabrication may require some experimentation and vary with the processing capabilities that are available.
In general, fabrication of a high density array of microwells involves photo-lithographically patterning the well array configuration on a layer or layers of material such as photoresist (organic or inorganic), a dielectric, using an etching process. The patterning may be done with the material on the sensor array or it may be done separately and then transferred onto the sensor array chip, of some combination of the two. However, techniques other than photolithography are not to be excluded if they provide acceptable results.
One example of a method for forming a microwell array is now discussed, starting with reference to
After the semiconductor structures, as shown, are formed, the microwell structure is applied to the die. That is, the microwell structure can be formed right on the die or it may be formed separately and then mounted onto the die, either approach being acceptable. To form the microwell structure on the die, various processes may be used. For example, the entire die may be spin-coated with, for example, a negative photoresist such as Microchem's SU-8 2015 or a positive resist/polyimide such as HD Microsystems HD8820, to the desired height of the microwells. The desired height of the wells (e.g., about 4-12 μm in the example of one pixel per well, though not so limited as a general matter) in the photoresist layer(s) can be achieved by spinning the appropriate resist at predetermined rates (which can be found by reference to the literature and manufacturer specifications, or empirically), in one or more layers. (Well height typically may be selected in correspondence with the lateral dimension of the sensor pixel, preferably for a nominal 1:1-1.5:1 aspect ratio, height:width or diameter. Based on signal-to-noise considerations, there is a relationship between dimensions and the required data sampling rates to achieve a desired level of performance. Thus there are a number of factors that will go into selecting optimum parameters for a given application.) Alternatively, multiple layers of different photoresists may be applied or another form of dielectric material may be deposited. Various types of chemical vapor deposition may also be used to build up a layer of materials suitable for microwell formation therein.
Once the photoresist layer (the singular form “layer” is used to encompass multiple layers in the aggregate, as well) is in place, the individual wells (typically mapped to have either one or four ISFET sensors per well) may be generated by placing a mask (e.g., of chromium) over the resist-coated die and exposing the resist to cross-linking (typically UV) radiation. All resist exposed to the radiation (i.e., where the mask does not block the radiation) becomes cross-linked and as a result will form a permanent plastic layer bonded to the surface of the chip (die). Unreacted resist (i.e., resist in areas which are not exposed, due to the mask blocking the light from reaching the resist and preventing cross-linking) is removed by washing the chip in a suitable solvent (i.e., developer) such as propyleneglycolmethylethylacetate (PGMEA) or other appropriate solvent. The resultant structure defines the walls of the microwell array.
After exposure of the die/resist to the UV radiation, a second layer of resist may be coated on the surface of the chip. This layer of resist may be relatively thick, such as about 400-450 μm thick, typically. A second mask 3210 (
Other photolithographic approaches may be used for formation of the microwell array, of course, the foregoing being only one example.
For example, contact lithography of various resolutions and with various etchants and developers may be employed. Both organic and inorganic materials may be used for the layer(s) in which the microwells are formed. The layer(s) may be etched on a chip having a dielectric layer over the pixel structures in the sensor array, such as a passivation layer, or the layer(s) may be formed separately and then applied over the sensor array. The specific choice or processes will depend on factors such as array size, well size, the fabrication facility that is available, acceptable costs, and the like.
Among the various organic materials which may be used in some embodiments to form the microwell layer(s) are the above-mentioned SU-8 type of negative-acting photoresist, a conventional positive-acting photoresist and a positive-acting photodefineable polyimide. Each has its virtues and its drawbacks, well known to those familiar with the photolithographic art.
Naturally, in a production environment, modifications will be appropriate.
Contact lithography has its limitations and it may not be the production method of choice to produce the highest densities of wells—i.e., it may impose a higher than desired minimum pitch limit in the lateral directions. Other techniques, such as a deep UV step-and-repeat process, are capable of providing higher resolution lithography and can be used to produce small pitches and possibly smaller well diameters. Of course, for different desired specifications (e.g., numbers of sensors and wells per chip), different techniques may prove optimal. And pragmatic factors, such as the fabrication processes available to a manufacturer, may motivate the use of a specific fabrication method. While novel methods are discussed, various aspects of the invention are limited to use of these novel methods.
Preferably the CMOS wafer with the ISFET array will be planarized after the final metallization process. A chemical mechanical dielectric planarization prior to the silicon nitride passivation is suitable. This will allow subsequent lithographic steps to be done on very flat surfaces which are free of back-end CMOS topography.
By utilizing deep-UV step-and-repeat lithography systems, it is possible to resolve small features with superior resolution, registration, and repeatability. However, the high resolution and large numerical aperture (NA) of these systems precludes their having a large depth of focus. As such, it may be necessary, when using such a fabrication system, to use thinner photodefinable spin-on layers (i.e., resists on the order of 1-2 μm rather than the thicker layers used in contact lithography) to pattern transfer and then etch microwell features to underlying layer or layers. High resolution lithography can then be used to pattern the microwell features and conventional SiO2 etch chemistries can be used—one each for the bondpad areas and then the microwell areas—having selective etch stops; the etch stops then can be on aluminum bondpads and silicon nitride passivation (or the like), respectively. Alternatively, other suitable substitute pattern transfer and etch processes can be employed to render microwells of inorganic materials.
Another approach is to form the microwell structure in an organic material. For example, a dual-resist “soft-mask” process may be employed, whereby a thin high-resolution deep-UV resist is used on top of a thicker organic material (e.g., cured polyimide or opposite-acting resist). The top resist layer is patterned. The pattern can be transferred using an oxygen plasma reactive ion etch process. This process sequence is sometimes referred to as the “portable conformable mask” (PCM) technique. See B. J. Lin et al., “Practicing the Novolac deep-UV portable conformable masking technique”, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology 19, No. 4, 1313-1319 (1981); and A. Cooper et al, “Optimization of a photosensitive spin-on dielectric process for copper inductor coil and interconnect protection in RF SoC devices.”
Alternatively a “drill-focusing” technique may be employed, whereby several sequential step-and-repeat exposures are done at different focal depths to compensate for the limited depth of focus (DOF) of high-resolution steppers when patterning thick resist layers. This technique depends on the stepper NA and DOF as well as the contrast properties of the resist material.
Another PCM technique may be adapted to these purposes, such as that shown in U.S. patent application publication no. 2006/0073422 by Edwards et al. This is a three-layer PCM process and it is illustrated in
In a first step, 3320, a layer of high contrast negative-acting photoresist such as type Shipley InterVia Photodielectric Material 8021 (IV8021) 3322 is spun on the surface of a wafer, which we shall assume to be the wafer providing the substrate 3312 of
Although as shown above, the wells bottom out (i.e. terminate) on the top passivation layer of the ISFETs, it is believed that an improvement in ISFET sensor performance (i.e. such as signal-to-noise ratio) can be obtained if the active bead(s) is(are) kept slightly elevated from the ISFET passivation layer. One way to do so is to place a spacer “bump” within the boundary of the pixel microwell. An example of how this could be rendered would be not etching away a portion of the layer-or -layers used to form the microwell structure (i.e. two lithographic steps to form the microwells—one to etch part way done, the other to pattern the bump and finish the etch to bottom out), by depositing and lithographically defining and etching a separate layer to form the “bump”, by using a permanent photo-definable material for the bump once the microwells are complete, or by forming the bump prior to forming the microwell. The bump feature is shown as 3350 in
Using a 6 um (micron) thick layer of tetra-methyl-ortho-silicate (TEOS) as a SiO2-like layer for microwell formation,
In the orthogonal cross-sectional view (i.e., looking down from the top), the wells may be formed in either round or square shape. Round wells may improve bead capture and may obviate the need for packing beads at the bottom or top of the wells.
The tapered slopes to the sides of the microwells also may be used to advantage. Referring to
Thus, microwells can be fabricated by any high aspect ratio photo-definable or etchable thin-film process, that can provide requisite thickness (e.g., about 4-10 um). Among the materials believed to be suitable are photosensitive polymers, deposited silicon dioxide, non-photosensitive polymer which can be etched using, for example, plasma etching processes, etc. In the silicon dioxide family, TEOS and silane nitrous oxide (SILOX) appear suitable. The final structures are similar but the various materials present differing surface compositions that may cause the target biology or chemistry to react differently.
When the microwell layer is formed, it may be necessary to provide an etch stop layer so that the etching process does not proceed further than desired. For example, there may be an underlying layer to be preserved, such as a low-K dielectric. The etch stop material should be selected according to the application. SiC and SiN materials may be suitable, but that is not meant to indicate that other materials may not be employed, instead. These etch-stop materials can also serve to enhance the surface chemistry which drives the ISFET sensor sensitivity, by choosing the etch-stop material to have an appropriate point of zero charge (PZC). Various metal oxides may be suitable addition to silicon dioxide and silicon nitride.
The PZCs for various metal oxides may be found in various texts, such as “Metal Oxides—Chemistry and Applications” by J. Fierro. We have learned that Ta2O5 may be preferred as an etch stop over Al2O3 because the PZC of Al2O3 is right at the pH being used (i.e., about 8.8) and, hence, right at the point of zero charge. In addition Ta2O5 has a higher sensitivity to pH (i.e., mV/pH), another important factor in the sensor performance. Optimizing these parameters may require judicious selection of passivation surface materials.
Using thin metal oxide materials for this purpose (i.e., as an etch stop layer) is difficult due to the fact of their being so thinly deposited (typically 200-500 A). A post-microwell fabrication metal oxide deposition technique may allow placement of appropriate PZC metal oxide films at the bottom of the high aspect ratio microwells.
Electron-beam depositions of (a) reactively sputtered tantalum oxide, (b) non-reactive stoichiometric tantalum oxide, (c) tungsten oxide, or (d) Vanadium oxide may prove to have superior “down-in-well” coverage due to the superior directionality of the deposition process.
The array may typically comprise 100 microfluidic wells (i.e., it has a minimum of 100 microfluidic wells although it may have more), each of which is coupled to one or more chemFET sensors. Preferably, the wells are formed in at least one of a glass (e.g., SiO2), a polymeric material, a photodefinable material or a reactively ion etchable thin film material. Preferably, the wells have a width to height ratio less than about 1:1. Preferably the sensor is a field effect transistor, and more preferably a chemFET. The chemFET may optionally be coupled to a PPi receptor. Preferably, each of the chemFETs occupies an area of the array that is 102 microns or less.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing device comprising a semiconductor wafer device coupled to a dielectric layer such as a glass (e.g., SiO2), polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ion etchable material in which reaction chambers are formed. Typically, the glass, dielectric, polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ion etchable material is integrated with the semiconductor wafer layer. In some instances, the glass, polymeric, photodefinable or reactive ion etchable layer is non-crystalline. In some instances, the glass may be SiO2. The device can optionally further comprise a fluid delivery module of a suitable material such as a polymeric material, preferably an injection moldable material. More preferably, the polymeric layer is polycarbonate.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method for manufacturing a sequencing device comprising: using photolithography, generating wells in a glass, dielectric, photodefinable or reactively ion etchable material on top of an array of transistors.
Mounting the Flow Cell (Fluidic Interface) to the Sensor Chip
The process of using the assembly of an array of sensors on a chip combined with an array of microwells to sequence the DNA in a sample is referred to as an “experiment.” Executing an experiment requires loading the wells with the DNA-bound beads and the flowing of several different fluid solutions (i.e., reagents and washes) across the wells. A fluid delivery system (e.g., valves, conduits, pressure source(s), etc.) coupled with a fluidic interface is needed which flows the various solutions across the wells in a controlled even flow with acceptably small dead volumes and small cross contamination between sequential solutions. Ideally, the fluidic interface to the chip (sometimes referred to as a “flow cell”) would cause the fluid to reach all microwells at the same time. To maximize array speed, it is necessary that the array outputs be available at as close to the same time as possible. The ideal clearly is not possible, but it is desirable to minimize the differentials, or skews, of the arrival times of an introduced fluid, at the various wells, in order to maximize the overall speed of acquisition of all the signals from the array.
Flow cell designs of many configurations are possible; thus the system and methods presented herein are not dependent on use of a specific flow cell configuration. It is desirable, though, that a suitable flow cell substantially conform to the following set of objectives:
-
- have connections suitable for interconnecting with a fluidics delivery system—e.g., via appropriately-sized tubing;
- have appropriate head space above wells;
- minimize dead volumes encountered by fluids;
- minimize small spaces in contact with liquid but not quickly swept clean by flow of a wash fluid through the flow cell (to minimize cross contamination);
- be configured to achieve uniform transit time of the flow over the array;
- generate or propagate minimal bubbles in the flow over the wells;
- be adaptable to placement of a removable reference electrode inside or as close to the flow chamber as possible;
- facilitate easy loading of beads;
- be manufacturable at acceptable cost; and
- be easily assembled and attached to the chip package.
- Satisfaction of these criteria so far as possible will contribute to system performance positively. For example, minimization of bubbles is important so that signals from the array truly indicate the reaction in a well rather than being spurious noise.
Each of several example designs will be discussed, meeting these criteria in differing ways and degrees. In each instance, one typically may choose to implement the design in one of two ways: either by attaching the flow cell to a frame and gluing the frame (or otherwise attaching it) to the chip or by integrating the frame into the flow cell structure and attaching this unified assembly to the chip. Further, designs may be categorized by the way the reference electrode is integrated into the arrangement. Depending on the design, the reference electrode may be integrated into the flow cell (e.g., form part of the ceiling of the flow chamber) or be in the flow path (typically to the outlet or downstream side of the flow path, after the sensor array).
A first example of a suitable experiment apparatus 3410 incorporating such a fluidic interface is shown in
The apparatus comprises a semiconductor chip 3412 (indicated generally, though hidden) on or in which the arrays of wells and sensors are formed, and a fluidics assembly 3414 on top of the chip and delivering the sample to the chip for reading. The fluidics assembly includes a portion 3416 for introducing fluid containing the sample, a portion 3418 for allowing the fluid to be piped out, and a flow chamber portion 3420 for allowing the fluid to flow from inlet to outlet and along the way interact with the material in the wells. Those three portions are unified by an interface comprising a glass slide 3422 (e.g., Erie Microarray Cat #C22-5128-M20 from Erie Scientific Company, Portsmouth, N.H., cut in thirds, each to be of size about 25 mm×25 mm).
Mounted on the top face of the glass slide are two fittings, 3424 and 3426, such as nanoport fittings Part # N-333 from Upchurch Scientific of Oak Harbor, Wash. One port (e.g., 3424) serves as an inlet delivering liquids from the pumping/valving system described below but not shown here. The second port (e.g., 3426) is the outlet which pipes the liquids to waste. Each port connects to a conduit 3428, 3432 such as flexible tubing of appropriate inner diameter. The nanoports are mounted such that the tubing can penetrate corresponding holes in the glass slide. The tube apertures should be flush with the bottom surface of the slide.
On the bottom of the glass slide, flow chamber 3420 may comprise various structures for promoting a substantially laminar flow across the microwell array. For example, a series of microfluidic channels fanning out from the inlet pipe to the edge of the flow chamber may be patterned by contact lithography using positive photoresists such as SU-8 photoresist from MicroChem. Corp. of Newton, Mass. Other structures will be discussed below.
The chip 3412 will in turn be mounted to a carrier 3430, for packaging and connection to connector pins 3432.
For ease of description, to discuss fabrication starting with
A layer of photoresist 3810 is applied to the “top” of the slide (which will become the “bottom” side when the slide and its additional layers is turned over and mounted to the sensor assembly of ISFET array with microwell array on it). Layer 3810 may be about 150 μm thick in this example, and it will form the primary fluid carrying layer from the end of the tubing in the nanoports to the edge of the sensor array chip. Layer 3810 is patterned using a mask such as the mask 3910 of
A second layer of photoresist is formed quite separately, not on the resist 3810 or slide 3422. Preferably it is formed on a flat, flexible surface (not shown), to create a peel-off, patterned plastic layer. As shown in
The other alignment mark or set of marks produced by pattern 4022 is used for alignment with a subsequent layer to be discussed.
The second layer is preferably about 150 μm deep and it will cover the fluid-carrying channel with the exception of a slit about 150 μm long at each respective edge of the sensor array chip, under slit-forming regions 4014 and 4016.
Once the second layer of photoresist is disposed on the first layer, a third patterned layer of photoresist is formed over the second layer, using a mask such as mask 4110, shown in
The fluidics assembly may be secured to the sensor array chip assembly by applying an adhesive to parts of mating surfaces of those two assemblies, and pressing them together, in alignment.
Though not illustrated in
Another way to introduce the reference electrode is shown in
Achieving a uniform flow front and eliminating problematic flow path areas is desirable for a number of reasons. One reason is that very fast transition of fluid interfaces within the system's flow cell is desired for many applications, particularly gene sequencing. In other words, an incoming fluid must completely displace the previous fluid in a short period of time. Uneven fluid velocities and diffusion within the flow cell, as well as problematic flow paths, can compete with this requirement. Simple flow through a conduit of rectangular cross section can exhibit considerable disparity of fluid velocity from regions near the center of the flow volume to those adjacent the sidewalls, one sidewall being the top surface of the microwell layer and the fluid in the wells. Such disparity leads to spatially and temporally large concentration gradients between the two traveling fluids. Further, bubbles are likely to be trapped or created in stagnant areas like sharp corners interior the flow cell. (The surface energy (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) can significantly affect bubble retention. Avoidance of surface contamination during processing and use of a surface treatment to create a more hydrophilic surface should be considered if the as-molded surface is too hydrophobic.) Of course, the physical arrangement of the flow chamber is probably the factor which most influences the degree of uniformity achievable for the flow front.
One approach is to configure the flow cross section of the flow chamber to achieve flow rates that vary across the array width so that the transit times are uniform across the array. For example, the cross section of the diffuser (i.e., flow expansion chamber) section 3416, 3610 may be made as shown at 4204A in
Another configuration, shown in FIGS. 42F and 42F1, involves the use of solid, beam-like projections or baffles 4220F as disruptors. This concept may be used to form a ceiling member for the flow chamber. Such an arrangement encourages more even fluid flow and significantly reduces fluid displacement times as compared with a simple rectangular cross-section without disruptor structure. Further, instead of fluid entry to the array occurring along one edge, fluid may be introduced at one corner 4242F, through a small port, and may exit from the opposite corner, 4244F, via a port in fluid communication with that corner area. The series of parallel baffles 4220F separates the flow volume between input and outlet corners into a series of channels. The lowest fluid resistant path is along the edge of the chip, perpendicular to the baffles. As incoming liquid fills this channel, the fluid is then directed between the baffles to the opposite side of the chip. The channel depth between each baffle pair preferably is graded across the chip, such that the flow is encouraged to travel toward the exit port through the farthest channel, thereby evening the flow front between the baffles. The baffles extend downwardly nearly to the chip (i.e., microwell layer) surface, but because they are quite thin, fluid can diffuse under them quickly and expose the associated area of the array assembly.
FIGS. 42F2-42F8 illustrate an example of a single-piece, injection-molded (preferably of polycarbonate) flow cell member 42F200 which may be used to provide baffles 4220F, a ceiling to the flow chamber, fluid inlet and outlet ports and even the reference electrode. FIG. 42F7 shows an enlarged view of the baffles on the bottom of member 42F200 and the baffles are shown as part of the underside of member 42F200 in FIG. 42F6. As it is difficult to form rectangular features in small dimensions by injection molding, the particular instance of these baffles, shown as 4220F′, are triangular in cross section.
In FIG. 42F2, there is a top, isometric view of member 42F200 mounted onto a sensor array package 42F300, with a seal 42F202 formed between them and contact pins 42F204 depending from the sensor array chip package. FIGS. 42F3 and 42F4 show sections, respectively, through section lines H-H and I-I of FIG. 42F5, permitting one to see in relationship the sensor array chip 42F250, the baffles 4220F′ and fluid flow paths via inlet 42F260 and outlet 42F270 ports.
By applying a metallization to bottom 42F280 of member 42F200, the reference electrode may be formed.
Various other locations and approaches may be used for introducing fluid flow into the flow chamber, as well. In addition to embodiments in which fluid may be introduced across the width of an edge of the chip assembly 42F1, as in
A variation on this idea is depicted in
In all cases, attention should be given to assuring a thorough washing of the entire flow chamber, along with the microwells, between reagent cycles. Flow disturbances may exacerbate the challenge of fully cleaning out the flow chamber.
Flow disturbances may also induce or multiply bubbles in the fluid. A bubble may prevent the fluid from reaching a microwell, or delay its introduction to the microwell, introducing error into the microwell reading or making the output from that microwell useless in the processing of outputs from the array. Thus, care should be taken in selecting configurations and dimensions for the flow disruptor elements to manage these potential adverse factors. For example, a tradeoff may be made between the heights of the disruptor elements and the velocity profile change that is desired.
In the illustrated embodiment, the reference electrode is introduced to the top of the flow chamber via a bore 4325 in the member 4320. The placement of the removable reference electrode is facilitated by a silicone sleeve 4360 and an epoxy stop ring 4370 (see the blow-up of
Yet another alternative for a fluidics assembly, as shown in
Some of the foregoing alternative embodiments also may be implemented in a hybrid plastic/PDMS configuration. For example, as shown in
The fluidic structure may also be made from glass as discussed above, such as photo-definable (PD) glass. Such a glass may have an enhanced etch rate in hydrofluoric acid once selectively exposed to UV light and features may thereby be micromachined on the top-side and back-side, which when glued together can form a three-dimensional low aspect ratio fluidic cell.
An example is shown in
Nanoports may be secured over the nanoport fluidic holes to facilitate connection of input and output tubing.
A central bore 5550 may be etched through the glass layers for receiving a reference electrode, 5560. The electrode may be secured and sealed in place with a silicone collar 5570 or like structure; or the electrode may be equipped integrally with a suitable washer for effecting the same purpose.
By using glass materials for the two-layer fluidic cell, the reference electrode may also be a conductive layer or pattern deposited on the bottom surface of the second glass layer (not shown). Or, as shown in
Another alternative is to integrate the reference electrode to the sequencing chip/flow cell by using a metalized surface on the ceiling of the flow chamber—i.e., on the underside of the member forming the ceiling of the fluidic cell. An electrical connection to the metalized surface may be made in any of a variety of ways, including, but not limited to, by means of applying a conductive epoxy to the ceramic package seal ring that, in turn, may be electrically connected through a via in the ceramic substrate to a spare pin at the bottom of the chip package. Doing this would allow system-level control of the reference potential in the fluid cell by means of inputs through the chip socket mount to the chip's control electronics.
By contrast, an externally inserted electrode requires extra fluid tubing to the inlet port, which requires additional fluid flow between cycles.
Ceramic pin grid array (PGA) packaging may be used for the ISFET array, allowing customized electrical connections between various surfaces on the front face with pins on the back.
The flow cell can be thought of as a “lid” to the ISFET chip and its PGA. The flow cell, as stated elsewhere, may be fabricated of many different materials. Injection molded polycarbonate appears to be quite suitable. A conductive metal (e.g., gold) may be deposited using an adhesion layer (e.g., chrome) to the underside of the glow cell roof (the ceiling of the flow chamber). Appropriate low-temperature thin-film deposition techniques preferably are employed in the deposition of the metal reference electrode due to the materials (e.g., polycarbonate) and large step coverage topography at the bottom-side of the fluidic cell (i.e., the frame surround of ISFET array). One possible approach would be to use electron-beam evaporation in a planetary system.
The active electrode area is confined to the central flow chamber inside the frame surround of the ISFET array, as that is the only metalized surface that would be in contact with the ionic fluid during sequencing.
Once assembly is complete—conductive epoxy (e.g., Epo-Tek H20E or similar) may be dispensed on the seal ring with the flow cell aligned, placed, pressed and cured—the ISFET flow cell is ready for operation with the reference potential being applied to the assigned pin of the package.
The resulting fluidic system connections to the ISFET device thus incorporate shortened input and output fluidic lines, which is desirable.
Still another example embodiment for a fluidic assembly is shown in
Still further examples of flow cell structures are shown in
Whether glass or plastic or other material is used to form the flow cell, it may be desirable, especially with larger arrays, to include in the inlet chamber of the flow cell, between the inlet conduit and the front edge of the array, not just a gradually expanding (fanning out) space, but also some structure to facilitate the flow across the array being suitably laminar. Using the bottom layer 5990 of an injection molded flow cell as an example, one example type of structure for this purpose, shown in
The above-described systems for sequencing typically utilize a laminar fluid flow system to sequence a biological polymer. In part, the fluid flow system preferably includes a flow chamber formed by the sensor chip and a single piece, injection molded member comprising inlet and outlet ports and mountable over the chip to establish the flow chamber. The surface of such member interior to the chamber is preferably formed to facilitate a desired expedient fluid flow, as described herein.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses an apparatus for detection of ion pulses comprising a laminar fluid flow system. Preferably, the apparatus is used for sequencing a plurality of nucleic acid templates, wherein the nucleic acid templates are optionally deposited on an array.
The apparatus typically includes a fluidics assembly comprising a member comprising one or more apertures for non-mechanically directing a fluid to flow to an array of at least 100K, 500K, or 1M microfluidic reaction chambers such that the fluid reaches all of the microfluidic reaction chambers at the same time or substantially the same time. Typically, the fluid flow is parallel to the sensor surface. Typically, the assembly has a Reynolds number of less than 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, or 10. Preferably, the member further comprises a first aperture for directing fluid towards the sensor array and a second aperture for directing fluid away from the sensor array.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method for directing a fluid to a sensor array comprising: providing a fluidics assembly comprising an aperture fluidly coupling a fluid source to the sensor array; and non-mechanically directing a fluid to the sensor array. By “non-mechanically” it is meant that the fluid is moved under pressure from a gaseous pressure source, as opposed to a mechanical pump.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses an array of wells, each of which is coupled to a lid having an inlet port and an outlet port and a fluid delivery system for delivering and removing fluid from said inlet and outlet ports non-mechanically.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a method for sequencing a biological polymer utilizing the above-described apparatus, comprising: directing a fluid comprising a monomer to an array of reaction chambers wherein the fluid has a fluid flow Reynolds number of at most 2000, 1000, 200, 100, 50, or 20. The method may optionally further comprise detecting an ion pulse from each said reaction chamber. The ion pulse is typically detected by ion diffusion to the sensor surface. There are various other ways of providing a fluidics assembly for delivering an appropriate fluid flow across the microwell and sensor array assembly, and the forgoing examples are thus not intended to be exhaustive.
Reference Electrode
Commercial flow-type fluidic electrodes, such as silver chloride proton-permeable electrodes, may be inserted in series in a fluidic line and are generally designed to provide a stable electrical potential along the fluidic line for various electrochemical purposes. In the above-discussed system, however, such a potential must be maintained at the fluidic volume in contact with the microwell ISFET chip. With conventional silver chloride electrodes, it has been found difficult, due to an electrically long fluidic path between the chip surface and the electrode (through small channels in the flow cell), to achieve a stable potential. This led to reception of noise in the chip's electronics. Additionally, the large volume within the flow cavity of the electrode tended to trap and accumulate gas bubbles that degraded the electrical connection to the fluid. With reference to
Fluidics System
A complete system for using the sensor array will include suitable fluid sources, valving and a controller for operating the valving to low reagents and washes over the microarray or sensor array, depending on the application. These elements are readily assembled from off-the-shelf components, with and the controller may readily be programmed to perform a desired experiment.
It should be understood that the readout at the chemFET may be current or voltage (and change thereof) and that any particular reference to either readout is intended for simplicity and not to the exclusion of the other readout. Therefore any reference in the following text to either current or voltage detection at the chemFET should be understood to contemplate and apply equally to the other readout as well. In important embodiments, the readout reflects a rapid, transient change in concentration of an analyte. The concentration of more than one analyte may be detected at different times. Such measurements are to be contrasted with prior art methods which focused on steady state concentration measurements.
Applications Generally
As already discussed, the apparatus and systems of the invention can be used to detect and/or monitor interactions between various entities. These interactions include biological and chemical reactions and may involve enzymatic reactions and/or non-enzymatic interactions such as but not limited to binding events. As an example, the invention contemplates monitoring enzymatic reactions in which substrates and/or reagents are consumed and/or reaction intermediates, byproducts and/or products are generated. An example of a reaction that can be monitored according to the invention is a nucleic acid synthesis method such as one that provides information regarding nucleic acid sequence. This reaction will be discussed in greater detail herein.
Sequencing Applications
In the context of a sequencing reaction, the apparatus and system provided herein is able to detect nucleotide incorporation based on changes in the chemFET current and/or voltage, as those latter parameters are interrelated. Current changes may be the result of one or more of the following events either singly or some combination thereof: generation of PPi, generation of Pi (e.g., in the presence of pyrophosphatase), generation of hydrogen (and concomitant changes in pH for example in the presence of low strength buffer), reduced concentration of unincorporated dNTP at the chemFET surface, delayed arrival of unincorporated dNTP at the chemFET surface, and the like. The methods described herein are able to detect changes in analyte concentration at the chemFET surface, and such changes may result from one or more of the afore-mentioned events. The invention contemplates the use of a chemFET such as an ISFET in the sequencing methods described herein, even if the readout is independent of (or insensitive to) pH. In other words, the invention contemplates the use of an ISFET for the detection of analytes such as PPi and unincorporated nucleotides. The methods provided herein in regards to sequencing can be contrasted to those in the literature including Pourmand et al. PNAS 2006 103(17):6466-6470. As discussed herein, the invention contemplates methods for determining the nucleotide sequence (i.e., the “sequence”) of a nucleic acid. Such methods involve the synthesis of a new nucleic acid (primed by a pre-existing nucleic acid, as will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill), based on the sequence of a template nucleic acid. That is, the sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid is complimentary to the sequence of the template nucleic acid and therefore knowledge of sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid yields information about the sequence of the template nucleic acid. Knowledge of the sequence of the newly synthesized nucleic acid is derived by determining whether a known nucleotide has been incorporated into the newly synthesized nucleic acid and, if so, how many of such known nucleotides have been incorporated. Nucleotide incorporation can be monitored in a number of ways, including the production of products such as PPi, Pi and/or H+.
The nucleic acid being sequenced is referred to herein as the target nucleic acid. Target nucleic acids include but are not limited to DNA such as but not limited to genomic DNA, mitochondrial DNA, cDNA and the like, and RNA such as but not limited to mRNA, miRNA, and the like. The nucleic acid may be from any source including naturally occurring sources or synthetic sources. The nucleic acids may be PCR products, cosmids, plasmids, naturally occurring or synthetic libraries, and the like. The invention is not intended to be limited in this regard. The methods provided herein can be used to sequence nucleic acids of any length.
Target nucleic acids are prepared using any manner known in the art. As an example, genomic DNA may be harvested from a sample according to techniques known in the art (see for example Sambrook et al. “Maniatis”). Following harvest, the DNA may be fragmented to yield nucleic acids of smaller length. The resulting fragments may be on the order of hundreds, thousands, or tens of thousands nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the fragments are 200-1000 base pairs in size, or 300-800 base pairs in size, about 200, about 300, about 400, about 500, about 600, about 700, about 800, about 900, or about 1000 base pairs in length, although they are not so limited. Nucleic acids may be fragmented by any means including but not limited to mechanical, enzymatic or chemical means. Examples include shearing, sonication, nebulization, endonuclease (e.g., DNase I) digestion, amplification such as PCR amplification, or any other technique known in the art to produce nucleic acid fragments, preferably of a desired length. As used herein, fragmentation also embraces the use of amplification to generate a population of smaller sized fragments of the target nucleic acid. That is, the target nucleic acids may be melted and then annealed to two (and preferably more) amplification primers and then amplified using for example a thermostable polymerase (such as Taq). An example is a massively parallel PCR-based amplification. Fragmentation can be followed by size selection techniques to enrich or isolate fragments of a particular length or size. Such techniques are also known in the art and include but are not limited to gel electrophoresis or SPRI.
Alternatively, target nucleic acids that are already of sufficient small size (or length) may be used. Such target nucleic acids include those derived from an exon enrichment process. Thus, rather than fragmenting (randomly or non-randomly) longer target nucleic acids, the targets may be nucleic acids that naturally exist or can be isolated in shorter, useable lengths such as mRNAs, cDNAs, exons, PCR products (as described above), and the like. See Albert et al. Nature Methods 2007 4(11):903-905 (microarray hybridization of exons and locus-specific regions), Porreca et al. Nature Methods 2007 4(11):931-936, and Okou et al. Nature Methods 2007 4(11):907-909 for methods of isolating and/or enriching sequences such as exons prior to sequencing.
In some embodiments, the size selected target nucleic acids are ligated to adaptor sequences on both the 5′ and 3′ ends. These adaptor sequences comprise sequences complementary to amplification primer sequences, to be used in amplifying the target nucleic acids. One adaptor sequence may also comprise a sequence complementary to the sequencing primer. The opposite adaptor sequence may comprise a moiety that facilitates binding of the nucleic acid to a solid support such as but not limited to a bead. An example of such a moiety is a biotin molecule (or a double biotin moiety, as described by Diehl et al. Nature Methods, 2006, 3(7):551-559) and such a labeled nucleic acid can therefore be bound to a solid support having avidin or streptavidin groups. Another moiety that can be used is the NHS-ester and amine affinity pair. It is to be understood that the invention is not limited in this regard and one of ordinary skill is able to substitute these affinity pairs with other binding pairs. The resulting nucleic acid is referred to herein as a template nucleic acid. The template nucleic acid comprises at least the target nucleic acid and usually comprises nucleotide sequences in addition to the target at both the 5′ and 3′ ends.
The solid support to which the template nucleic acids are bound is referred to herein as the “capture solid support”. If the solid support is a bead, then such bead is referred to herein as a “capture bead”. The beads can be made of any material including but not limited to cellulose, cellulose derivatives, gelatin, acrylic resins, glass, silica gels, polyvinyl pyrrolidine (PVP), co-polymers of vinyl and acrylamide, polystyrene, polystyrene cross-linked with divinylbenzene or the like (see, Merrifield Biochemistry 1964, 3, 1385-1390), polyacrylamides, latex gels, dextran, crosslinked dextrans (e.g., Sephadex™) rubber, silicon, plastics, nitrocellulose, natural sponges, metal, and agarose gel (Sepharose™). In one embodiment, the beads are streptavidin-coated beads. The bead diameter will depend on the density of the chemFET and microwell array used with larger arrays (and thus smaller sized wells) requiring smaller beads. Generally the bead size may be about 1-10 μM, and more preferably 2-6 μM. In some embodiments, the beads are about 5.91 μM while in other embodiments the beads are about 2.8 μM. In still other embodiments, the beads are about 1.5 μm, or about 1 μm in diameter. It is to be understood that the beads may or may not be perfectly spherical in shape. It is also to be understood that other beads may be used and other mechanisms for attaching the nucleic acid to the beads may be used. In some instances the capture beads (i.e., the beads on which the sequencing reaction occurs) are the same as the template preparation beads including the amplification beads.
Important aspects of the invention contemplate sequencing a plurality of different template nucleic acids simultaneously. This may be accomplished using the sensor arrays described herein. In one embodiment, the sensor arrays are overlayed (and/or integral with) an array of microwells (or reaction chambers or wells, as those terms are used interchangeably herein), with the proviso that there be at least one sensor per microwell. Present in a plurality of microwells is a population of identical copies of a template nucleic acid. There is no requirement that any two microwells carry identical template nucleic acids, although in some instances such templates may share overlapping sequence. Thus, each microwell comprises a plurality of identical copies of a template nucleic acid, and the templates between microwells may be different.
The microwells may vary in size between arrays. The microwell size may be described in terms of cross section. The cross section may refer to a “slice” parallel to the depth (or height) of the well, or it may be a slice perpendicular to the depth (or height) of the well.
The size of these microwells may be described in terms of a width (or diameter) to height ratio. In some embodiments, this ratio is 1:1 to 1:1.5. The bead to well size (e.g., the bead diameter to well width, diameter, or height) is preferably in the range of 0.6-0.8. The microwells may be square in cross-section, but they are not so limited. The dimensions at the bottom of a microwell (i.e., in a cross section that is perpendicular to the depth of the well) may be 1.5 μm by 1.5 μm, or it may be 1.5 μm by 2 μm. Various diameters are shown in the Examples and include but are not limited to diameters at or about 100 μm, 95 μm, 90 μm, 85 μm, 80 μm, 75 μm, 70 μm, 65 μm, 60 μm, 55 μm, 50 μm, 45 μm, 40 μm, 35 μm, 30 μm, 25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, 9 μm, 8 μm, 7 μm, 6 μm, 5 μm, 4 μm, 3 μm, 2 μm, 1 μm or less. In some particular embodiments, the diameters may be at or about 44 μm, 32 μm, 8 μm, 4 μm, or 1.5 μm. Various heights are shown in the Examples and include but are not limited to heights at or about 100 μm, 95 μm, 90 μm, 85 μm, 80 μm, 75 μm, 70 μm, 65 μm, 60 μm, 55 μm, 50 μm, 45 μm, 40 μm, 35 μm, 30 μm, 25 μm, 20 μm, 15 μm, 10 μm, 9 μm, 8 μm, 7 μm, 6 μm, 5 μm, 4 μm, 3 μm, 2 μm, 1 μm or less. In some particular embodiments, the heights may be at or about 55 μm, 48 μm, 32 μm, 12 μm, 8 μm, 6 μm, 4 μm, 2.25 μm, 1.5 μm, or less. Various embodiments of the invention contemplate the combination of any of these diameters with any of these heights. In still other embodiments, the reaction well dimensions may be (diameter in μm by height in μm) 44 by 55, 32 by 32, 32 by 48, 8 by 8, 8 by 12, 4 by 4, 4 by 6, 1.5 by 1.5, or 1.5 by 2.25.
The reaction well volume may range (between arrays, and preferably not within a single array) based on the well dimensions. This volume may be at or about 100 picoliter (pL), 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, or fewer pL. In important embodiments, the well volume is less than 1 μL, including equal to or less than 0.5 μL, equal to or less than 0.1 μL, equal to or less than 0.05 μL, equal to or less than 0.01 μL, equal to or less than 0.005 μL, or equal to or less than 0.001 μL. The volume may be 0.001 to 0.9 μL, 0.001 to 0.5 μL, 0.001 to 0.1 μL, 0.001 to 0.05 μL, or 0.005 to 0.05 μL. In particular embodiments, the well volume is 75 μL, 34 μL, 23 μL, 0.54 μL, 0.36 μL, 0.07 μL, 0.045 μL, 0.0024 μL, or 0.004 μL. The plurality of templates in each microwell may be introduced into the microwells (e.g., via a nucleic acid loaded bead), or it may be generated in the microwell itself. A plurality is defined herein as at least two, and in the context of template nucleic acids in a microwell or on a nucleic acid loaded bead includes tens, hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, millions, or more copies of the template nucleic acid. The limit on the number of copies will depend on a number of variables including the number of binding sites for template nucleic acids (e.g., on the beads or on the walls of the microwells), the size of the beads, the length of the template nucleic acid, the extent of the amplification reaction used to generate the plurality, and the like. It is generally preferred to have as many copies of a given template per well in order to increase signal to noise ratio as much as possible. Amplification and conjugation of nucleic acids to solid supports such as beads may be accomplished in a number of ways, including but not limited to emulsion PCR (i.e., water in oil emulsion amplification) as described by Margulies et al. Nature 2005 437(15):376-380 and accompanying supplemental materials. In some embodiments, the amplification is a representative amplification. A representative amplification is an amplification that does not alter the relative representation of any nucleic acid species. The wells generally also include sequencing primers, polymerases and other substrates or catalysts necessary for the synthesis reaction.
The degree of saturation of any capture (i.e., sequencing) bead with template nucleic acid to be sequenced may not be 100%. In some embodiments, a saturation level of 10%-100% exists. As used herein, the degree of saturation of a capture bead with a template refers to the proportion of sites on the bead that are conjugated to template. In some instances this may be at least 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or it may be 100%.
It will be understood that the amount of sequencing primers and polymerases may be saturating, above saturating level, or in some instances below saturating levels. As used herein, a saturating level of a sequencing primer or a polymerase is a level at which every template nucleic acid is hybridized to a sequencing primer or bound by a polymerase, respectively. Thus the saturating amount is the number of polymerases or primers that is equal to the number of templates on a single bead. In some embodiments, the level is at greater than this, including at least 2 fold, 3 fold, 4 fold, 5 fold, 10 fold, or more over the level of the template nucleic acid. In other embodiments, the number of polymerases and/or primers may be 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or up to 100% of the number of templates on a single bead in a single well.
Thus, for example, before and/or while in the wells, the template nucleic acids are incubated with a sequencing primer that binds to its complementary sequence located on the 3′ end of the template nucleic acid (i.e., either in the amplification primer sequence or in another adaptor sequence ligated to the 3′ end of the target nucleic acid) and with a polymerase for a time and under conditions that promote hybridization of the primer to its complementary sequence and that promote binding of the polymerase to the template nucleic acid. The primer can be of virtually any sequence provided it is long enough to be unique. The hybridization conditions are such that the primer will hybridize to only its true complement on the 3′ end of the template. Suitable conditions are disclosed in Margulies et al. Nature 2005 437(15):376-380 and accompanying supplemental materials.
As described herein, the template nucleic acids may be engineered such that different templates have identical 5′ ends and identical 3′ ends. In some embodiments, however, the invention contemplates the use of a plurality of template populations, wherein each member of a given plurality shares the same 3′ end but different template populations differ from each other based on their 3′ end sequences. As an example, the invention contemplates in some instances sequencing nucleic acids from more than one subject or source. Nucleic acids from first source may have a first 3′ sequence, nucleic acids from a second source may have a second 3′ sequence, and so on, provided that the first and second 3′ sequences are different. In this respect, the 3′ end, which is typically a unique sequence, can be used as a barcode or identifier to label (or identify) the source of the particular nucleic acid in a given well. Reference can be made to Meyer et al. Nucleic Acids Research 2007 35(15):e97 for a discussion of labeling nucleic acid with barcodes followed by sequencing. In some instances, the sequencing primers (if used) may be hybridized (or annealed, as the terms are used interchangeably herein) to the templates prior to loading (or introducing) the beads to the wells or after such loading.
The 5′ and 3′ ends on every individual template however are preferably different in sequence. In particular, the templates share identical primer binding sequences. This facilitates the use of an identical primer across microwells and also ensures that a similar (or identical) degree of primer hybridization occurs across microwells. Once annealed to complementary primers such as sequencing primers, the templates are in a complex referred to herein as a template/primer hybrid. In this hybrid, one region of the template is double stranded (i.e., where it is bound to its complementary primer) and one region is single stranded. It is this single stranded region that acts as the template for the incorporation of nucleotides to the end of the primer and thus it is also this single stranded region which is ultimately sequenced according to the invention.
Data capture rates can vary and be for example anywhere from 10-100 frames per second and the choice of which rate to use will be dictated at least in part by the well size and the presence of packing beads or other diffusion limiting techniques. Smaller well sizes generally require faster data capture rates.
The systems described herein can be used for sequencing unlabeled biological polymers without optical detection.
In some embodiments, the invention encompasses a sequencing apparatus adapted for sequencing unlabeled biological polymers without optical detection and comprising an array of at least 100 reaction chambers.
Typically, each reaction chamber is capacitively coupled to a chemFET.
Preferably, each reaction chamber is no greater than about 0.39 μL in volume and about 49 μm2 surface aperture, and more preferably has an aperture no greater than about 16 μm2 and volume no greater than about 0.064 μL. Preferably, the array has at least 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, or 1,000,000 reaction chambers.
Typically, the reaction chambers comprise microfluidic wells.
In another embodiment, the invention encompasses a method for sequencing a biological polymer with the above-described apparatus comprising measuring time of incorporation of individual monomers into an elongating polymer.
Typically, the biological polymer is a nucleic acid template and the monomer is a nucleotide. Preferably, the nucleic acid template has 200-700 base pairs. Preferably, the nucleic acid template is amplified prior to determining the sequence.
The nucleic acid template used in this and other methods of the invention may be derived from a variety of sources by a variety of methods, all known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Templates may be derived from, but are not limited to, entire genomes of varying complexity, cDNA, mRNA or siRNA samples, or may represent entire populations, as in the various environmental and metabiome sequencing projects. Template nucleic acids may also be generated from specific subsets of nucleic acid populations including but not limited to PCR products, specific exons or regions of interest, or 16S or other diagnostic or identifying genomic regions.
Non-Sequencing Applications
It is to be understood that interactions between receptors and ligands or between two members of a binding pair or between components of a molecular complex can also be detected using the chemFET arrays. Examples of such interactions include hybridization of nucleic acids to each other, protein-nucleic acid binding, protein-protein binding, enzyme-substrate binding, enzyme-inhibitor binding, antigen-antibody binding, and the like. Any binding or hybridization event that causes a change of the semiconductor charge density at the chemFET interface and thus changes the current that flows from the source to the drain of the sensors described herein can be detected according to the invention.
The invention contemplates combining such nucleic acid arrays with the chemFET arrays and particularly the “large scale” chemFET arrays described herein. These arrays include those comprising 103, 104, 105, 106, 107 or more sensors. These arrays also include those having center-to-center spacings between adjacent sensors in the range of 1-10 microns, as described herein. These arrays may also be characterized as having total surface areas of equal to or less than 441 mm2 (e.g., 21 mm by 21 mm), or 81 mm2 (e.g., 9 mm by 9 mm), or 49 mm2 (e.g., 7 mm by 7 mm), for example.
The chemFET/nucleic acid array can be used in a variety of applications, some of which will not require the wells (or microwells or reaction chambers, as they are interchangeably referred to herein). Since analyses may still be carried out in flow, including in a “closed” system (i.e., where the flow of reagents and wash solutions and the like is automated), there will be one or more flow chambers situated above and in contact with the array. The use of multiple flow chambers allows multiple, preferably different, samples (including, for example, nucleic acid libraries) to be analyzed simultaneously. There may be 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more flow chambers. This configuration applies equally to other biological arrays including those discussed herein such as protein arrays, antibody arrays, enzyme arrays, chemical arrays, and the like.
Since the binding event between binding partners or between components of a complex is detected electronically via the underlying chemFET, such assays may be carried out without the need to manipulate (e.g., extrinsically label) the sample being assayed. This is advantageous since such manipulation invariably results in loss of sample and generally requires increased time and work up. In addition, the present method allows binding interactions to be studied in real time.
It is further to be understood that many of the terms including various nucleic acid embodiments, chemFET array embodiments, and reaction chambers embodiments, inter alia, described herein in the context of sequencing applications are equally applicable to the non-sequencing applications contemplated by the invention and described in greater detail below.
In these embodiments, the passivation layer (or possibly an intermediate layer coated onto the passivation layer) is functionalized with nucleic acids (e.g., DNA, RNA, miRNA, cDNA, and the like), antigens (which can be of any nature), proteins (e.g., enzymes, cofactors, antibodies, antibody fragments, and the like), and the like. Conjugation of these entities to the passivation layer can be direct or indirect (e.g., using bifunctional linkers that bind to both the passivation layer reactive group and the entity to be bound).
Development of the very large chemFET arrays and systems provides considerable advantages to a wide assortment of applications beyond the particular DNA sequencing process described above. Briefly, some of those applications will now be discussed, recognizing that in doing so, there may be some repetition over the discussion already presented.
The configurations of the chemFET arrays and the biological or chemical arrays are similar in each instance and the discussion of one combination array will apply to others described herein or otherwise known in the art.
In most or all of the applications noted below, the analyte may be presented in a liquid medium or under air or other gas flow.
Methods for attaching nucleic acids, proteins, molecules, and the like to solid supports, particularly in the context of an array, have been described in the art. See for example Lipshutz et al. Nat. Genet. (supplement) 1999 21:20-24; Li et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 2001, 98:31-36; Lockhart et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 1996 14:1675-1680; Wodicka et al. Nat. Biotechnol. 1997 15: 1359-1367; Chen et al. Journal of Biomedical Optics 1997 2:364; Duggan et al. Nat Genet. 1991 21(1 Suppl):10-4; Marton et al. Nat. Med. 1998 4(11):1293-301; Kononen et al. Nat Med 1998 4(7):844-847; MacBeath et al., Science 2000 289(5485):1760-1763; Haab et al. Genome Biology 2001 2(2); Pollack et al. Nat Genet. 1999 23(1):41-6; Wang D G et al. Science 1998 280(5366):1077-82; Fodor et al. Science 1991 251:767-773; Fodor et al. Nature 1993 364:555-556; Pease et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994 91:5022-5026; Fodor Science 1997 277:393-395; Southern et al. Genomics 1992 13: 1008-1017; Schena et al. Science 1995 270(5235):467-70; Shalon et al. Genome Res 1996 6(7):639-45; Jongsma Proteomics 2006, 6:2650-2655; Sakata, Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2007, 22: 1311-1316.
Oligonucleotide Microarrays
One such application involves the generation and interrogation of oligonucleotide arrays comprised of nucleic acids (e.g., DNA), single or double stranded, immobilized on the chemFET array.
As an example, reaction groups such as amine or thiol groups may be added to a nucleic acid at any nucleotide during synthesis to provide a point of attachment for a bifunctional linker. As another example, the nucleic acid may be synthesized by incorporating conjugation-competent reagents such as Uni-Link AminoModifier, 3′-DMT-C6-Amine-ON CPG, AminoModifier II, N-TFA-C6-AminoModifier, C6-ThiolModifier, C6-Disulfide Phosphoramidite and C6-Disulfide CPG (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.). Other methods for attaching nucleic acids are discussed below.
In one aspect of the invention, the chemFET arrays are provided in combination with nucleic acid arrays. Nucleic acids in the form of short nucleic acids (e.g., oligonucleotides) or longer nucleic acids (e.g., full length cDNAs) can be provided on chemFET surfaces of the arrays described herein. Nucleic acid arrays generally comprise a plurality of physically defined regions on a planar surface (e.g., “spots”) each of which has conjugated to it one and more preferably more nucleic acids. The regions are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array such that there is one sensor for each region. The nucleic acids are usually single stranded. The nucleic acids conjugated to a given spot are usually identical. The nucleic acids conjugated to different spots may be different from each other or they may be identical.
Thus, the nucleic acid arrays may comprise a plurality of identical (and thus homogeneous) nucleic acids (e.g., where more than one chemFET surface (or spots), and optionally the entire chemFET array surface has conjugated to it identical nucleic acids). Thus, the identical nucleic acids may be uniformly distributed on a planar surface or they may be organized into discrete regions (or cells) on that surface. Alternatively, the nucleic acid arrays may comprise a plurality of different (and thus heterogeneous) nucleic acids.
The plurality of nucleic acids in a single region may vary depending on the length of the nucleic acid, the size of the region, and the method used to attach the nucleic acid thereto, and may be but is not limited to at least 10, 50, 100, 500, 103, 104 or more. The array itself may have any number of regions, including but not limited to at least 10, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, or more. In these and other embodiments, the regions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array such that there is one sensor for each region (or cell).
In the context of an oligonucleotide array, these nucleic acids may be on the order of less 100 nucleotides in length (including about 10, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100 nucleotides in length). If the arrays are used to detect certain genes (including mutations in such genes or expression levels of such genes), then the array may include a number of spots each of which contains oligonucleotides that span a defined and potentially different sequence of the gene. These spots are then located across the planar surface in order to exclude position related effects in the hybridization and readout means of the array.
The binding or hybridization of the sample nucleic acids and the immobilized nucleic acids is generally performed under stringent hybridization conditions as that term is understood in the art. (See for example Sambrook et al. “Maniatis”.) Examples of relevant conditions include (in order of increasing stringency): incubation temperatures of 25° C., 37° C., 50° C. and 68° C.; buffer concentrations of 10×SSC, 6×SSC, 4×SSC, 1×SSC, 0.1×SSC (where SSC is 0.15 M NaCl and 15 mM citrate buffer) and their equivalents using other buffer systems; formamide concentrations of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%; incubation times from 5 minutes to 24 hours; 1, 2, or more washing steps; wash incubation times of 1, 2, or 15 minutes; and wash solutions of 6×SSC, 1×SSC, 0.1×SSC, or deionized water. By way of example hybridization may be performed at 50% formamide and 4×SSC followed by washes of 2×SSC/formamide at 50° C. and with 1×SSC.
Nucleic acid arrays include those in which already formed nucleic acids such as cDNAs are deposited (or “spotted”) on the array in a specific location. Nucleic acids can be spotted onto a surface by piezoelectrically deposition, UV cross-linking of nucleic acids to polymer layers such as but not limited to poly-L-lysine or polypyrrole, direct conjugation to silicon coated SiO2 as described in published US patent application 2003/0186262, direct conjugation to a silanised chemFET surface (e.g., a surface treated with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) as described by Uslu et al. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2004, 19:1723-1731, for example.
Nucleic acid arrays also include those in which nucleic acids (such as oligonucleotides of known sequence) are synthesized directly on the array. Nucleic acids can be synthesized on arrays using art-recognized techniques such as but not limited to printing with fine-pointed pins onto glass slides, photolithography using pre-made masks, photolithography using dynamic micromirror devices (such as DLP mirrors), ink-jet printing, or electrochemistry on microelectrode arrays. Reference can also be made to Nuwaysir et al. 2002 “Gene expression analysis using oligonucleotide arrays produced by maskless photolithography.”. Genome Res 12: 1749-1755. Commercial sources of this latter type of array include Agilent, Affymetrix, and NimbleGen.
Thus the chemFET passivation layer may be coated with an intermediate layer of reactive molecules (and therefore reactive groups) to which the nucleic acids are bound and/or from which they are synthesized.
Any of the binding chemistries traditionally utilized to generate for example DNA arrays on substrates, such as glass, plastic, nylon, nitrocellulose and activated gels, may be used to immobilize nucleic acids on the chemFET array. Some of the more common chemistries are summarized in the review in Zammatteo, N. et al., “Comparison between different strategies of covalent attachment of DNA to glass surfaces to build DNA microarrays,” Anal Biochem 280, 143-50 (2000), and detailed briefly herein.
DNA immobilization can entail non-covalent (e.g., ionic) or covalent binding chemistries. Ionic binding most commonly employs the interaction of negatively charged species, such as DNA, with a positively charged surface, such as glass slides coated with poly-lysine. See Schena et al. “Quantitative monitoring of gene expression patterns with a complementary DNA microarray,” Science 270, 467-70 (1995). Hydrophobic interactions have also been used to attach nucleic acids to various surfaces. See Allemand, et al. “pH-dependent specific binding and combing of DNA,” Biophys J 73, 2064-70 (1997).
Covalent binding can also be used through a variety of methods. For example, UV radiation can be used to cross-link nucleic acids (such as DNA) to amino group containing substances, for example by forming covalent bonds between positively charged amino groups on a functionalized surface and thymidine residues present along the length of the nucleic acid strand. In this way, the nucleic acid is attached to the solid support along its length, in a random or non-random manner. See Duggan et al. “Expression profiling using cDNA microarrays,” Nature Genetics 21, 10-14 (1999).
Alternatively, nucleic acids (such as DNA) can be attached to the solid support by their 5′ or 3′ ends, particularly where such ends are carboxylated or phosphorylated. See Joos et al. “Covalent attachment of hybridizable oligonucleotides to glass supports,” Anal Biochem 247, 96-101 (1997) and Joos et al. “Covalent attachment of hybridizable oligonucleotides to glass supports,” Anal Biochem 247, 96-101 (1997). Nucleic acids (such as DNA) can be coupled on aminated supports, or the nucleic acids themselves may be aminated and then attached to carboxylated, phosphorylated, epoxide-modified, isothiocyanate-activated, or aldehyde-activated supports or surfaces such as glass surfaces. See Ghosh et al. “Covalent attachment of oligonucleotides to solid supports,” Nucl. Acids Res. 15, 5353-5372 (1987), Lamture et al. “Direct detection of nucleic acid hybridization on the surface of a charge coupled device,” Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 2121-5 (1994), Guo et al. “Direct fluorescence analysis of genetic polymorphisms by hybridization with oligonucleotide arrays on glass supports. Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 5456-5465 (1994), Schena et al., “Parallel human genome analysis: microarray-based expression monitoring of 1000 genes,” PNAS 93, 10614-9 (1996).
Hetero-bifunctional cross-linkers have been used to bind thiol- or disulfide-modified oligonucleotides onto gold (Boncheva et al. “Design of Oligonucleotide Arrays at Interfaces,” Langmuir 15, 4317-4320 (1999)), aminosilane- (Chrisey et al. “Covalent attachment of synthetic DNA to self-assembled monolayer films,” Nucl. Acids Res. 24, 3031-3039 (1996)) or 3-mercaptopropylsilane-modified (Rogers et al. “Immobilization of oligonucleotides onto a glass support via disulfide bonds: A method for preparation of DNA microarrays,” Analytical Biochemistry 266, 23-30 (1999)) glass surfaces.
Additionally, the use of dendrimeric linker molecules as a substrate for covalent attachment of Peptide Nucleic Acids (PNAs), PCR products or oligonucleotides, including oligodeoxynucleotides, to glass or polypropylene supports has been demonstrated (Beier et al. “Versatile derivatisation of solid support media for covalent bonding on DNA-microchips,” Nucleic Acids Res 27, 1970-7 (1999)), as has direct synthesis of nucleic acids on support surfaces using photolithographic techniques (Pease et al. “Light-Generated Oligonucleotide Arrays for Rapid DNA Sequence Analysis,” PNAS 91 (1994) 5022).
The invention contemplates the attachment, whether covalent or non-covalent, and whether direct or indirect, of chromosomal nucleic acids, shorter nucleic acids such as oligonucleotides (including oligodeoxyribonucleotides and oligoribonucleotides), nucleic acids such as DNA, RNA, PNA, LNA, or nucleic acids that comprise any combination and/or level of these various constituents, peptides, proteins including glycoproteins, carbohydrates, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and other molecule of interest, regardless of nature. Any of these can be applied to the surface of the chemFET arrays in any of the ways currently used for microarrays or in any other way as the invention is not limited with respect to these binding chemistries. Known approaches include mechanical spotting (for example pin-type spotters), piezo or print-head (i.e., ink jet, aka drop-on-demand) printing, in situ synthesis or application through attachment from a solution, such as limiting dilution or dipping.
In addition to the attachment of preformed nucleic acids to the chemFET arrays, the invention also contemplates synthesis of nucleic acids onto the chemFET array (i.e., in situ synthesis). Thus, the various methods of in situ nucleic acid synthesis, as reviewed by Guo et al. are also applicable to chemFET arrays. A non-comprehensive list of examples includes in situ synthesis via ink-jet printing delivery of phosphoramidites (Blanchard et al. “High-density oligonucleotide arrays,” Biosensors and Bioelectronics 11, 687-690 (1996)), parallel synthesis directed by individually electronically addressable wells (Egeland et al. “Electrochemically directed synthesis of oligonucleotides for DNA microarray fabrication,” Nucleic Acids Res 33, e125 (2005)), maskless photo-generated acid (PGA) controlled synthesis (LeProust et al. “Digital light-directed synthesis. A microarray platform that permits rapid reaction optimization on a combinatorial basis,” J Comb Chem 2, 349-54 (2000); Gao et al. “A flexible light-directed DNA chip synthesis gated by deprotection using solution photogenerated acids,” Nucleic Acids Res 29, 4744-50 (2001)), mask directed synthesis utilizing photolithography (PLPG) (Fodor et al. “Light-directed, spatially addressable parallel chemical synthesis,” Science 251, 767-73 (1991)) and maskless PLPG parallel in situ synthesis (Singh-Gasson et al. “Maskless fabrication of light-directed oligonucleotide microarrays using a digital micromirror array,” Nat Biotechnol 17, 974-8 (1999)).
Nucleic acid templates have been immobilized onto individual (i.e., single) chemFETs for various purposes. For example, amine-labeled oligonucleotides bound to a silanized Si3N4 surface of a single ISFET, and the change in electrical potential resulting from complementary DNA hybridization was used to detect specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Sakata et al. “Potentiometric Detection of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism by Using a Genetic Field-effect transistor,” Chembiochem 6, 703-10 (2005). Silanized ISFETs have been proposed for monitoring the voltage signal associated with both the adsorption of PCR products to the ISFET surface as well as the secondary voltage signal resulting from hybridization of complementary strands. Uslu et al. “Labelfree fully electronic nucleic acid detection system based on a field-effect transistor device,” Biosens Bioelectron 19, 1723-31 (2004). Single ISFETs have been reported to detect the pH change associated with polymerase-directed nucleotide incorporation in a replicating DNA strand, thus monitoring polymerase activity on immobilized DNA templates in real-time. Sakurai et al. “Real-time monitoring of DNA polymerase reactions by a micro ISFET pH sensor,” Anal Chem 64, 1996-7 (1992).
To date, the throughput of such systems has been low, as demonstrated by DNA detection systems utilizing only 10 (Sakata et al. “Detection of DNA recognition events using multi-well field effect devices,” Biosens Bioelectron 21, 827-32 (2005)) or 16 (Barbaro et al., “Fully electronic DNA hybridization detection by a standard CMOS biochip,” Sensors & Actuators: B. Chemical 118, 41-46 (2006)) ISFETs. The invention provides significant advantages over these approaches by providing very large scale chemFET arrays that are able to interrogate hundreds, thousands, and even millions of samples concurrently and rapidly.
The arrays are contacted with a sample being tested. The sample may be a genomic DNA sample, a cDNA sample from a cell, a tissue or a mass (e.g., a tumor), a population of cells that are grown on the array, potentially in a two dimensional array that corresponds to the underlying sensor array, and the like. Such arrays are therefore useful for determining presence and/or level of a particular gene or of its expression, detecting mutations within particular genes (such as but not limited to deletions, additions, substitutions, including single nucleotide polymorphisms), and the like.
Besides SNP detection and polymerase activity assays, the ability to deposit large numbers of immobilized nucleic acids on to the surface of an ISFET array provides real-time, label-free quantification and analysis for a variety of biological, chemical and other applications, including but not limited to gene expression analysis, comparative genome hybridization (CGH), and array-based exon enrichment processes. Additionally, such arrays may be used to screen samples including but not limited to naturally occurring samples such as bodily fluids and/or tissues such as blood, urine, saliva, CSF, lavages, and the like, environmental samples such as water supply samples, air samples, and the like, for the presence or absence of a substance or in order to characterize such sample for example for its origin or identity based on nucleic acid content, protein content, or other analyte content. As an example, the arrays of the invention may be used to determine the presence or absence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, and the like based on genomic, proteomic, and/or other cellular or organismic element. The arrays may also be used to identify the presence or absence, and optionally characterize cancer cells or cells that are indicative of another condition or disorder, in a subject.
Analysis of samples for types and quantities miRNA and siRNA, whether or not in the presence of total RNA, would have considerable utility. Thus, the invention therefore contemplates ISFET arrays having immobilized thereon various capture reagents specific for one or more miRNA and/or siRNA species.
In still other embodiments, the invention contemplates immobilizing riboswitches. Riboswitches are transcripts that are able to sense metabolites. (Mironov et al. Sensing small molecules by nascent RNA: a mechanism to control transcription in bacteria. Cell 111, 747-756 (2002); and Winkler et al. Thiamine derivatives bind messenger RNAs directly to regulate bacterial gene expression. Nature 419, 952-956 (2002).) ISFET arrays having riboswitches immobilized thereo can then detect metabolites either in or ex situ.
Antibody, Aptamer and Protein Arrays
Protein arrays used in combination with the chemFET arrays of the invention are also contemplated. Protein arrays comprise proteins or peptides or other amino acid comprising biological moiety bound to a planar surface in an organized and predetermined manner. Such proteins include but are not limited to enzymes, antibodies and antibody fragments or antibody mimics (e.g., single chain antibodies).
In one embodiment, a protein array may comprise a plurality of different (and thus heterogeneous) proteins (or other amino acid containing biological moieties). Each protein, and preferably a plurality of proteins, is present in a predetermined region or “cell” of the array. The regions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array such that there is one sensor for each region (or cell). The plurality of proteins in a single region (or cell) may vary depending on the size of the protein and the size of the region (or cell) and may be but is not limited to at least 10, 50, 100, 500, 103, 104 or more. The array itself may have any number of cells, including but not limited to at least 10, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, or more. In one application, the array is exposed to a sample that is known to contain or is suspected of containing an analyte that binds to the protein. The analyte may be a substrate or an inhibitor if the protein is an enzyme. The analyte may be any molecule that binds to the protein including another protein, a nucleic acid, a chemical species (whether synthetic or naturally occurring), and the like.
It is to be understood that, like the nucleic acid arrays contemplated herein, the readout from the protein arrays will be a change in current through the chemFET and thus no additional step of labeling and/or label detection is required in these array methods.
In another embodiment, the protein array may comprise a plurality of identical (and thus homogeneous) proteins (or other amino acid containing biological moieties). The identical proteins may be uniformly distributed on a planar surface or they may be organized into discrete regions (or cells) on that surface. In these latter embodiments, the regions (or cells) are aligned with the sensors in the sensor array such that there is one sensor for each region (or cell).
The proteins may be synthesized off-chip, then purified and attached to the array. Proteins, like other moieties discussed herein such as nucleic acids, may be attached to the array via an avidin-biotin (including a streptavidin-biotin) interaction. As an example, avidin (or streptavidin) may be first bound to the array followed by biotinylated protein. It will be understood that a similar non-covalent scheme can be used for attaching other moieties including nucleic acids to the array.
Alternatively they can be synthesized on-chip, similarly to the nucleic acids discussed above. Synthesis of proteins using cell-free DNA expression or chemical synthesis is amenable to on-chip synthesis. Using cell-free DNA expression, proteins are attached to the solid support once synthesized. Alternatively, proteins may be chemically synthesized on the solid support using solid phase peptide synthesis. Selective deprotection is carried out through lithographic methods or by SPOT-synthesis. Reference can be made to at least MacBeath and Schreiber, Science, 2000, 289:1760-1763, or Jones et al. Nature, 2006, 439:168-174. Reference can also be made to U.S. Pat. No. 6,919,211 to Fodor et al.
Many of the chemistries used to immobilize nucleic acids to solid surfaces can similarly be employed to bind amino acid containing molecules such as peptides and proteins and fragments thereof (Zhu et al. “Protein arrays and microarrays,” Curr Opin Chem Biol 5, 40-5 (2001); Schweitzer et al. “Measuring proteins on microarrays,” Curr Opin Biotechnol 13, 14-9 (2002); Schweitzer et al. “Multiplexed protein profiling on microarrays by rolling-circle amplification,” Nat Biotechnol 20, 359-65 (2002)) including but not limited to enzymes (Eppinger et al. “Enzyme microarrays: On-chip determination of inhibition constants based on affinity-label detection of enzymatic activity,” Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 43, 3806-10 (2004); Funeriu et al. “Enzyme family-specific and activity-based screening of chemical libraries using enzyme microarrays,” Nat Biotechnol 23, 622-7 (2005)) and antibodies (Schweitzer et al. “Immunoassays with rolling circle amplification: A versatile platform for ultrasensitve antigen detection,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 10113-10119 (2000)). These binding processes are summarized in a review by Gao et al. (Gao, X. et al., “High density peptide microarrays. In situ synthesis and applications,” Mol Divers 8, 177-87 (2004), and have been applied to single individual ISFETs (Schasfoort et al. “Modulation of the ISFET response by an immunological reaction,” Sens. Actuators 17, 531-535 (1989); Schasfoort et al. “Possibilities and limitations of direct detection of protein charges by means of an immunological field-effect transistor,” Analytica Chimica Acta 238, 323-329 (1990); Besselink et al. “Modification of ISFETs with a monolayer of latex beads for specific detection of proteins,” Biosens Bioelectron 18, 1109-14 (2003)).
The invention contemplates covalent and non-covalent (e.g., ionic) attachment of peptides and/or proteins or fragments thereof including antibody fragments to the ISFET array surface from an applied solution, direct printing of peptides or proteins, self-assembly of peptides or proteins on the array using for example oligonucleotide tags, immobilization of high affinity nucleic acid aptamers, and various methods of in situ peptide synthesis as ways of attaching peptides or proteins onto the chemFET surface. Such peptide or protein arrays provide a valuable tool for real-time detection of small molecule targets that interact with the immobilized proteins, antibody/antigen interaction, receptor/ligand, enzyme/inhibitor, enzyme/activator, transcription factor/nucleic acid target, receptor enzyme/inhibitor, and other processes or interactions known to the art.
Aptamers are nucleic acid molecules that bind to various molecular targets like small molecules, proteins, peptides, DNA, RNA, and the like with high affinity. Aptamers are easily chemically synthesized, are stable, and show less immunogenicity in humans compared to animal-derived antibodies. Aptamers can be immobilized to a chemFET array via standard coupling chemistry and have been shown to be successful sensors when coupled to individual ISFETs, as reviewed by Li et al. Recent advances of aptamer sensors. Science in China Series B: Chemistry 51, 193-204 (2008). Due to their low immunogenicity, aptamer FETs may be implanted into a subject and used to monitor physiological or biochemical processes and/or status in and of a subject, and thereby provides real-time readouts.
The invention further contemplates use of ISFET arrays to measure the number of protein molecules bound to all RNA in a transcriptome. In this process, RNA-protein interactions would be preserved during cell lysis and RNAs would be captured by specific oligonucleotides immobilized on the surface of an ISFET array. Enzyme-conjugated antibodies would then be introduced to bind to protein antigens following which nonspecific interactions would be washed away. Similarly, antibodies could be used against translational machinery such as the 80S, 48S, 43S and 40S subunits, or specifically against RNA binding proteins. Detection on the ISFET array could be accomplished through conjugating antibodies to enzymes that generate ionic products when presented with non-ionic substrates, for example converting NADPH to NADP+, NADH to NAD+, or any oxidase or reductase that generates a detectable change in the net electronic charge. An additional benefit of such a scheme is that antibodies could be combined for multiplexing, generating quantitative data on multiple proteins and protein/nucleic acid interactions.
The arrays of the invention can also be used to measure the kinetics of a reaction and/or compare the activities of enzymes. In this way, the array may be used to select from more efficient enzymes from for example a pool or library of enzymes. Typically, the reactions being monitored or measured are those that generate a change in charge that can be detected at the FET surface. Similarly, the arrays may be used to determine the effect of different reaction conditions on reaction kinetics. Depending on the embodiment and the reaction being monitored, the enzyme, its substrate (or an analog thereof capable of being acted upon by the enzyme and still be bound to the array), a co-factor, or another moiety required for readout of the reaction may be attached to the array. As an example, a sequencing reaction may be monitored using luciferase bound to the array while the polymerase and its template substrate are free in solution.
Nucleic Acid/Protein Interactions
A chemFET-based array may also be used to explore various protein/nucleic acid interactions. For example, RNA/protein binding may be investigated by lysing cells and capturing the RNA (with associated proteins) on oligonucleotides immobilized on the chemFET array. Enzyme-conjugated antibodies may then be bound to protein antigen and nonspecific interactions can be washed away. Specific antibodies may be employed against translational machinery and 80S, 40S, 43S, or 48S RNA regions. Antibodies may also be used against RNA binding proteins, or conjugated to enzymes that produce ionic products when presented with nonionic substrates (for example NADPH to NADP+, NADH to NAD+, and possibly H2O2 or Glutathione). These antibodies can be combined for multiplexing.
Chemical compound microarrays in combination with chemFET arrays are also envisioned. Chemical compound microarrays can be made by covalently immobilizing the compounds (e.g., organic compounds) on the solid surface with diverse linking techniques (may be referred to in the literature as “small molecule microarray”), by spotting and drying compounds (e.g., organic compounds) on the solid surface without immobilization (may be referred to in the literature as “micro arrayed compound screening (μARCS)”), or by spotting organic compounds in a homogenous solution without immobilization and drying effect (commercialized as DiscoveryDot™ technology by Reaction Biology Corporation).
Protein Sequencing
The amino acid sequence of proteins also may be determined using a chemFET array. For example, proteins may be denatured before or after capture on beads, or alternatively, proteins may be captured to the chemFET surface, preferably one protein per well and/or bead (presuming a one bead—one well ratio). These ratios can be achieved using limiting dilution or with nanotechnology. (See RainDance Technologies, etc.) Amino-acyl synthetases are sequentially introduced (by flow) into each well. Each amino-acyl synthetase will be specific for each naturally occurring amino acid. The amino-acyl synthetases will also be conjugated (covalently or non-covalently) to a moiety that can be detected by its ability to change ionic concentration and, optionally, to a protease that is capable of cleaving the immobilized protein one amino acid at a time. An example of a suitable moiety is hydrogen peroxidase which acts upon its substrate hydrogen peroxide to release ions. The synthetase will bind or not bind to the protein depending on whether the amino acid it specifically recognizes and binds to is present at the free end of the protein (whether C or N terminus). Excess (and unbound) synthetase is washed away and, in this example, hydrogen peroxide is added. An ion change resulting from the presence of hydrogen peroxidase is then detected. It will be appreciated that other enzyme and substrate systems may be used in place of hydrogen peroxidase and hydrogen peroxide. Enzymes may be preferred given the amplified signal that can be achieved. The last amino acid is then cleaved together with the bound amino-acyl synthetase using limited Edman degradation or by proximity based radical cleavage, and washed away. The process is repeated using the same sequential order of synthetases (i.e., each cycle will introduce each of the 20 synthetases into the wells). The last amino acid may be cleaved using a protease that is conjugated to the synthetase, as an example, in order to limit its activity and prevent unnecessary degradation of the protein. This method can quantitate the number of proteins, similar to SAGE.
Specific Chemical & Other Molecular Recognition Sites
Other applications for the chemFET arrays involve the use of molecular recognition sites, wherein molecules that specifically recognize particular target molecules are either identified or designed and applied to the surface of the array. Previous work with chemFETs has demonstrated the ability of single individual ISFETs to recognize ions such as potassium (Brzozka et al. “Enhanced performance of potassium CHEMFETs by optimization of a polysiloxane membrane,” Sensors and Actuators B. Chemical 18, 38-41 (1994)), hydrogen, calcium and sodium (Sibbald et al. “A miniature flow-through cell with a four-function ChemFET integrated circuit for simultaneous measurements of potassium, hydrogen, calcium and sodium ions,” Analytica chimica acta. 159, 47-62 (1984)), heavy metals (Cobben et al. “Transduction of selective recognition of heavy metal ions by chemically modified field effect transistors (CHEMFETs),” Journal of the American Chemical Society 114, 10573-10582 (1992)). Such recognition elements may either be uniformly applied to the surface, or may be precisely applied to specific locations using any of the binding or in situ chemistries mentioned above, thereby producing an array of individual recognition elements across the surface of the ISFET array.
Additionally other surface modifications have been reported with single individual FETs that would be applicable to the chemFET arrays of the invention. These include the use of “catcher molecules” (Han et al. “Detection of DNA hybridization by a field-effect transistor with covalently attached catcher molecules,” Surface and Interface Analysis 38, 176-181 (2006)), elongated tethers such as PEG, PEA or conductive molecules such as carbon nanotubes (Martel et al. “Single- and multi-wall carbon nanotube field-effect transistors,” Applied Physics Letters 73, 2447-2449 (1998)) that serve to permit molecular detection via ISFET activity.
Non-Invasive Biological Monitoring
Tissue microarrays in combination with chemFET arrays are further contemplated by the invention. Tissue microarrays are discussed in greater detail in Battifora Lab Invest 1986, 55:244-248; Battifora and Mehta Lab Invest 1990, 63:722-724; and Kononen et al. Nat Med 1998, 4:844-847.
In yet another aspect, the invention contemplates analysis of cell cultures (e.g., two-dimensional cells cultures) (see for example Baumann et al. Sensors and Actuators B 55 1999 77:89), and tissue sections placed in contact with the chemFET array. As an example, a brain section may be placed in contact with the chemFET array of the invention and changes in the section may be detected either in the presence or absence of stimulation such as but not limited to neurotoxins and the like. Transduction of neural processes and/or stimulation can thereby be analyzed. In these embodiments, the chemFETs may operate by detecting calcium and/or potassium fluxes via the passivation layer itself or via receptors for these ions that are coated onto the passivation layer.
chemFET arrays may also be employed to monitor large numbers of cells simultaneously. In practice, cells and tissues are surrounded in a complex liquid medium containing many different ion species. The concentration of the various ions relates to the health, nutrition, and function of the cells. In order to better understand this relationship, planar ISFET arrays could be employed for the temporal and spatial analysis of a single cell or a large number of cells grown in vitro. Similar work has been shown using a simple 2×2 (Milgrew et al. “The development of scalable sensor arrays using standard CMOS technology,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 103, 37-42 (2004)) or 16×16 (Milgrew et al. “A large transistor-based sensor array chip for direct extracellular imaging,” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 111-112, 347-353 (2005)) MOSFET arrays to monitor the solution pH in cell cultures. These previous attempts were unable to solve the trapped-charge issue, and/or to obtain functional arrays beyond the 16×16 size, and were similarly unable to get these arrays to operate quickly. The arrays of the invention facilitate higher pixel density, increased speed, greater sensitivity, and the ability to couple the array with specific molecular recognition as outlined above.
One contemplated application involves culture (with or without division) of cells such as brain cells, heart cells, or other tissues on the chemFET array surface and monitoring cellular responses of such cells either in the absence or presence of one or more chemical, biological, mechanical, or environmental stimuli. As an example, the cellular response may be ionic flux (pH), release or uptake of other ions such as Na+, K+, Ca++, or Mg++, or other electrochemical activity, any of which may be detected as a change in ion concentration at the chemFET surface.
Furthermore, by adopting the principle of electrical impedance tomography (Barber, C. C., Brown et al. “Imaging spatial distribution of resistivity using applied potential tomography.” Electronics Letters 19, 933-935 (1983), and Chai et al. “Electrical impedance tomography for sensing with integrated microelectrodes on a CMOS microchip.” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 127, 97-101 (2007)) and applying it to these measurements, a reconstruction algorithm can be used to detect and characterize off-plane ion concentration and flow from cells in situ. This would allow analysis of the biology in the depths of the tissue, beyond the conventional reach of the surface-based ISFET sensor array.
The maintenance of ionic disequilibria is a fundamental process directly affected by metabolic activity. One important measure of metabolism is cellular respiration, which involves both glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. These two properties have been implicated in a number of cellular activities (Table 2). In order to monitor cellular respiration, a planar array of pH-sensitive ISFETs can be complemented with integrated on-chip dissolved oxygen sensors. These would be based on conventional amperometric Clark cells using an electrochemical three-electrode cell system connected to a potentiostat (Amatore et al. “Analysis of individual biochemical events based on artifical synapses using ultramicroelectrodes: cellular oxidative burst.” Faraday Discussions 116, 319-333 (2000)).
In general, a potentiostat circuit can be built directly into CMOS. The three electrodes are fabricated as a post-processing step by using electroless plating to deposit gold onto three standard aluminium bond pads (Chai et al. “Modification of a CMOS microelectrode array for a bioimpedance imaging system.” Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 111, 305-309 (2005)) and then the electrodes are formed by depositing silver or platinum directly on to the gold. Alternatively, if the cells are in an unbuffered medium, then a CMOS-based oxygen sensor can be implemented by taking advantage of the local pH change that occurs during the oxygen reduction reaction (Lehmann et al. “Simultaneous measurement of cellular respiration and acidification with a single CMOS ISFET.” Biosensors and Bioelectronics 16, 195-203 (2001)). A working electrode can be fabricated around the gate of a pH-sensitive ISFET and would electrolyze dissolved oxygen. This results in a pH variation due to the generation of hydroxyl ions in close proximity to the gate. This variation is logarithmically proportional to oxygen content and can be measured by the ISFET.
Furthermore, there is strong evidence to suggest that cells change their metabolism according to structure, topography, chemical properties, and condition of the extracellular matrix that they are suspended in, or to which they are attached (Boateng et al. “RGD and YIGSR synthetic peptides facilitate cellular adhesion identical to that of laminin and fibronectin but alter the physiology of neonatal cardiac myocytes.” American Journal of Physiology: Cell Physiology 288, C30-C38 (2005), and McBeath et al. “Cell shape, cytoskeletal tension, and RhoA regulate stem cell lineage commitment.” Developmental Cell 6, 483-495 (2004)). Understand the effects of culture conditions on cellular metabolism would be particularly important in the wider context of tissue engineering. To this end, ISFET arrays can be used with small polymer cell chips (cell constructs) to analyze single cells, cell lines, cell sheets, and multi-layered cell sheets. The cell constructs could be fabricated using embossing, micro-contact printing, and photolithography to offer a convenient platform for cells. To date, there are no cell culture systems available to measure cell metabolism relative to the effects of transition from monolayer to truly three-dimensional environments. However, by using a polymer chip that includes a recess filled with collagen gel incorporating cells, a three-dimensional culture can be analyzed with a planar ISFET array.
Invasive Biological Monitoring
In yet another aspect, the invention contemplates the use of chemFET arrays, functionalized as described herein or in another manner, for use in vivo. Such an array may be introduced into a subject (e.g., in the brain or other region that is subject to ion flux) and then analyzed for changes based on the status of the subject.
An chemFET array may be directly implanted into a test environment and used to monitor the presence and amount of specific molecules of interest. Some such applications include environmental testing for specific toxins and important elements, or direct implantation of the device into the body of a subject, providing a 3D image of the concentration of specific molecules within the tissue.
Electrically active cells display electrical activity because of ionic flows. Hence, in order to better understand tissue physiology in vivo, an ISFET array can be integrated onto a novel ion-discriminating tissue probe. The invention contemplates a generic platform technology that can be applied to analyses in at least three distinct areas: (i) the behavior of epithelia and the role of ions in wound healing, (ii) neural recording, and (iii) optical stimulation and recording. Each of these is discussed in greater detail below.
Epithelia form a barrier between the body and the external environment. Moreover, they provide a tight seal against the leakage of ions and their selective ion-pumping activity generates a large electrochemical gradient. The resultant bioelectrical fields, apparent in regions where the epithelial sheet is damaged, have been shown to stimulate and orient cell migration, optimizing closure (Zhao et al. “Electrical signals control wound healing through phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase-gamma and PTEN.” Nature 442, 457-460 (2006)). There is a distinct difference between the fields generated by individual cells, cell-clusters, and sheets. Hence, an ISFET array probe can be used to analyze this transition by imaging the lateral and spatio-temporal ion dynamics and measuring potential generation during wound healing. Typically, cells with identified channelopathies can be used to analyze how genetic diseases change the ion dynamics and impact on wound healing. This would improve our understanding of the underlying mechanisms in health and disease, and also lead to new tissue repair strategies.
The parallel action of large numbers of neurons is fundamental to the operation of the nervous system and results in various characteristic macroscopic oscillations (for example, gamma rhythms) that are important to brain function. Techniques for simultaneously measuring the activity of many neurons are consequently of great interest and utility (Wise et al. “Wireless implantable microsystems: high-density electronic interfaces to the nervous system.” Proceedings of the IEEE 92, 76-97 (2004)). The potential at any given point in nervous tissue is generated by many distinct ionic currents. For example, synaptic vesicle release involves Ca2+ flux, synaptic inhibition of Cl− flux, and action potential generation by Na+/K+ flux. Previous work has defined these rhythms in terms of net macroscopic currents (e.g., local field potentials less than 100 Hz (Cunningham et al. “A role for fast rhythmic bursting neurons in cortical gamma oscillations in vitro.” PNAS 101, 7152-7157 (2004)). Hence, an ISFET array probe can be used to probe cortical rhythmic states for the first time at the ionic level. This would identify the contribution of the major ionic species to the gamma, and other rhythms, and therefore increase our understanding of cortical function. In turn, this knowledge would contribute to research into therapeutic drugs and technologies for a wide range of neurological dysfunction.
Electronic stimulation of neurons has become increasingly important in recent years. Notable examples are in the field of cochlear prosthesis where electronically acquired data is used to stimulate the cochlear nerve of a patient to restore auditory function. Unfortunately, electrode-based implants fail to perform in large-scale arrays due to problems with electrolytic degradation, cellular dielectric shielding, and subsequent power consumption problems. Consequently, their use in retinal and cortical implants has been somewhat limited to date. (Humayun et al. “Visual perception in a blind subject with a chronic microelectronic retinal prosthesis.” Vision Research 43, 2573-2581 (2003), and Normann et al. “A neural interface for a cortical vision prosthesis.” Vision Research 39, 2577-2587 (1999).) Optical stimulation of functionalized neurons using engineered opsins could offer an alternative that is an energetically more favorable route forward. Furthermore, it would be possible to specifically target certain types of ion flow. For instance, channelrhodopsin-2 (Nagel et al. “Channelrhodopsin-2, a directly light-gated cation-selective membrane channel.” PNAS 100, 13940-13945 (2003)) could be used to target Na+ and Ca2+ flow while halorhodopsin (Gradinaru et al. “Targeting and readout strategies for fast optical neural control in vitro and in vivo.” Journal of Neuroscience 27, 14231-14238 (2007)) could be used to target Cl− flow. Hence, integrating this technology with an ISFET sensor array can enable, for the first time, a route to feedback-controlled stimulation and function.
EQUIVALENTSWhile several inventive embodiments have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the function and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the inventive embodiments described herein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the inventive teachings is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific inventive embodiments described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, inventive embodiments may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Inventive embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the inventive scope of the present disclosure.
All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood to control over dictionary definitions, definitions in documents incorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the defined terms.
All references, patents and patent applications disclosed herein are incorporated by reference with respect to the subject matter for which each is cited, which in some cases may encompass the entirety of the document.
The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”
The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.
As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.
As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.
It should also be understood that, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, in any methods claimed herein that include more than one step or act, the order of the steps or acts of the method is not necessarily limited to the order in which the steps or acts of the method are recited.
In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.
Claims
1-37. (canceled)
38. An apparatus comprising
- a plurality of nucleic acids attached to a chemFET array comprising 104 chemFETs.
39. An apparatus comprising
- a plurality of nucleic acids attached to a chemFET array having a pitch of 1-10 microns.
40. The apparatus of claim 39, wherein the pitch is about 9 microns, or about 5 microns or about 2.6 microns.
41. An apparatus comprising
- a plurality of nucleic acids attached to a chemFET array having a surface area of 21 mm by 21 mm or less.
42. The apparatus of claim 41, wherein the chemFET array has a surface area of 9 mm by 9 mm, or 7 mm by 7 mm.
43. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the plurality of nucleic acids is homogeneous.
44. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the plurality of nucleic acids is heterogeneous.
45. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are less than 1000 bases in length.
46. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are single stranded.
47. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are double stranded.
48. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are DNA, RNA, miRNA, or cDNA.
49. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are aptamers.
50. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the nucleic acids are covalently attached to the chemFET array.
51-79. (canceled)
80. A method for detecting an analyte in a sample comprising
- contacting a sample to the apparatus of claim 38, and
- detecting electrical output from a chemFET sensor in the chemFET array after contact with the sample as an indicator of analyte presence.
81. The method of claim 80, wherein the analyte is a nucleic acid.
82. The method of claim 80, wherein the analyte is a protein.
83-116. (canceled)
117. The apparatus of claim 38, wherein the chemFET array is coupled to a reaction chamber array.
118. The apparatus of claim 117, wherein an individual chemFET sensor in the chemFET array is coupled to individual reaction chambers.
Type: Application
Filed: Jun 26, 2009
Publication Date: Nov 11, 2010
Patent Grant number: 8349167
Applicant: Ion Torrent Systems Incorporated (Guilford, CT)
Inventors: Jonathan M. Rothberg (Guilford, CT), Wolfgang Hinz (New Haven, CT)
Application Number: 12/492,844
International Classification: G01N 27/414 (20060101);