Abstract: The invention comprises adding bromide to a cooling water system containing corrosion and scale control treatment chemicals at elevated concentrations (40 ppm or greater). A fraction of the recirculating water is drawn off in a side stream and ozonated. Ozone oxidizes bromide to bromine which then serves as a biocide. The bromide levels are chosen such that the ozone/bromide reaction is preferred over the ozone/treatment chemicals reaction. Thus, the addition of bromide at elevated concentrations, while acting as a biocide precursor, serves to protect treatment chemicals necessary for corrosion and scale control.

Abstract: A fluid treating method for treating fluid to kill or inhibit bacteria and/or to reduce the concentration of undesirable metal constituents contained therein is disclosed. The method utilizes a bed of metal particulate matter. The metal particulate matter comprises copper. Preferably, the metal particulate also contains zinc and can be in the form of an alloy. The fluid treated is often water, preferably, drinking water. Among the metals that may be effected by the present method are aluminum, arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, selenium and silver.

Abstract: This disclosure relates to aeration, especially biological treatment of wastewater with fine pore diffusers and in situ cleaning of these diffusers with liquid and/or gaseous cleaning fluids supplied to the diffusers through cleaning fluid channels that respectively have separate and direct connections to plural diffusers. Aeration and cleaning of fine pore diffusers is described in which cleaning fluid is conducted from a source of such fluid to a multiplicity of diffusers via a flow path which is separate from a flow path which conveys aeration gas to the diffusers. Methods of fabricating aeration gas distribution assemblies are also disclosed. One such method involves securing to an aeration gas distribution conduit at least a portion of a cleaning fluid distribution channel which includes one or more cleaning fluid distribution conduits and further includes connectors coupled to the cleaning fluid distribution conduits.

Abstract: A process for reducing the phosphate content in waste water from the preparation of salts of ascorbic acid 2-monophosphate comprisesA. treating the waste water from the crystallization of the metal salts of ascorbic acid 2-monophosphate with an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal hypochlorite, chlorine or H.sub.2 O.sub.2,andB. precipitating, at a pH of 9-12, the inorganic phosphate which has been produced from organically bound phosphorus and/or was present in the waste water, especially as calcium phosphate.

Abstract: A system for treating wastewater and improving the quality of wastewater effluent by preventing solids from being discharged in the effluent is disclosed. Wastewater having a concentration of waste solids flows into a wastewater collection container through a waste-water inlet and solids are allowed to distribute into a lower horizontal sludge layer and an upper horizontal scum layer with a horizontal layer of liquid therebetween. A substantially upstanding elongate tube is immersed in the wastewater within the container and the interior of the tube is exposed to the horizontal layer of liquid through a plurality of inclined slots in the tube. Liquid flows from the horizontal liquid layer through the slots into the interior of the tube and thereafter through a liquid effluent outlet of the container. Preferably, the slots extend vertically along a majority of the depth of the wastewater in the container.

Abstract: Free halogen sources (e.g., sodium hypochlorite and chlorine) added as slimicides in high organic component process streams such as pulp and paper processing are rendered more efficacious by the addition of selected N-hydrogen compounds (namely, 5,5-dimethylhydantoin, 5-ethyl-5-methylhydantoin, cyanuric acid, succinimide, urea, 4,4-dimethyl-2-oxazolidinone, and glycouril) to the process stream. The latter compounds may be added to the process stream before or after the slimicide is added or combined with the slimicide and added directly thereto. The direct use of halogenated hydantoins has also been found to provide improved efficacy relative to free halogen sources. In addition, absorbable organic halogen by-products are reduced.

Abstract: Polyether polyamino methylene phosphonates, which possess high calcium tolerance and have been found to give excellent inhibition of the formation, deposition and adherence of scale-forming salts, especially calcium carbonate, in aqueous systems involving severe conditions which include elevated pH, high dissolved solids content, and high saturation levels of calcium carbonate, are degraded by the oxidizing biocides bromine and chlorine used to control microbial growth in such aqueous systems. It has been found that organic sulfonamides provide excellent protection against such degradation when they are added to the aqueous system along with the polyether polyamino methylene phosphonate scale inhibitors.

Abstract: Described is a method to recycle laden fluid containing explosives or neutralized chemical agents. For example, the explosive laden fluid is passed through four filtering stages; a clarifier, a filter press, a sand filter and, ultimately, a reverse osmosis device. The feed water to the reverse osmosis device is a saturated solution of explosive or neutralizing chemical agent. The resulting permeate is about 10 ppm of explosive or neutralizing chemical agent.

Abstract: A water treatment system including a tank for containing a solid treatment product such as a solid halogen. The water treatment system is adapted to be used in combination with a cooling system wherein treated water is fed to the cooling system through an outlet conduit leading from the tank. Drainage of water from the tank is facilitated by use of an eductor connected to an inlet conduit for the tank whereby water is drained from the tank to the inlet conduit and back to the outlet conduit, and is thereafter conveyed back to the cooling system. Thus, a closed system is formed by the treatment system in combination with an associated cooling system wherein the closed system is substantially environmentally safe in that drainage of the tank outside of the closed system is avoided.

Abstract: A chlorinator in combination with a domestic water system is disclosed. The water system has a water inlet under the surface of an outdoor body of water, a pressurized storage tank, a water pump, an inlet pipe operably connecting the water pump and the water inlet, a detector/controller operable to sense the water level in the storage tank and to energize and de-energize the water pump as required to maintain the water level in the tank within predetermined limits, and an outlet line through which water can flow from the tank to the water system. The water pump is operably connected to discharge water into the interior of the storage tank. The chlorinator has a tank for storing dilute aqueous chlorine, a chlorine pump operably connected to withdraw aqueous chlorine from the aqueous chlorine tank, and to deliver the aqueous chlorine to the interior of the water inlet pipe near the water inlet.

Abstract: A simple winterizing/maintenance process which enables the pool owner to take samples of a swimming pool water, analyze it, and add the appropriate chemicals to the pool during the wintertime off-season months when it is covered and out of normal service. A device has been designed to distribute chemicals throughout a pool and provide the necessary mixing action to assure homogeneity of the water and chemicals. This entire process is performed with the pool cover in place and the main pool pump and filtration system out of operation. The need to winterize the pool or lift the cover at any time during the off-season is eliminated.

Abstract: Water vapor in the atmosphere is condensed on a condenser surface which is cooled either by a standard refrigeration system or by a thermoelectric system. Condensate water is treated by filtration and by the addition of a disinfectant, and the treated water is stored in a holding tank. Auxiliary water from a local source is treated similarly in a parallel system and stored in a second holding tank. As it is pumped from holding tank to a dispensing tap, treated water passes through a second water treatment which filters pyrogens and other bacterial residue from the water, and also removes residual disinfectant.

Abstract: Processes for preparing a relatively concentrated aqueous solution of about 700-3000 ppm hyprobromous acid are provided. Hypochlorous acid solutions are prepared by either reacting chlorine gas with water or sodium hypochlorite with an acid. The resulting hypochlorous acid is then reacted with an alkali metal or alkaline earth bromide in order to form the hypobromous acid. Critical parameters are pH, Br/Cl mole ratio, and chlorine concentration. Under optimum conditions, substantially 100% conversion of bromide to hypobromous acid can be attained.

Abstract: A novel method and compositions are disclosed for the treatment of water in recirculating water systems. The method includes providing a boron level of at least 20 ppm in the water, continually eroding into the water a compressed sanitizer/algicide component including a halogen source material, a boron source material, and glycoluril, and periodically adding to the water an oxidizing clarifier comprising a chlorine source material, a non-halogen, chlorine source material, and a boron source material. The invention also provides novel water treatment chemicals including the compressed sanitizer/algicide component and the clarifier useful in the foregoing system. The system and compositions are safe and reliable, control algal and fungal growth and generally provide improved water quality for recirculating water systems.

Abstract: A process for separating grease and solid materials from a waste material so as to produce an aqueous discharge liquid. Waste material containing grease, water and solid materials is passed into a screen tank where course solid materials are separated out of the waste material. The filtrate is accumulated and injected into a series of filters wherein each filter is finer than the previous filter. The filtrate is then agitated to produce a foamed liquid which is substantially separated into a foamed oil portion and an aqueous liquid portion. The aqueous liquid portion is separated from the foamed oil portion and discharged into a sewage system. The solids captured during the filtering process are collected and in turn dried to produce a dried material which can be ground and mixed with other products and processed into animal feed, pesticides or the like.

Abstract: A novel method and compositions are disclosed for the treatment of water in recirculating water systems. The method includes providing a boron level of at least 20 ppm in the water, continually eroding into the water a compressed sanitizer/algicide component including a halogen source material, a boron source material, and glycoluril, and periodically adding to the water an oxidizing clarifier comprising a chlorine source material, a non-halogen, chlorine source material, and a boron source material. The invention also provides novel water treatment chemicals including the compressed sanitizer/algicide component and the clarifier useful in the foregoing system. The system and compositions are safe and reliable, control algal and fungal growth and generally provide improved water quality for recirculating water systems.

Abstract: A system and method for the delivery and application of a biocide treatment to a facility. A specially adapted vehicle is used to transport biocide precursors, and a generator capable of generating biocide from those precursors, to the site of the facility to be treated. Incompatible precursors are isolated from each other in separate compartments in the vehicle. At the site, the generator is communicated with a fluid flow path passing through the facility to be treated. While biocide is being generated in the generator from the precursors, a carrier liquid is simultaneously circulated through the fluid flow path, including the generator, so that biocide from the generator is introduced to the carrier liquid and thereby carried from the generator through the facility to treat it.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a process for decreasing the content of organic-chemical substances in waste water by chemical oxidation, preferably in the presence of chlorine, and optionally additional alkaline thermal treatment of the waste water, in which the waste water, which has a COD content (chemical oxygen demand) and is alkaline or is rendered alkaline, is introduced into at least one reactor and is treated at a temperature of more than 15.degree. C. with a chlorine-containing and/or chlorine-releasing chemical substance, the introduction of chlorine taking place in a quantity of more than 1 g chlorine/g COD (relative to the chlorine content of the chlorine-containing and/or chlorine-releasing chemical substance), and a molar ratio of OH.sup.- to chlorine of more than 1.5 and a pH value of the waste water of .gtoreq.5 being maintained or set, and the resulting chlorine-treated, hypochlorite-containing waste water is subjected to a reaction time of more than 0.

Abstract: This invention discloses a device that provides the most effective means or method of dispensing a strong stabilized such as Chlorine or Bromine in the form of tablets, stick or granules to sanitize water in a contained vessel such as swimming pool, spa, or in a recirculating water system such as cooling tower, fountain, or water reservoir. This device contains stabilized chlorine or bromine tablets, sticks or granules, and sinks to the bottom of the water contained vessel. There it release chlorine or bromine into the water from the bottom of the water containing vessel without losing any chlorine or bromine into the atmosphere.

Abstract: A process for delivering a selected effective amount of a dry granular antimicrobial composition to an aqueous system is provided comprising (a) adding the composition into sealed rigid container means, wherein the container means has at least one resealable opening; (b) establishing sealed communication of at least one of the resealable opening(s) with discharge means for effecting the delivery of the composition from the container means to the aqueous system wherein the discharge means has discharge valve means for effecting the discharge of the selected effective amount of the composition from the discharge means; (c) removing at least one seal from at least one of the resealable opening(s) that is in sealed communication with the discharge means for effecting the discharge of the composition through this resealable opening(s), and into the discharge means; (d) operating the discharge valve means for effecting the discharge of the selected effective amount of the composition from within the discharge means

Abstract: A biocidal composition comprising a dry, water soluble mixture of a solid bromide and a stable, solid peracetylperoxyborate compound useful as a chlorine-free water treatment system, said peracetylperoxyborate composition generating hypobromous acid upon addition of water. Methods of treating water with said compositions are also disclosed.

Abstract: A chlorination and dechlorination apparatus and method for the treatment of wastewater or other fluid comprising a chlorinator, a contact tank, and a dechlorinator. The contact tank is a vessel having an inlet opening and an outlet opening and is divided into two contact chambers by a baffle which runs vertically the entire length of the contact tank. A baffle opening is provided at the lower end of the baffle to allow passage of fluid from the first contact chamber to the second contact chamber. The chlorinator includes a chlorine tablet feeder and the dechlorinator includes a dechlorination tablet feeder. The fluid under treatment flows from inlet opening to the outlet opening in a plug-flow pattern. Previous to entering the contact chambers, the fluid washes over and dissolves chlorine tablets stacked in the chlorine tablet feeder. After flowing through the contact chambers, the fluid washes over and dissolves dechlorination tablets stacked in the dechlorination tablet feeder.

Abstract: A toilet cleaning block which releases a halogen disinfecting agent in a controlled, substantially constant rate for 2 to about 4 months of constant contact with water and is then completely dissolved in the water comprises an admixture of an agent which releases a halogen disinfecting agent when in contact with water, about 4 to 10% aluminum hydroxide based on the total weight of the block and up to about 1% by weight of a mold release lubricant, said admixture being in the form of a coherent solid resistant to internal water penetration having a density of 1.10 to 1.60 g/cc, a ratio of effective surface area to weight of about 1:1.05 to 1:1.25 and a crush fracturing strength of about 9-109 kg.

Abstract: A shape for chlorination and dechlorination tablets which reduces pillaring and wicking effects during fluid treatment and offers a consistent dissolution rate during the chlorination or dechlorination process. The opposing surfaces of the stacked tablets are formed by a combination of concave and convex shapes. The shape of the opposing surfaces prevents the formation of a central pillar, resulting in the formation of a side pillar instead. During the formation of the side pillar, the fluid contact surface area of the tablets gradually increases to compensate for the diminishing periphery of the tablets. As a result, the dissolution rate of the tablet is kept substantially constant over the course of tablet dissolution. The shape of the opposing surfaces of the stacked tablets also only provides for minimum contact between adjacent tablets, slowing the moisture diffusion speed and minimizing wicking effects.

Abstract: A method of treating a fluid containing matter in suspension and/or in solution by using separation membranes, in which method a "feed" additive for adsorption and/or filtration purposes is added to the fluid to be treated, and a "backwash" additive for the purpose of improving backwashing is added to the membrane backwash fluid, wherein a backwash additive is chosen that is capable of being neutralized by the feed additive, the backwash fluid which contains the backwash additive and which has washed away unused feed additive is collected as a backwash discharge, the backwash discharge is allowed sufficient contact time to enable neutralization to take place in said discharge, and the resulting product is separated into a residual product that is concentrated in solid matter and a fluid that is recycled to the inlet of the installation.

Abstract: The present invention describes a novel method and apparatus for treating and/or disinfecting medical wastes wherein the medical wastes may be shredded and the contact vessel may be sealed and may be under greater pressure than atmospheric pressure and may have a detention time of no more than 5 minutes. An organic hydroxy acid or carboxylic acid and an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chlorite are mixed in the contact vessel. The reaction between the acid and chlorite produces chlorine dioxide which is the active substance used to treat and/or disinfect the medical wastes.

Abstract: A system for the preparation of a lime slurry and metering of the slurry, which prevents scaling and plugging of equipment and piping. The elimination of scaling and ease of metering are achieved by a combination of process steps in an automated operating sequence. The system is particularly adaptable to the addition of lime to municipal water systems for reduction of the acidity of the water.

Abstract: A process for electrochemically treating an aqueous solution containing inorganic oxynitrogen species is disclosed in which the aqueous solution is fed into the catholyte compartment of an electrochemical reduction cell using a high surface area cathode separated from an anolyte compartment to electrochemically reduce substantially all of the oxynitrogen species to nitrogen or ammonia and produce a purified water product.

Abstract: A process of and apparatus for determining when the effective bromine contained in a polybromide impregnated resin cartridge used in a water disinfection system is depleted. The bromine content of the supply water is measured. When the bromine content falls below a desired level, a comparative circuit is actuated to initiate flow of the supply water through a bromine cartridge assembly. At the same time, a timing cycle is initiated. The bromine content is continuously monitored and if it does not rise above the desired level during the life of the timing cycle then an signal is output to indicate that the bromine cartridge is depleted.

Abstract: A method is disclosed for stabilizing glutaraldehyde in aqueous systems is disclosed. The method of the invention comprises the addition of an oxidizer to the aqueous system so as to prevent the undesired conversion of glutaraldehyde to non-biocidal products.

Abstract: A method is disclosed for the treatment of water, containing an oxidizing agent, flowing through a conduit or contained in a vessel. The oxidation reduction potential or the ORP of the water is continuously measured at a sensing position and a reducing agent is fed to the water in response to the measured ORP to neutralize the oxidizing agent and maintain a desired concentration of reducing agent residuals in the water at the second sensing position.

Abstract: A method for automatic dispensing of chlorine in swimming pools where a computer measures the pool water temperature, and an empirically derived table is used for the computer to select a temperature related volume unit figure for chlorine dispensing, which volume unit figure is adjusted according to a first step calibration of the chlorine dispensing device and a second step calibration according to the water volume of the existing pool.

Abstract: The present invention provides a new and improved method for treating drinking water in a drinking water treatment plant that provides for substantial or complete removal of chlorine dioxide and an associated by-product from water when chlorine dioxide is used as an initial disinfectant and/or chemical oxidizing agent. More particularly, the present invention provides a means for decreasing undesirable residual amounts of chlorine dioxide and chlorite ion using ferrous chloride.

Abstract: The likelihood of proliferation of micro-organisms in a downstream conduit connecting the outlet of a chlorine filter to a de-chlorinated water outlet in a water supply system when no water is flowing in the conduit is reduced by providing a by-pass conduit between the upstream conduit and the downstream conduit. The flow of chlorinated water through the by-pass conduit is prevented when water is flowing from the chlorinated water inlet through the upstream conduit, the filter and the downstream conduit to the de-chlorinated water outlet.

Abstract: A mechanism for wastewater treatment which includes a plurality of solids settling chambers, at least a primary, secondary and a tertiary filter for selectively filtering waste water and effecting settling of solids of different sizes in the settling chambers and flow equalization ports for effecting demand flow of wastewater through the mechanism and the eventual discharge of high quality effluent. Chlorination and optionally dechlorination are effected as integral process functions of the wastewater treatment mechanism.

Abstract: A process for the removal of mercury from industrial waste streams is disclosed wherein the waste stream is a nitrate based solution that has been decomposed by the addition of hypochlorite. The method involves adding a reducing agent to reduce the hypochlorite and/or adjusting the pH by the use of a strong acid to less than about 2.0, converting any residual chlorine to a soluble unreactive salt, adding a soluble precipitating agent, such as sodium sulfide, to the solution in a ratio to the mercury present of greater than 1:1 to about 2:1 to precipitate out the mercury as a mercury compound. The solution is then filtered to remove the precipitated mercury compound.

Abstract: A continuous process is described for the preparation of fertilizers from animal waste consisting of the following steps:a) anaerobic fermentation of waste up to BOD.sub.5 of 300-2000,b) treatment with HNO.sub.3 up to pH 1-2,c) treatment with Ca(OH) up to pH 6.5-7 and S.A.R. index<6, with the addition of small quantities of H.sub.2 O.sub.2 before or after step c).

Abstract: A method of treating untreated water containing hydrogen sulfide by adjusting the pH of the untreated water to a pH level of no greater than 6.0 and thereafter converting the hydrogen sulfide in the pH treated water to sulfuric acid while adjusting the pH of the water to a level sufficient to prevent the formation of elemental sulfur.

Abstract: Methods and compositions for generating stable, residual disinfectants during the ozonization of water, comprising the carrying out the ozonization of water in the presence of bromide ions and an effective amount of a hypobromite ion scavenger possessing imide and/or amide functionality that preferentially converts hypobromite ions to biocidal, ozone-stable derivatives thereof to thereby suppress the catalytic decomposition reaction of ozone with hypobromite ions. The methods and compositions of the present invention are useful for water disinfection and algae control, generally.

Abstract: A process for treating an aqueous waste water or groundwater containing organic contaminants degradable by hydrated electrons comprises contacting the aqueous waste water or groundwater with an agent which generates hydrated electrons on photolysis. Additionally, the aqueous waste water or groundwater is irradiated with UV light to photolyse the hydrated electron generating agent, thereby generating hydrated electrons to degrade the contaminants. In one embodiment, the aqueous waste water or groundwater is contacted with the hydrated electron generating agent and a reducing agent to recycle the hydrated electron generating agent.

Abstract: Method of processing water including bath water and water employed in air treatment plants, which is conveyed in a circuit containing a contaminating point and a processing plant, the water exiting the contaminating point being contaminated water having a redox potential which is measurable and the method including, in the order recited, continuously measuring the redox potential of the contaminated water at the inlet of the processing plant; introducing into the contaminated water an auxiliary processing agent which is a mixture including a flocculating agent which promotes deposition of corpuscular pollutants and a halide which reduces ozone and disinfects the contaminated water as a function of the redox potential in such a way that the auxiliary processing agent is introduced in proportion to a drop in the redox potential; treating the water with ozone from an ozone generator in a spatial region defined within the processing plant and forming flocks including the corpuscular pollutants; and filtering the

Abstract: A method whereby a concentrated aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide is injected into offshore water intake facilities for preventing zebra mussel infestation therein is described. The chlorine dioxide is generated from generators positioned on a portable vessel above the water intake facilities. The treatment using concentrated chlorine dioxide solution permits periodic treatment so that the same portable generators may be used to treat a number of water intake facilities.

Abstract: This invention relates to a method of reducing the concentration of sulfides in an aqueous system by first treating the aqueous system with hydrogen peroxide to lower the sulfide concentration to approximately 300 ppm, or less, then subsequently treating the aqueous system with chlorine dioxide to further reduce the sulfide concentration to a desirable level. The method of the invention is capable of reducing the sulfide content of the treated aqueous system to as low as tenths of a part of sulfide per million parts of sour water.

Abstract: A method and system is disclosed for adding chlorine to a water supply system to kill bacteria, and in particular, Legionella bacteria. A corrosion inhibitor additive is added with the chlorine, to ensure that corrosion or other damage to the pipes does not occur. A method is disclosed for initially setting up proper levels of chlorine and corrosion inhibitor, and maintaining those levels. Systems for adding the materials to the hot water supply system are disclosed to ensure that they are adequately and thoroughly mixed into the water.

Abstract: The present invention is a solution for detoxifying contaminants, such as ammonia, chlorine and chloramine, in aquatic systems. The solution includes a composition of an amine-based ammonia detoxifying compound, in an amount effective to detoxify substantially all of the ammonia, and a dechlorinator. An aqueous solution of the amine-based compound is acidified to adjust the pH to form a stable, non-toxic solution suitable for aquatic life. In addition, methods for preparing the detoxifying solution are disclosed.

Abstract: Zebra Mussels can be controlled by treating the waters in which they grow with a composition comprising the combination of a chlorine solution and a bromide salt capable of releasing bromide ions to the chlorine solution.

Abstract: The present invention adds carbonates or chlorides of alkaline earth metals to the radioactive wastes containing sodium sulfate and subjects sulfate group in the radioactive wastes to reduction treatment, thereby converts the sulfate group into sulfides of alkaline earth metals which are chemically stable substances while suppressing SOx generation, and solidifies the radioactive wastes stably for an extended period of time by applying to the converted radioactive wastes solidifying treatment.

Abstract: A fluid treating apparatus and method for treating fluid to remove undesirable constituents contained therein are disclosed. The apparatus and method include employing a bed of metal particulate matter. The metal particulate matter is preferably chosen from metals having favorable redox potentials relative to the redox potentials of the undesirable constituents so as to establish conditions for spontaneous oxidation and reduction reactions between the undesirable constituents and the metal particles and/or having bacteriostatic or bactericidal properties in the case where the undesirable constituent sought to be treated is a bacteria.

Abstract: A process of producing a disinfecting BZ reaction comprising continuously adding, at a point in a system of continuously flowing water in which a reductant consisting of microbial life forms is present, halogens or halogen containing compounds which hydrolize to create two bistable systems at equilibrium. The first bistable system consists of Cl.sub.2, HOCL, OCl and chloramines in the water, and the second bistable system consists of IO.sub.3.sup.-, I.sub.2 and HIO in the water. The bistable systems when perturbed by the reductant will initiate an oscillating reaction certain of whose intermediate products are microbicidal.

Abstract: A toilet cleaning block which releases a halogen disinfecting agent in a controlled, substantially constant rate for 2 to about 4 months of constant contact with water and is then completely dissolved in the water comprises an admixture of an agent which releases a halogen disinfecting agent when in contact with water, about 4 to 10% aluminum hydroxide based on the total weight of the block and up to about 1% by weight of a mold release lubricant, said admixture being in the form of a coherent solid resistant to internal water penetration having a density of 1.10 to 1.60 g/cc, a ratio of effective surface area to weight of about 1:1.05 to 1:1.25 and a crush fracturing strength of about 9-109 kg.