Abstract: Systems and methods are provided for facilitating continuous affinity-based separation of phases in multi-phase formation fluid in a downhole environment. A system can comprise a formation sampler that samples a formation to gather multi-phase formation fluid in a continuous flow through a wellbore during a testing pump out of the formation. The system can also comprise a phase separator comprising one or more affinity-based separators that continuously separates one or more phases of the multi-phase formation fluid through either or both diffusion or flow while downhole in the wellbore during the testing pump out.

Abstract: Described are an interface module for two-dimensional chromatography and a method of performing a chromatographic separation that may use the interface module. The interface module includes a valve module, a collection needle, a modifier module and a sample storage element. The valve module has a first port configured to receive an eluent from a first chromatography system, a second port configured to provide a fraction obtained from the eluent, a third port and a fourth port. The collection needle and the modifier module are in fluidic communication with the valve module at the third and fourth ports, respectively. The modifier module includes a source of a modifier solvent. The sample storage element is in fluidic communication with the valve module and is configured to receive a volume of the fraction for injection as a sample into a second chromatography system.

Abstract: An ion shuttling system includes a plurality of first electrodes connected to a system configured to selectively provide an ion movement control voltage to each electrode of the plurality of first electrodes, a voltage source configured to provide one or more compensation voltages, a plurality of compensation electrodes comprising a plurality of compensation electrode pairs, where each compensation electrode pair of the plurality of compensation electrode pairs is associated with one or more different first electrodes of the plurality of first electrodes, and a plurality of switches, where each switch of the plurality of switches is connected at a respective first node to a compensation electrode of the plurality of compensation electrodes and is configured to selectively connect the respective compensation electrode to the voltage source.

Abstract: An autosampler includes a retention path for injecting a sample into a mobile phase that flows through an analysis path to a column, the retention path including a needle at a downstream end and holding the sample, an injection path including a port at an upstream end for injecting into the analysis path, the sample injected from the needle into the port, a low-pressure path having an upstream end connected to a pump, and a valve that can switch between a first state in which an upstream analysis path and a downstream analysis path are connected and a downstream end of the low-pressure path and an upstream end of the retention path are connected and a second state in which the upstream analysis path and the upstream end of the retention path are connected and the downstream end of the injection path and the downstream analysis path are connected.

Abstract: A liquid chromatography sample manager includes a thermal chamber, a sample platter mounted in the thermal chamber, and a needle drive including a base having a shaft configured to rotate about a vertical axis, the base attachable to an interior of a sample manager of a liquid chromatography system. The needle drive further includes a needle assembly attached to the base, the needle assembly including a sample needle, and a drive system attached to the base, the drive system including a sample needle motor configured to impart vertical movement of the sample needle. The liquid chromatography sample manager further includes a sample delivery system configured to transfer a first sample from a first sample vial carrier located in the sample platter into a chromatographic flow stream.

Abstract: A method and system for injecting an unconcentrated sample into a receiving LC/MS/MS system that is configured to determine a concentration of one or more PFAS analytes within the unconcentrated sample, wherein the LC/MS/MS includes ESI. The unconcentrated sample may be subjected to one or more of the following ESI conditions: i) a probe gas temperature of approximately 120° C. to approximately 180° C.; ii) a sheath gas heater setting of approximately 250° C. to approximately 400° C.; and/or iii) a sheath gas flow of approximately 8 L/min to approximately 12 L/min. The unconcentrated sample's concentration and/or an injected amount of the one or more PFAS analytes is determined.

Abstract: A method performed in a liquid chromatography system includes a metering device pushing a sample into a trap column. The metering device sucks in the sample from a sample reservoir, wherein the sucking in the sample from a sample reservoir precedes the step of pushing the sample into the trap column. The liquid chromatography system also includes a trap column and a metering device, wherein the system is adapted to assume a configuration allowing the metering device to push a sample into the trap column and wherein the metering device is adapted to push the sample into the trap column in this configuration, wherein the system is adapted to assume a configuration allowing the sample to be sucked into the system by means of the metering device. Furthermore, the invention relates to a use of the liquid chromatography system for liquid chromatography, in particular of high-pressure liquid chromatography.

Abstract: An autosampler sets an injection valve to be in a sample filling state when a sample loop is filled with a sample, and, after completion of filling with the sample, switches the injection valve to an intermediate state and first connects only one end of the sample loop to a liquid delivery channel and an analysis channel. After the above, the injection valve is switched to the sample injection state and the sample loop is interposed between the liquid delivery channel and the analysis channel, so that the sample is injected into the analysis channel.

Abstract: An autosampler is switched selectively between an injecting mode where a sampling flow path is incorporated into an analysis flow path of a liquid chromatograph and a loading mode where the sampling flow path is not incorporated into the analysis flow path and injects a sample into the analysis flow path at a position farther upstream than a separation column by being switched to the injecting mode with the sample held in the sampling flow path, and includes a clog determiner configured to acquire a sending liquid pressure of a liquid sending pump that sends a mobile phase in the analysis flow path, obtain a variation value of the liquid sending pressure when the injecting mode and the loading mode are switched and determine presence or absence of a clog in a system incorporated into the analysis flow path in the injecting mode based on the obtained variation value.

Abstract: Methods and system for identifying and quantifying antibody fragments and identifying the site of fragmentation on an antibody are provided herein.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to the determination of analytes in a sample using chromatography. The present disclosure provides methods of separating an analyte from a sample. A mobile phase is flowed through a chromatography column. The mobile phase includes about 0.005% (v/v) to about 2.50% (v/v) difluoroacetic acid and less than about 100 ppb of any individual impurity, especially metal impurities. A sample including the analyte is injected into the mobile phase. The analyte is separated from the sample.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to the determination of analytes in a sample using chromatography. The present disclosure provides methods of separating an analyte from a sample. A mobile phase is flowed through a chromatography column. The mobile phase includes about 0.005% (v/v) to about 0.20% (v/v) difluoroacetic acid and less than about 100 ppb of any individual metal impurity. A sample including the analyte is injected into the mobile phase. The analyte is separated from the sample.

Abstract: A method and system for injecting an unconcentrated sample into a receiving LC/MS/MS system that is configured to determine a concentration of one or more PFAS analytes within the unconcentrated sample, wherein the LC/MS/MS includes ESI. The unconcentrated sample is subjected to the following ESI conditions: i) a probe gas temperature of approximately 120° C. to approximately 180° C.; ii) a sheath gas heater setting of approximately 250° C. to approximately 400° C.; and iii) a sheath gas flow of approximately 8 L/min to approximately 12 L/min. The unconcentrated sample's concentration and/or an injected amount of the one or more PFAS analytes is determined.

Abstract: A valve for use with liquid chromatography or other analytical systems may include a separate and removable stator plate. The stator plate may be a with a multi-piece stator plate with different layers. A mounting device mounting device may be adapted to engage the stator plate. The mounting plate may include a plurality of ports for fluidic connections in fluid communication with fluid passageways in the stator plate. Liquid chromatography elements, such as a packed chromatography column, a sample loop, or an electronic device may be formed on one or more layers of the stator plate. A first stator plate may be removed from a valve and replaced by a second stator having additional or different liquid chromatography elements than the first stator plate.

Abstract: The disclosure relates to a system for liquid sample introduction into a chromatography system. The system includes a metering device for drawing up the liquid sample, a first multi-port valve in fluid communication with a first end of the metering device and the liquid sample, a second multi-port valve in fluid communication with a second end of the metering device and a chromatography column, and a pump in fluid communication with the second multi-port valve and a mobile phase. When the valves are in a first position the metering device draws up the liquid sample filling a portion of the metering device. When the valves are in a second position, a remaining portion of the metering device is filled with the mobile phase thereby mixing with and pressurizing the liquid sample. When the valves are in a third position, the mixed and pressurized sample flows to the chromatography column.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for the chromatographic purification of at least one cannabinoid compound, wherein the method comprises a main purification stage comprising the steps of: injecting an initial mixture comprising the at least one cannabinoid compound and one or more additional compounds onto a main stationary phase comprising silica particles, the silica particles comprising amino and/or diol groups; performing an elution with an elution solution, and collecting one or more elution fractions; and optionally, washing the main stationary phase with a washing solution and collecting one or more washing fractions; at least one of the elution fractions or washing fractions containing the at least one cannabinoid compound purified from the one or more additional compounds.

Abstract: Embodiments generally relate to a system for reading fluorescent-labelled diagnostic assays for in-vitro diagnostic applications. The system comprises a receiving member adapted to receive a fluorescent-labelled diagnostic assay cartridge carrying a fluorescent-labelled diagnostic assay; at least one excitation module configured to illuminate the diagnostic assay, when the diagnostic assay cartridge is placed in the receiving member; a camera module for capturing an image of the illuminated diagnostic as—say placed in the receiving member; a processor for receiving the captured image from the camera module and determining whether or not a target analyte was present in the diagnostic assay captured by the camera module; and memory storing firmware, the firmware including a brightness compensation module configured to adjust the intensity of an image of a diagnostic cartridge captured by the camera module, in order to emulate a uniform field of illumination over the diagnostic cartridge.

Abstract: Systems and methods for inhibiting translocation of ions across ion exchange barriers include an eluent generator having an ion source reservoir with a first electrode, an eluent generation chamber with a second electrode, an ion exchange barrier disposed therebetween, and means for reversing the polarity of a voltage or current applied across the first and second electrodes. A first polarity voltage or current applied across the electrodes generates an electric field that promotes translocation of eluent counter ions from the reservoir across the barrier, where the counter ions combine with eluent ions electrolytically generated in the chamber. By reversing the polarity of the voltage or current across the electrodes, the resulting electric field inhibits translocation of counter ions across the barrier from the reservoir into the chamber. Reverse voltage or current bias reduces counter ion concentration in the resting chamber to prevent exhaustion of ion suppressor capacity during start up.

Abstract: A fluid chromatograph includes a flow path switching part configured to switch to one of states including a sampling state in which the measuring pump is connected to a proximal end side of the sampling flow path, a total volume introduction state in which the mobile phase sending part is connected to a proximal end side of the sampling flow path and the needle port and the analysis flow path are connected to each other, an injection state in which the measuring pump is connected to the proximal end side of the sampling flow path and the needle port and the second sample loop are connected to each other, and a loop introduction state in which the mobile phase sending part is connected to one end side of the sample loop and the analysis flow path is connected to the other end side of the sample loop.

Abstract: A liquid chromatography sample organizer includes a first chamber, a plurality of stacked sample organizer shelves mounted within the first chamber each individually configured to store a sample-vial carrier including a sample, and a shelf magnet affixed to a surface of each of the plurality of stacked sample organizer shelves. A portion of the first chamber is configured to be located adjacent to, and open to, a sample manager configured to inject liquid chromatography samples into a chromatographic flow stream. Disclosed further is a liquid chromatography system having the sample organizer, a sample drawer, and a method of transferring samples between a sample manager and the sample organizer.

Abstract: A method performed in a liquid chromatography system that includes a metering device pushing a sample into a trap column. The metering device sucks in the sample from a sample reservoir, wherein the sucking in the sample from a sample reservoir precedes the step of pushing the sample into the trap column. The liquid chromatography system also includes a trap column and a metering device (100), wherein the system (1000) is adapted to assume a configuration allowing the metering device (100) to push a sample into the trap column (6) and wherein the metering device (100) is adapted to push the sample into the trap column (6) in this configuration, wherein the system (1000) is adapted to assume a configuration allowing the sample to be sucked into the system (1000) by means of the metering device (100). Furthermore, the invention relates to a use of the liquid chromatography system (1000) for liquid chromatography, in particular of high pressure liquid chromatography.

Abstract: Certain embodiments described herein are directed to systems and methods that can be used to analyze species in a fluid stream. In some configurations, a sorbent tube effective to directly sample aromatics and/or polyaromatics in a fluid stream is described.

Abstract: Systems and methods are described for rapid throughput of samples from a plurality of sample sources to a nebulizer for analysis, such as a sample analysis via ICP-MS. A system embodiment can include, but is not limited to, a valve in fluid communication with a fluid transfer line to receive a plurality of samples from a plurality of sample sources from an autosampler unit and direct the sample into a valve channel; a first pump to draw sample into the valve channel, a sensor positioned adjacent a nebulizer to detect respective samples of the plurality of samples and generate one or more signals in response thereto; a second pump to push the sample from the valve channel to the nebulizer; and a controller configured to coordinate operation of the first pump, the second pump, and the valve based at least on the one or more signals.

Abstract: A liquid chromatography system includes a separation column, a trap column, and a first switching valve. The first switching valve is adapted to assume a first switching position for bringing a sample into the trap column in a first flow direction. The switching valve is also adapted to assume a second switching position for fluidly connecting the trap column with the separation column and providing a flow from the trap column to the separation column in a second flow direction. The second flow direction is opposite to the first flow direction. The first switching valve is adapted to assume a third switching position for fluidly connecting the trap column, with the separation column and providing a flow from the trap column to the separation column in the first flow direction.

Abstract: The present disclosure relates to a method and a solid phase microextraction sampling instrument for inserting into or through a solid or semisolid material to extract a component of interest from a sample, comprising a support structure at least partially coated with an extraction phase for extracting the component of interest, a protrusion that shields the coating during insertion, where the distances within a cross-sectional plane of the sampling instrument are greater than or equal to the corresponding distances in all of the cross-sectional planes located between the cross-sectional plane of interest and the insertion end of the sampling instrument. The present disclosure also discusses methods of making the instrument, desorption chambers, and methods for desorbing a component of interest from the instrument.

Abstract: A sample injector configured to introduce a sample fluid into a mobile phase, wherein the mobile phase is to be driven by a mobile phase drive through a separation unit for separating compounds of the sample fluid in the mobile phase, wherein the sample injector comprises a metering device being operable for displacing fluid and for intaking a metered amount of the sample fluid into the sample injector, an injector valve being switchable for operating the sample injector selectively in a sample intake mode in which the metering device is operable to intake the sample fluid from a sample container, or a separation mode in which intaken sample fluid is driven between the mobile phase drive and the separation unit for separating the compounds, and a flow direction controller configured for defining an enabled flow direction of fluid displaced by the metering device and for defining a disabled flow direction.

Abstract: The invention generally relates to a connector for fluid chromatography, such as gas chromatography and liquid chromatography, having a female assembly including a receiving member being designed and configured to receive, and releasably interlock with, a male assembly. The connector is particularly suited for high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) applications.

Abstract: A fluid processing device (10) for processing fluid, wherein the fluid processing device (10) comprises a first fluid drive unit (20) configured for driving a first fluid along a first flow path (85), a second fluid drive unit (20?) configured for driving a second fluid along a second flow path (86), and a fluidic switch (90) fluidically coupled to the first flow path (85) and to the second flow path (86) and configured for being switchable for transferring first fluid from the first flow path (85) into the second flow path (86) without interruption of fluid flow along at least one of the first flow path (85) and the second flow path (86).

Abstract: Provided are two-dimensional chromatography systems and methods for separating and/or analyzing complex mixtures of organic compounds. In particularly, a two-dimensional reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC)-supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) system is described including a trapping column at the interface which collects the analytes eluted from the first dimension chromatography while letting the RPLC mobile phase pass through. The peaks of interest from the RPLC dimension column are effectively focused as sharp concentration pulses on the trapping column, which is subsequently injected onto the second dimension SFC column. The system can be used for simultaneous achiral and chiral analysis of pharmaceutical compounds. The first dimension RPLC separation provides the achiral purity result, and the second dimension SFC separation provides the chiral purity result (enantiomeric excess).

Abstract: A strain of marine oil degrading bacteria, compounds obtained by fermentation and their uses are published. The name is Alcanivorax dieselolei T6-6, with preservation Number: CGMCC NO: 9033. It belongs to ?-proteobacteria, oceanospirillales, alkane degrading bacteria branch, alcanivorax category and diesel alcanivorax species. The said bacteria can be used to degrade and remove petroleum hydrocarbon, control environmental pollution, produce surfactants, reduce surface tension of water, and for other purposes; a compound can be isolated from secondary metabolites after fermentation, one of which is dieselolei T6-6, 2-amino-6-(N-2-carbonyl-4-tridecyl-cyclobutane) hexanoic acid, and it is a kind of lysine ester. The compound has emulsifying activity on different organics, antibacterial effects against Gram-positive bacteria and fungus, and a better cytotoxic activity.

Abstract: The invention provides a method for simple, rapid and inexpensive analysis of drugs such as nicotine and other drugs which are accumulated in biological samples of addictive drugger of tobacco, stimulant drug and the like. The method comprises the steps of introducing the biological sample into an injection needle, inserting the needle into an injector of a chromatograph and injecting a carrier into the needle to conduct chromatography treatment.

Abstract: The invention relates to a sampler for providing a sample for high-performance liquid chromatography, in which a volume of liquid to be taken up into a cylinder can be aspirated by means of a first drive and can be compressed to a high pressure level by means of a second drive independent of the first drive or can be decompressed from this level in a controlled manner.

Abstract: Solid, stable formulations of linaclotide suitable for oral administration are described herein as are methods for preparing such formulations. The formulations described herein contain a polypeptide consisting of the amino acid sequence Cys Cys Glu Tyr Cys Cys Asn Pro Ala Cys Thr Gly Cys Tyr (“linaclotide”; SEQ ID NO:1) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. The linaclotide formulations described herein are stable and have a sufficient shelf life for manufacturing, storing and distributing the drug.

Abstract: Automated sample injection apparatus, multiport valves, and chromatography systems containing an automated sample injection apparatus and/or a multiport valve are disclosed. Methods of making and using automated sample injection apparatus and multiport valves within chromatography systems are also disclosed.

Abstract: A method and system for continuous measurement chromatograph involves stochastically modulating a system variable. The sample can be introduced into a chromatography column. The sample introduction can be modulated stochastically. The sample output from the column can be detected and processed with the stochastic input to provide a sample analysis.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a sample introducing apparatus which is designed such that the analytical flow path runs from the needle to the separation column without the flow path switching means placed at the downstream side of the needle. This design reduces dead volume, which in turn reduces the diffusion of the sample injected into the analytical flow path. Moreover, the absence of the flow path switching means at the downstream side of the needle to inject a sample into the analytical flow path eliminates connection of the pipe with the flow path switching means. This prevents the sample from remaining in the connecting part, thereby reducing sample carry-over and improving the accuracy of analysis.

Abstract: The subject technology is directed to a CO2-based system and method for rapid determination of the levels and/or the presence or absence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Abstract: The present invention relates to the use of a microporous organogel for the capture of fluids by adsorption and/or for the controlled release of fluids after solubilization. The fluids are, in particular, air or water pollutants or volatile substances. The invention also relates to the use of a microporous organogel in a process for analyzing the captured fluids. The invention also relates to any fluid sensor by moulding of a microporous organa gel.

Abstract: A fluid supply system (150) configured for supplying fluids, the fluid supply system (150) comprising a fluid packet supply unit (180) configured for controlling supply of a sequence (250) of fluid packets (222 to 230), the fluid packets (222 to 230) comprising a packet of first fluid (223) and a packet of second fluid (225), wherein the first fluid and the second fluid are media being prone to a phase separation upon direct interaction between the packet of first fluid (223) and the packet of second fluid (225), and a phase separation inhibiting unit (190) configured for inhibiting phase separation by inserting an intermediate fluid packet (224) between the packet of first fluid (223) and the packet of second fluid (225) to 230 to 230

Abstract: Constant calibration methods and apparatuses for analytical devices that are located in remote positions in order to allow for reliable and automated measurements of various contaminants within water or other liquid samples. The proposed calibration systems allow for certain methods to measure total amounts of certain trihalomethane and haloacetic acid contaminants, at least, in drinking water samples from such remote locations, through the utilization of a standard addition introduction of known concentrations of such contaminant compounds within target samples, followed by separation through a capillary membrane sampling device and measurement of such different contaminants via flow injection analysis (FIA). In such a manner, the on-line, remote system provides the necessary reliability for a water utility or like entity on which to base any further needed water treatment activities without having to perform such measurements in a distinct lab setting.

Abstract: A multi-mode injection valve includes a stator having an outer stator face and an inner stator face; a plurality of fluid ports in the outer stator face; a plurality of fluid orifices in the inner stator face, the fluid orifices disposed in fluid communication with the fluid ports, respectively; a rotor having a rotor surface engaging the inner stator face of the stator; a plurality of rotor grooves in the rotor surface of the rotor, each of the rotor grooves adapted for fluid communication with a pair of the fluid orifices depending upon a rotational or angular position of the rotor with respect to the stator; and an actuator unit engaging the rotor, the actuator unit adapted to rotate the rotor relative to the stator.

Abstract: A device for sampling fluid from an earth formation is disclosed. The device includes: an inlet port disposable in fluid communication with the fluid in a borehole; an injector including an injection chamber in fluid communication with the inlet port, the injector configured to receive a portion of the fluid and direct the fluid toward an analysis unit for analyzing constituent materials in the fluid; and a high pressure valve configured to admit the portion of the fluid at a borehole pressure and release the portion of the fluid into the injector, the portion having a volume that is less than or equal to about one microliter. A system and method for analyzing constituents of fluid in a borehole in an earth formation is also disclosed.

Abstract: An improved analytical method for analysis of dianhydrogalactitol preparations provides a method for determining the purity of dianhydrogalactitol and detecting impurities in preparations of dianhydrogalactitol, as well as identifying any such impurities. The method employs high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), in particular, HPLC with refractive index (RI) detection; the HPLC can be followed by tandem mass spectroscopy. The method can further comprise the step of performing preparative HPLC collection of at least one specific substance peak present in a preparation of dianhydrogalactitol.

Abstract: Methods and systems for analyzing ratios of analytes within a flowing sample are provided. The flowing sample can be processed in real-time to determine a time interval over which a predetermined amount of a group of analytes passes by a fixed point in a flow cell. The predetermined amount can be routed to a sample container for future processing. The sample can comprise diluted blood and the analytes can comprise a component of hemoglobin, such as A1c, and the total amount of hemoglobin, of which the predetermined amount is metered.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for controlling interdetector band broadening during the analysis of a sample injected into a chromatography system. A column flow is diluted with a dilution flow after the sample exits the chromatography system, and the diluted sample is analyzed by one or a combination of analysis instruments such as a light scattering detector, refractive index detector, an ultraviolet absorption detector.

Abstract: Quantitation of analytes, including but not limited to peptides, polypeptides, and proteins, in mass spectrometry using a labeled peptide coupled to a reporter, and a universal reporter.

Abstract: An apparatus for chemical separations includes a first substantially rigid microfluidic substrate defining a first fluidic port; a second substantially rigid microfluidic substrate defining a second fluidic port; and a coupler disposed between the first and second substrates, the coupler defining a fluidic path in fluidic alignment with the ports of the first and second substrates. The coupler includes a material that is deformable relative to a material of the first substrate and a material of the second substrate. The substrates are clamped together to compress the coupler between the substrates and form a fluid-tight seal.

Abstract: Devices, systems, and methods for the collection of biological samples. In at least one exemplary embodiment, a device comprises a collection medium having top and bottom surfaces and a predetermined size and shape, the top surface comprising a position marker and at least one binding site operable to bind a biological sample, a protective facing substantially impermeable to the biological sample, the protective facing coupled to the top surface of the collection medium and having a size and shape substantially similar to the predetermined size and shape of the collection medium. The protective facing being sized and shaped to define a first void positioned to allow for the transfer of the biological sample through the protective facing and onto the at least one binding site of the collection medium, and a second void positioned to expose the position marker for alignment of the collection medium.

Abstract: A multiple loop sample introduction system comprises a valve assembly including a sample collection valve and a sample introduction valve. First and second sample loops are in fluid communication with the sample collection valve and the sample introduction valve to receive aliquots of liquid samples to be introduced into a nebulizer. The valve assembly is operable to port a first aliquot into the first sample loop, while porting a second aliquot received in the second sample loop for introduction into the nebulizer.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for desolvating flowing liquid streams while retaining temporal resolution of dissolved substrates are disclosed. A novel small-scale self-regulating spray dryer preserves temporal resolution while desolvating a liquid chromatography eluent stream and depositing the solute onto an optical surface for infrared spectrographic analysis. The liquid eluent is pumped through a heated nebulizer to create a high-speed jet of solute containing liquid and solvent vapor. This jet is directed circumferentially inside a hot cylindrical cavity. Centrifugal force causes the larger liquid droplets to travel along the outer diameter of the cavity. The cavity surface is heated to cause the droplets to film boil. Film boiling reduces droplet contact with the cavity surface thereby retaining the solute in the droplets. The solute temperature is limited by controlling the pressure into which the solvent evaporates from the droplets.