Abstract: A monochromator is adapted to select at least one band of wavelengths from diverging incident radiation. The apparatus includes a first crystal and a second crystal. A band of emitted wavelengths of the first crystal is adapted to the at least one band of wavelengths. A surface curvature of the first crystal is adapted to focus emitted radiation in a first plane. A band of emitted wavelengths of the second crystal also is adapted to the at least one band of wavelengths. Parallel faces of a lattice structure of the second crystal are oriented at a first predetermined angle from a surface of the second crystal. In another embodiment, an apparatus is adapted to select at least one band of wavelengths from diverging incident synchrotron radiation in a given range of wavelengths with an energy resolution finer than about five parts in 10000 and optical efficiency greater than about 50 percent.

Abstract: A wavelength-classifying type X-ray diffraction device bombards a sample with characteristic X-rays generated from an X-ray generation source, and detects characteristic X-rays diffracted by the sample using an X-ray detector. The X-ray generation source is composed of several metals of different atomic number, respective metals generating several characteristic X-rays of different wavelengths. An X-ray detector is composed of several pixels for receiving X-rays and outputting pulse signals corresponding to X-ray wavelengths. Pixels are respectively furnished with classification circuits. The classification circuits classify and output pixel output signals based on each of characteristic X-ray wavelengths. X-ray intensity is detected on a per-wavelength basis in individual pixels 12. Measurement data based on different wavelength X-rays are acquired simultaneously in just one measurement.

Abstract: Techniques for determining values for a metric of microscale interactions include determining a mesoscale metric for a plurality of mesoscale interaction types, wherein a value of the mesoscale metric for each mesoscale interaction type is based on a corresponding function of values of the microscale metric for the plurality of the microscale interaction types. A plurality of observations that indicate the values of the mesoscale metric are determined for the plurality of mesoscale interaction types. Values of the microscale metric are determined for the plurality of microscale interaction types based on the plurality of observations and the corresponding functions and compressed sensing.

Abstract: The present invention consists of an x-ray goniometer which is positioned directly adjacent to processing machines used in the cutting, milling, drilling and shaping of crystal boules and crystal ingots, used in conjunction with an adjustable tilt platform capable of pitch, yaw and roll movement, to allow in-situ measurement and automatic adjustment of crystal orientation with respect to the processing machine. The goniometer may be secured to either the tool itself or a portion of the machine which is adjacent the piece to be worked. Various embodiments include an x-ray goniometer and adjustable tilt platform incorporated into a core drilling machine, wire saw, surface grinder, polishing apparatus, or orientation flat or notch grinder.

Abstract: Certain embodiments provide a method for crystallizing a GPCR. The method may employ a fusion protein comprising, from N-terminus to C-terminus: a) a first portion of a family C G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), wherein the first portion comprises the TM1, TM2 and TM3, regions of the GPCR; b) a stable, folded protein insertion; and c) a second portion of the GPCR, wherein the second portion comprises the TM4, TM5 TM6 and TM7 regions of the GPCR.

Abstract: An X-ray shielding member is provided so as to confront an X-ray incident face of a sample, and a gap through which an X-ray emitted from an X-ray source is passed and irradiated to an X-ray incident face of the sample is formed between the X-ray shielding member and the X-ray incident face of the sample. A gap adjusting mechanism for moving the X-ray shielding member is further provided to move the X-ray shielding member in accordance with change of an X-ray incident angle to the sample by a goniometer, whereby the breadth of the gap formed between the X-ray shielding member and the X-ray incident face of the sample can be adjusted.

Abstract: Sensing methods and a compact, sample holding pin base sensor are provided for detecting if a sample pin is, for example, properly mounted on a goniometer used for automated, high throughput macromolecular crystallography. A first magnet is used for holding a magnetic base; a second magnet is disposed spaced apart from the first magnet. The first magnet and the second magnet have opposite orientation. A Hall-effect switch is located generally centrally between the first magnet and the second magnet. A state of the Hall-effect switch indicates if a sample pin is properly mounted on a mounting member, such as a goniometer.

Abstract: A method for analysis includes directing a converging beam of X-rays toward a surface of a sample having multiple single-crystal layers, including at least a first layer and a second layer that is formed over and tilted relative to the first layer. The X-rays that are diffracted from each of the first and second layers are sensed simultaneously while resolving the sensed X-rays as a function of angle so as to generate a diffraction spectrum including at least a first diffraction peak due to the first layer and a second diffraction peak due to the second layer. The diffraction spectrum is analyzed so as to identify a characteristic of at least the second layer.

Abstract: Disclosed are compounds of formula (I), a derivative, or a tautomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of said compound or said tautomer. Also disclosed are methods of preparing compound of formula (I), a derivative, or a tautomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of said compound or said tautomer. Further disclosed are methods of conducting drug discovery and research comprises applying the compound of formula (I), a derivative, or a tautomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt of said compound or said tautomer in an investigation.

Abstract: Certain embodiments provide a method for crystallizing a GPCR. The method may employ a fusion protein comprising: a) a first portion of a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), where the first portion comprises the TM1, TM2, TM3, TM4 and TM5 regions of the GPCR; b) a stable, folded protein insertion; and c) a second portion of the GPCR, where the second portion comprises the TM6 and TM7 regions of the GPCR.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction apparatus for measuring crystal orientation of a multiple grain sample. An x-ray excitation path is provided having a focusing optic for collecting x-rays from an x-ray source and redirecting the collected x-rays into an x-ray beam converging on a single grain of the multiple grain sample. At least one point detector and the sample are rotated relative to each other; and a grain orientation is obtained based upon diffraction patterns collected from first and second grain crystal planes within the apparatus.

Abstract: An X-ray imaging system that produces one or more fan-shaped beams is described. The system includes a target for emitting X rays that includes at least one target focal spot, and one or more graded multilayer optic devices in optical communication with the target. The optics transmits at least a portion of the source X rays to produce the one or more fan-shaped beams. The graded multilayer optic devices include at least a first graded multilayer section for redirecting and transmitting X rays through total internal reflection. The graded multilayer section includes a high-index layer of material having a first complex refractive index n1, a low-index layer of material having a second complex refractive index n2, and a grading zone disposed between the high-index and low-index layers of material. The grading zone includes a grading layer having a third complex refractive index n3 such that Re(n1)>Re(n2)>Re(n3).

Abstract: A calibration technique is provided that utilizes a standard sample that allows for calibration in the wavelengths of interest even when the standard sample may exhibit significant reflectance variations at those wavelengths for subtle variations in the properties of the standard sample. A second sample, a reference sample may have a relatively featureless reflectance spectrum over the same spectral region and is used in combination with the calibration sample to achieve the calibration. In one embodiment the spectral region may include the VUV spectral region.

Abstract: A sample is supported on a flat rotary specimen stage and irradiated at an incidence angle ? via a divergence slit with an x-ray beam emitted by an x-ray source, the diffraction beam from the sample is received via a divergence slit and the light-receiving slit by an x-ray detector placed at the position of a diffraction angle 2? to generate diffraction beam intensity data, the x-ray incidence angle ? and diffraction angle 2? are fixed at intrinsic values on the sample, the sample is rotated within a plane at designated step angles by the flat rotary specimen stage, the diffraction beam intensity is measured by the x-ray detector in each in-plane rotation step, the variance induced by particle statistics is calculated from the calculated diffraction beam intensities, and the size of the crystallites in the sample is calculated based on the variance induced by the particle statistics.

Abstract: An X-ray diffraction contrast tomography system (DCT) comprising a laboratory X-ray source (2), a staging device (5) rotating a polycrystalline material sample in the direct path of the X-ray beam, a first X-ray detector (6) detecting the direct X-ray beam being transmitted through the crystalline material sample, a second X-ray detector (7) positioned between the staging device and the first X-ray detector for detecting diffracted X-ray beams, and a processing device (15) for analysing detected values. The crystallographic grain orientation of the individual grain in the polycrystalline sample is determined based on the two-dimensional position of extinction spots and the associated angular position of the sample for a set of extinction spots pertaining to the individual grain.

Abstract: A wavelength-classifying type X-ray diffraction device bombards a sample with characteristic X-rays generated from an X-ray generation source, and detects characteristic X-rays diffracted by the sample using an X-ray detector. The X-ray generation source is composed of several metals of different atomic number, respective metals generating several characteristic X-rays of different wavelengths. An X-ray detector is composed of several pixels for receiving X-rays and outputting pulse signals corresponding to X-ray wavelengths. Pixels are respectively furnished with classification circuits. The classification circuits classify and output pixel output signals based on each of characteristic X-ray wavelengths. X-ray intensity is detected on a per-wavelength basis in individual pixels 12. Measurement data based on different wavelength X-rays are acquired simultaneously in just one measurement.

Abstract: Disclosed herein is a compound represented by formula 1 or its hydrate thereof in crystalline or crystal-like form.

Abstract: A goniometer base for X-ray crystallography comprises a magnetic steel part with a cylindrical hole, a compliant cylindrical part that is inserted into this hole, and a cylindrical tube that is press-fit into the hole and holds the compliant part in place, such that when a crystal mounting tool is inserted through the concentric holes in each part, it is positively gripped and held in place at both T=300 K and T=100 K.

Abstract: Methods for generating putative ligand structures capable of altering the activity of a target effector molecule comprise: constructing an elongated monomer of the target effector molecule; constructing a three dimensional model of the target effector molecule under the influence of elongation using empirical three dimensional data, the model including a conformation revealing the binding portion of the target effector molecule to a putative ligand structure; generating a plurality of computational models of the target effector molecule; filtering the plurality of computational models against the three dimensional model created experimentally using a reiterative simulation analysis algorithm operable to identify and select a plurality of computational models having a root-mean square deviation below a predetermined threshold when compared to the three dimensional model of the target effector molecule; screening a plurality of ligands to rank the binding strength of each ligand with the plurality of computatio

Abstract: A method for analysis includes directing a converging beam of X-rays toward a surface of a sample having an epitaxial layer formed thereon, and sensing the X-rays that are diffracted from the sample while resolving the sensed X-rays as a function of angle so as to generate a diffraction spectrum including a diffraction peak and fringes due to the epitaxial layer. A characteristic of the fringes is analyzed in order to measure a relaxation of the epitaxial layer.

Abstract: Certain embodiments provide a method for crystallizing a GPCR. The method may employ a fusion protein comprising: a) a first portion of a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR), where the first portion comprises the TM1, TM2, TM3, TM4 and TM5 regions of the GPCR; b) a stable, folded protein insertion; and c) a second portion of the GPCR, where the second portion comprises the TM6 and TM7 regions of the GPCR.

Abstract: An x-ray diffraction apparatus for measuring crystal orientation of a multiple grain sample. An x-ray excitation path is provided having a focusing optic for collecting x-rays from an x-ray source and redirecting the collected x-rays into an x-ray beam converging on a single grain of the multiple grain sample. At least one point detector and the sample are rotated relative to each other; and a grain orientation is obtained based upon diffraction patterns collected from first and second grain crystal planes within the apparatus.

Abstract: The invention describes compositions and method useful for the crystallization of membrane proteins.

Abstract: Crystallite size in a sample is determined by performing a quantitative ?-profile analysis on a diffraction ring in a two-dimensional X-ray diffraction pattern. In particular, a two-dimensional X-ray diffraction system is first calibrated with a sample having a known crystallite size, crystal structure and X-ray absorption coefficient. For a given instrument window, the number of grains contributing to a selected diffraction ring is determined by the effective diffraction volume, grain size and the multiplicity of the diffracting crystal planes. The grain size of an unknown sample can then be determined by a quantitative analysis of the diffraction ring.

Abstract: Sensing methods and a compact, sample holding pin base sensor are provided for detecting if a sample pin is, for example, properly mounted on a goniometer used for automated, high throughput macromolecular crystallography. A first magnet is used for holding a magnetic base; a second magnet is disposed spaced apart from the first magnet. The first magnet and the second magnet have opposite orientation. A Hall-effect switch is located generally centrally between the first magnet and the second magnet. A state of the Hall-effect switch indicates if a sample pin is properly mounted on a mounting member, such as a goniometer.

Abstract: An X-ray diffraction method for the analysis of polycrystalline materials, the method comprising: (a) providing a polycrystalline material for analysis; (b) providing a polychromatic X-ray source, wherein the source produces X-rays by accelerating charged particles to energies of no more than 1 MeV; (c) collimating X-rays from the polychromatic X-ray source into a beam having a divergence in the range of from 10?4 to 10?2 radians; (d) exposing at least a portion of the polycrystalline material to the collimated X-ray beam, whereby the beam is diffracted; (e) collecting at least some of the diffracted X-rays in an energy dispersive X-ray detector or array; and (f) analysing the collected, diffracted X-rays.

Abstract: Disclosed herein are nucleoside phosphoramidates and their use as agents for treating viral diseases. These compounds are inhibitors of RNA-dependent 5 RNA viral replication and are useful as inhibitors of HCV NS5B polymerase, as inhibitors of HCV replication and for treatment of hepatitis C infection in mammals.

Abstract: In an X-ray diffraction method using the parallel beam method, an X-ray parallel beam is incident on a sample, and diffracted X-rays from the sample are reflected at a mirror and thereafter detected by an X-ray detector. The reflective surface of the mirror has a shape of an equiangular spiral that has a center located on the surface of the sample. A crystal lattice plane that causes reflection is parallel to the reflective surface at any point on the reflective surface. The X-ray detector is one-dimensional position sensitive in a plane parallel to the diffraction plane. A relative positional relationship between the mirror and the X-ray detector is determined so that reflected X-rays from different points on the reflective surface of the mirror reach different points on the X-ray detector respectively. This X-ray diffraction method is superior in angular resolution, and is small in X-ray intensity reduction, and is simple in structure.

Abstract: A method for determining the ability of a cement composition to withstand subterranean formation conditions comprising obtaining an experimental diffraction pattern of the cement composition, generating a theoretical diffraction pattern of the cement composition, comparing the experimental diffraction pattern with the theoretical diffraction pattern, refining the theoretical diffraction pattern using a structural refinement method, determining the relative fraction of the crystalline phases present in the cement composition from the theoretical diffraction pattern, and determining the ability of the cement composition to withstand subterranean formation conditions.

Abstract: Protein layers (1) repeating regularly in two dimensions comprise protein protomers (2) which each comprise at least two monomers (5), (6) genetically fused together. The monomers (5), (6) are monomers of respective oligomer assemblies (3), (4) into which the monomers are assembled to assembly of the protein layer. The first oligomer assembly (3) belongs to a dihedral point group of order O, where O equals (3), (4) or (6) and has a set of O rotational symmetry axes of order (2). The second oligomer assembly (4) has a rotational symmetry axis of order (2). Due to the symmetry of the oligomer assemblies (3), (4), the rotational symmetry axes of each second oligomer assembly (4) is aligned with one of said set of O rotational symmetry axes of a first oligomer assembly (3) with (2) protomers being arranged symmetrically therearound.

Abstract: A new X-ray diffraction (XRD) method is provided to acquire XY mapping of the distribution of single crystals, poly-crystals, and twin defects across an entire wafer of rhombohedral super-hetero-epitaxial semiconductor material. In one embodiment, the method is performed with a point or line X-ray source with an X-ray incidence angle approximating a normal angle close to 90°, and in which the beam mask is preferably replaced with a crossed slit. While the wafer moves in the X and Y direction, a narrowly defined X-ray source illuminates the sample and the diffracted X-ray beam is monitored by the detector at a predefined angle. Preferably, the untilted, asymmetric scans are of {440} peaks, for twin defect characterization.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method for computing external crystal shapes from X-Ray Diffraction Data (XRD) of a substance. Each diffraction peak arises from a set of crystal planes and the peak width is related to the thickness of the crystal in a direction perpendicular to these set of planes. The crystal shape is actually given by the mathematical envelope of the pairs of planes corresponding to each diffraction peak.

Abstract: Enhanced methods and a device enabling a plurality of tools for implementing a plurality of procedures for the accurate alignment and calibration of multiple components of the experimental set up at a synchrotron beam line are provided. The device includes an alignment pin or needle for centering a sample rotation axis. The device includes a YAG crystal for visualization of the beam and beam alignment and a metal foil for transmission or fluorescence measurements used for the monochromator calibration. The same, or different foils, or powders, or polymers, can be used for obtaining powder rings for finding the direct beam coordinates, for centering the beamstop on the direct beam and for calibration of the sample-to-detector distance.

Abstract: An apparatus for carrying out both x-ray diffraction (XRD) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis of a crystalline sample. A sample holder is located within an evacuable chamber. An x-ray fluorescence source and separate x-ray diffraction source are mounted within the evacuable chamber. An XRF detection arrangement is also provided, for detecting secondary x-rays emitted from the surface of the crystalline sample as a result of illumination by x-rays from the said x-ray fluorescence source. An XRD detection arrangement is then provided for detecting x-rays of a characteristic wavelength which have been diffracted by the crystalline sample. A moveable XRD support assembly is provided, comprising a first part configured to mount the XRD source for relative movement between the XRD source and the sample holder, and a second part configured to mount the XRD detection arrangement for relative movement between the XRD detection arrangement and the sample holder.

Abstract: A method for successively performing a powder diffraction analysis of at least two powder samples being contained in sample holding means. Use is made of an apparatus comprising:—a source of radiation being adapted to direct a radiation beam to a power sample,—a detector for detecting diffraction radiation of a powder sample,—a drive means associated with said sample holding means for effecting a movement of an irradiated powder sample during irradiation and detection. The method comprises the steps of irradiating a powder sample and detecting the diffraction radiation of the powder sample, arranging a further powder sample such that said radiation beam is directed to said further powder sample, and irradiating said further powder sample and detecting the diffraction radiation of said further sample. During irradiation and detecting of each sample the drive means effect a movement of the irradiated sample with respect to the radiation beam for the purpose of improving particle statistics.

Abstract: Wavelength dependence of diffraction X-ray intensity of a single crystal sample is measured using an X-ray incident optical system of simple structure so that the polarity of the single crystal sample can be judged. When the polarity of the {111} face of a GaAs single crystal sample (18) is judged, for example, an X-ray source (10) which can generate X-rays in a predetermined wavelength range including in the middle the wavelength at the K absorption end of Ga, i.e. an X-ray source of Au target, is employed. An X-ray beam (12) emitted from that X-ray source is reflected on a paraboloidal multilayer film mirror (14) to form a parallel beam (16) including an X-ray in a predetermined wavelength range. The sample (18) is irradiated with the parallel beam and the intensity of a diffraction X-ray therefrom is detected by an X-ray detector (22). Wavelength dependence of diffraction X-ray intensity is measured in the wavelength range including the wavelength at the absorption end by performing 2?/? scanning.

Abstract: A new X-ray diffraction (XRD) method is provided to acquire XY mapping of the distribution of single crystals, poly-crystals, and twin defects across an entire wafer of rhombohedral super-hetero-epitaxial semiconductor material. In one embodiment, the method is performed with a point or line X-ray source with an X-ray incidence angle approximating a normal angle close to 90°, and in which the beam mask is preferably replaced with a crossed slit. While the wafer moves in the X and Y direction, a narrowly defined X-ray source illuminates the sample and the diffracted X-ray beam is monitored by the detector at a predefined angle. Preferably, the untilted, asymmetric scans are of {440} peaks, for twin defect characterization.

Abstract: Wavelength dependence of diffraction X-ray intensity of a single crystal sample is measured using an X-ray incident optical system of simple structure so that the polarity of the single crystal sample can be judged. When the polarity of the {111} face of a GaAs single crystal sample (18) is judged, for example, an X-ray source (10) which can generate X-rays in a predetermined wavelength range including in the middle the wavelength at the K absorption end of Ga, i.e. an X-ray source of Au target, is employed. An X-ray beam (12) emitted from that X-ray source is reflected on a paraboloidal multilayer film mirror (14) to form a parallel beam (16) including an X-ray in a predetermined wavelength range. The sample (18) is irradiated with the parallel beam and the intensity of a diffraction X-ray therefrom is detected by an X-ray detector (22). Wavelength dependence of diffraction X-ray intensity is measured in the wavelength range including the wavelength at the absorption end by performing 2?/? scanning.

Abstract: A measuring device for the short-wavelength X-ray diffraction for test samples or work pieces made of lower-atomic-number crystalline and a method thereof are disclosed in the present invention. The measuring device comprises: an X-ray tube, an incident diaphragm, a table, a position-restricting receiving slit for a position-restricted part of a measured sample or work piece, a goniometer, a detector and an energy analyzer, the said X-ray tube and detector are arranged in the two sides of the table on which the sample or work pieces is located, the detector is intended to receive the transmitted diffracted ray. With the short-wavelength X-ray diffraction transmission method in the present invention X-ray diffracting patterns at different depths and different parts of a thicker test sample or work piece made of crystalline material and their distribution can be obtained without destructing the test sample or work piece, and then the data are processed by a computer to obtain phase, residual stress, etc.

Abstract: A method provides X-ray diffraction data suitable for integral detection of a twin defect in a strained or lattice-matched epitaxial material made from components having crystal structures having symmetry belonging to different space groups. The material is mounted in an X-ray diffraction (XRD) system. In one embodiment, the XRD system's goniometer angle ? is set equal to (?B??) where ?B is a Bragg angle for a designated crystal plane of the alloy that is disposed at a non-perpendicular orientation with respect to the {111) crystal plane, and ? is the angle between the designated crystal plane and a {111} crystal plane of one of the epitaxial components. The XRD system's detector angle is set equal to (?B+?). The material can be rotated through an angle of azimuthal rotation ? about the axis aligned with the material. Using the detector, the intensity of the X-ray diffraction is recorded at least at the angle at which the twin defect occurs.

Abstract: Systems and methods are provided for producing a protein of interest that is typically not amenable to expression in soluble form in in vitro expression systems. In some aspects, the invention provides methods of synthesizing proteins using in vitro protein synthesis systems that include a scaffold protein such as apolipoprotein or an amphipathic alpha helix containing (“AAHC”) protein, in which higher yields of soluble protein are produced than in the absence of the scaffold protein. The scaffold proteins may be provided in an in vitro protein synthesis system associated with lipid or not associated with lipid. The scaffold protein may be provided as a protein per se or may be encoded by a nucleic acid template and co-expressed with the protein of interest. The invention also provides compositions and kits for synthesis of proteins in soluble form, in which the compositions and kits include cell extracts for protein expression and isolation.

Abstract: An integrated fluidic circuit includes a substrate layer and a first structure coupled to the substrate layer and including a plurality of channels. The first structure is configured to provide for flow of one or more materials through the plurality of channels. The integrated fluidic circuit also includes a second structure coupled to the substrate layer. The second structure includes a plurality of control channels configured to receive an actuation pressure. The integrated fluidic circuit is characterized by a thickness of less than 1.5 mm.

Abstract: A sample cell insertion and removal apparatus for an analysis instrument, including a horizontally sliding frame; a sample cell carriage movably mounted to the sliding frame, the sample cell carriage including an area to hold a sample cell; wherein upon sliding into and out of the instrument, the sample cell carriage is moved horizontally and vertically into and out of an analysis position. This instrument may include a radiation shielded enclosure into and out of which the apparatus slides, and an x-ray analysis engine which transmits x-rays upwards towards the sample cell which projects from a bottom of the apparatus. The disclosed sample cell is especially suited for an x-ray analysis engine having a focal spot requiring alignment with the sample in the sample cell.

Abstract: Sample mounts (10) for mounting microcrystals of biological macromolecules for X-ray crystallography are prepared by using patterned thin polyimide films (12) that have curvature imparted thereto, for example, by being attached to a curved outer surface of a small metal rod (16). The patterned film (12) preferably includes a tip end (24) for holding a crystal. Preferably, a small sample aperture is disposed in the film for reception of the crystal. A second, larger aperture can also be provided that is connected to the sample aperture by a drainage channel, allowing removal of excess liquid and easier manipulation in viscous solutions. The curvature imparted to the film (12) increases the film's rigidity and allows a convenient scoop-like action for retrieving crystals. The polyimide contributes minimally to background and absorption, and can be treated to obtain desired hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity.

Abstract: A method provides X-ray diffraction data suitable for integral detection of a twin defect in a strained or lattice-matched epitaxial material made from components having crystal structures having symmetry belonging to different space groups. The material is mounted in an X-ray diffraction (XRD) system. In one embodiment, the XRD system's goniometer angle ? is set equal to (?B??) where ?B is a Bragg angle for a designated crystal plane of the alloy that is disposed at a non-perpendicular orientation with respect to the {111) crystal plane, and ? is the angle between the designated crystal plane and a {111} crystal plane of one of the epitaxial components. The XRD system's detector angle is set equal to (?B+?). The material can be rotated through an angle of azimuthal rotation ? about the axis aligned with the material. Using the detector, the intensity of the X-ray diffraction is recorded at least at the angle at which the twin defect occurs.

Abstract: A method for naming a substance is described. The method includes using a crystallinity of the substance to name the substance.

Abstract: A device for inspecting microscopic objects. A plurality of LEDS is arranged in an array underneath a lens. Some of the LEDS are lighted and some of the LEDS are unlighted. A computer is in control of the LED array. The computer turns on selected LEDS from the array to form the lighted LEDS. Also, the computer turns off selected LEDS from the array to form the unlighted LEDS. The lighted LEDS form a pattern of lighted LEDS underneath the lens. In a preferred embodiment, the lens is connected to a computer controlled camera and the microscopic objects are microscopic crystals. In another preferred embodiment UV LEDS are utilized and illuminate crystals from above. In another preferred embodiment UV LEDS are utilized to illuminate a loop of a Hampton pin to locate a crystal in the loop of a Hampton pin for the purpose of x-ray crystallography.

Abstract: A diffractometer, having variable center and suitable for performing analysis on hidden or hardly accessible bodies or specimens is described. Said variable center diffractometer is equipped with an analytical unit that comprises: a circle arc structure, called Euler cradle; a radiation beam source and a detector of the said radiation beam; devices for the pointing of the analytical unit; devices for the movements of said analytical unit in the space; devices for rotation of said source and detector along the Euler cradle; characterized by the fact that it comprises also: devices able to rotate said source and detector with respect to an orthogonal axis to the plane containing the Euler cradle; collimators or deflectors firmly placed on the said radiation source and detector.

Abstract: Disclosed is an X-ray apparatus having an X-ray source, an X-ray detector, a divergence slit, and a scattering slit. The incident angle ? of X-ray to be irradiated on a sample is changed at a predetermined angular speed at measurement time and diffracted X-ray detection angle 2? at which the X-ray detector detects X-ray is changed in the opposite direction to the ?-direction at an angular speed double that of the X-ray incident angle ?. The slit width of the divergence slit is changed such that the X-ray irradiation width always coincides with the sample width while the slit width of the scattering slit is retained at a constant value. The width of X-ray received by the X-ray detector is restricted by the narrower one of the divergence slit and the scattering slit. The resolution in the high angle region can be kept at a high level.

Abstract: Non-destructive analysis is carried out by irradiating an object with X-rays, for example, so that the X-rays from the object are incident on an analyzer crystal. The analyzer crystal can be of a transmission-type or a reflection-type. A pre-crystal device is used to make the radiation monochromated and parallelized. Atomic lattice planes of the pre-crystal device are approximately parallel with the atomic lattice planes of the analyzer crystal so as to use the angular analysis capability of the analyzer crystal. The thickness of the analyzer crystal is fixed.