Abstract: A direct neural interface system comprises: a signal acquisition subsystem for acquiring electrophysiological signals representative of neuronal activity of a subject's brain; and a processing unit for representing electrophysiological signals acquired over an observation time window in the form of a N-way data tensor, N being greater than or equal to two, and generating command signals for a machine by applying a regression model over the data tensor; wherein the processing unit is configured or programmed for generating command signals for a machine by applying Generalized Linear regression, with a nonlinear link function, over the data tensor. A method of interfacing a subject's brain to a machine by using such a direct neural interface system is provided.

Abstract: A method for robot interaction, preferably including: receiving a user input, determining a robot-associated response based on the user input, and presenting the robot-associated response. A system, preferably including: a robot, a conversation client, and a response module.

Abstract: The invention relates to a device for examining samples (1) in a liquid (5), comprising a movable shaft (2), to which the sample (1) is fastened, and a cuvette (4), wherein the device further comprises a bath (3), which surrounds the movable shaft (2), and wherein the bath (3) is fillable with the liquid (5), the movable shaft (2) is configured to receive the sample (1) at the upper side (24) thereof, the movable shaft (2) reaches into the cuvette (4) from below, wherein said cuvette is open at least toward the bottom and configured to be immersed into the liquid (5) in the bath (3) with the underside thereof, and, moreover, means are provided to generate a pressure difference between the interior of the cuvette (4) and the region outside of the cuvette (4) such that the fill level (21) of the liquid (5) in the cuvette (4) is adjustable. Moreover, the invention relates to a method for examining samples (1) in a liquid (5).

Abstract: A method and system for monitoring the quality of fluids, wherein comprising the different features of a fluid with at least two different methods are measured and a measure for the quality of the fluid is derived and/or a process of the fluid deterioration is identified by comparing the results of the measurements of the at least two different methods, where the methods includes at least one optical absorption measurement and at least one electron paramagnetic resonance measurement.

Abstract: A method includes decomposing a training set to obtain a principal component matrix having a plurality of principal component vectors. The method also includes variably rejecting portions of a sample spectrum vector that do not correspond to a selected one of the plurality of principal component vectors by incrementally providing a coefficient indicative of the weighting of the selected principal component vector for selected sub-regions. A corrected spectrum vector can be obtained by excluding certain sub-regions of the sample spectrum vector and corresponding principal component vector, multiplying the sample spectrum vector with the principal component matrix for non-excluded sub-regions, providing a predicted interference vector, and subtracting the predicted interference vector from the sample spectrum vector.

Abstract: The present disclosure generally relates to systems and methods for spectral demixing. An example technique includes obtaining empirical spectroscopic data representing a plurality of frequencies of electromagnetic energy that has interacted with a specimen, accessing a computer readable representation of a hierarchal spectral cluster tree representing a spectral library, demixing, with data on each of a plurality of levels of the hierarchal spectral cluster tree, foveated spectroscopic data derived from the empirical spectroscopic data, identifying at least one node in the hierarchal spectral cluster tree as corresponding to the empirical spectroscopic data, and outputting an endmember abundance assessment of the specimen corresponding to at least the at least one node.

Abstract: A measuring arrangement and a measuring device having a sensor device, a processing device, a storage device, an interface and a control device that allows for a simplified testing of the functionality of the measuring device is achieved in that the control device retrieves externally provided data via the interface and performs a test of the measuring device. The test thereby involves the control device determining a reference value from the externally provided data, comparing the reference value to a measured value generated by the processing device and generating a comparison result based thereupon. Alternatively, the test involves the control device using the externally provided data for the generation of new calculation data to be stored in the storage device and storing the new calculation data in the storage device.

Abstract: According to the invention for a deep-frying device (2) including a stationary deep-frying oil sensor (5) which immerses into deep-frying oil (4) of a deep-frying oil basin (3), in order to monitor the stationary deep-frying oil sensor (5), a receiving unit (17) having a receiving data interface (8) is provided, via which interface a reference value obtained beforehand by a portable deep-frying oil measuring device (14), the portable deep-frying oil sensor (15) of which is immersed into the deep-frying oil (4) in the deep-frying oil basin (3) for measuring, can be transmitted in order to adapt a characteristic curve stored in the stationary evaluation unit (6) of the deep-frying device (2) such that the stationary evaluation unit (6) calculates a value for an evaluation variable for characterizing the deep-frying oil (4), this value being consistent with the reference value of the portable deep-frying oil measuring device (14).

Abstract: The present invention provides deterioration analysis method which allows a detailed analysis of deterioration, especially deterioration of surface conditions, of a polymer material. The present invention relates to a deterioration analysis method, including irradiating a polymer material with high intensity X-rays, and measuring X-ray absorption while varying the energy of the X-rays, to analyze deterioration of the polymer.

Abstract: Systems and methods are provided for detecting host cell contaminants in a protein biotherapeutic product using sequential windowed acquisition tandem mass spectrometry. Sequential windowed acquisition is performed on a protein biotherapeutic product sample by sequentially stepping a precursor mass window across a mass range, fragmenting transmitted precursor ions of each stepped precursor mass window, and analyzing product ions produced from the fragmented transmitted precursor ions. The sequential windowed acquisition is performed without any information about contaminating proteins before data acquisition, and produces data for every product ion of every transmitted precursor ion for the mass range. One or more measured product ion spectra are received, and compared to a library of host cell proteins. One or more host cell contaminants are detected by reporting host cell proteins from the library that match the one or more measured product ion spectra.

Abstract: A system and a method for calculating the cetane number, pour point, cloud point and aniline point of gas oil fractions of a crude oil sample from the density and gas chromatographic simulated distribution of the sample.

Abstract: A connected health care system is provided with various devices for tracking and monitoring health statistics and behaviors including oral health, fitness, heart health, bone health, salivary diagnostics, diabetes, and further options that will be explored in the subsequent sections. The connected health care system is comprised of various devices, a data transfer medium (i.e. “smartphone”), and the Cloud, which allows for data transfer between multiple platforms and devices. Some devices comprised in the connected health care system include a toothbrush, a connected surface with sensors, a salivary diagnostic system, a breath analysis system, and further devices that will be explored in the subsequent sections. The connected health care system further provides a user identification system utilizing capacitive coupling of the human body between devices.

Abstract: A mass spectrometer comprises: an ion source that generates ions having an initial range of mass-to-charge ratios; an auxiliary ion detector, downstream from the ion source that receives a plurality of first ion samples derived from the ions generated by the ion source and determines a respective ion current measurement for each of the plurality of first ion samples; a mass analyzer, downstream from the ion source that receives a second ion sample derived from the ions generated by the ion source and to generate mass spectral data by mass analysis of the second ion sample; and an output stage that establishes an abundance measurement associated with at least some of the ions generated by the ion source based on the ion current measurements determined by the auxiliary ion detector.

Abstract: A method of assessing chemical products includes: receiving input data including identification of a chemical substance at a processing device; evaluating a regulatory impact of the chemical substance based on at least one of global regulation data, regional regulation data and jurisdiction-specific regulation data, and outputting a regulatory impact assessment; evaluating potential hazards posed by the chemical substance based on available data related to characteristics of the chemical substance, and outputting a chemical hazard assessment; and generating a chemical assessment report indicating potential impact due to use of the chemical substance, the chemical assessment report indicating chemical assessment results that include the regulatory impact assessment and the chemical hazard assessment.

Abstract: The present invention provides for a simultaneous graphical representation, a risk of bleeding and a risk of thrombosis providing a visualized bridge therapy process. Furthermore, the present invention provides for a computer-based prediction of the haemostatic situation of the examined blood circulation by using a combination of a biochemical model and a pharmacokinetic model for calculation or another mathematical representation of the blood circulation.

Abstract: Apparatus and methods of processing large-scale data regarding an electrical power grid are described. According to one aspect, a method of processing large-scale data regarding an electrical power grid includes accessing a large-scale data set comprising information regarding an electrical power grid; processing data of the large-scale data set to identify a filter which is configured to remove erroneous data from the large-scale data set; using the filter, removing erroneous data from the large-scale data set; and after the removing, processing data of the large-scale data set to identify an event detector which is configured to identify events of interest in the large-scale data set.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a method and system for constructing a database for a product demand/supply connection network of a technology market connection and analysis apparatus comprising a microprocessor for controlling the construction of a database for implementing a product demand/supply connection network, and further comprising the database for a product demand/supply connection network, in which information relating to the database generated in accordance with the control of the microprocessor is stored.

Abstract: A process for the automated classification and analysis of raw data includes the selection and use of a method suitable for analyzing the physical and chemical properties of materials such as chemical compounds. The results can then be used to optimize a process of interest, such as a chemical process. The chemical process may include a chemical reaction or a purification process including chemical and physical steps.

Abstract: A method, non-transitory computer readable medium, and apparatus for applying a cost function to calculate an optimal value of a single variable for a calibration application are disclosed. For example, the method identifies the single variable of the calibration application, applies a cost function to the single variable, wherein the cost function comprises a function of a fit error plus a regularization weighting parameter (?) times a regularization cost, calculates the optimal value of the single variable based upon the cost function that is applied to the single variable and uses the optimal value of the single variable to generate a calibration matrix used for the calibration application.

Abstract: Methods or systems for identifying seismic or acoustic signals of interest originating with moving motorized vehicles or footstep movement or stationary or moving machinery. A related system for monitoring an area includes a plurality of sensing devices each comprising a frame and a piezo-electric sensor element. A monitoring device is coupled to receive information from each of the sensing devices. One method includes providing a processing chain coupled to receive signal data from a sensor device which receives the signals, including a detection stage, a Joint Time Frequency (JTF) domain stage, and a classification stage. The detection stage identifies presence of signals that emerge from the background. The JTF domain stage estimates the state of the signals of interest over time. The classification stage assesses the previously derived information to form a decision about source identity. In one embodiment, the detector stage performs detections on a single cycle basis.

Abstract: One embodiment of a method for solving an input satisfiability instance includes searching a database for a stored satisfiability instance that matches the input satisfiability instance and outputting a solution to the input satisfiability instance. One embodiment of method for converting an input satisfiability instance into a standardized representation includes applying a plurality of syntactical simplification rules to the input satisfiability instance until no conditions of any of the plurality of syntactical simplification rules can be met, thereby producing a simplified instance, uniformly replacing each variable in the simplified instance with a unique, consecutively chosen even number, annotating each literal in the simplified instance to indicate whether the each literal is positive or negative, ordering all literals in the simplified instance, and ordering all clauses in the simplified instance to produce the standardized representation.

Abstract: A system and method for analyzing unknown materials on surfaces including, but not limited to, chemical materials, biological materials, hazardous materials, drug materials, and non-threat materials using SWIR and/or extended range SWIR hyperspectral and spectroscopic techniques. A system comprising a collection optics, a tunable filter, and a first detector for generating a test data set representative of the unknown sample. A second detector, comprising a visible imaging device, may be configured to operate in a scanning mode to locate areas of interest for further interrogation using SWIR. A method comprising generating a SWIR test data set representative of the unknown sample and analyzing the unknown sample to detect, identify and/or distinguish an unknown material as a known material. This analysis may be achieved by comparing the test data set to a reference data set using at least one chemometric technique.

Abstract: A CNF formula comprises at least one template clause representing a set of concrete clauses, each associated with a different temporal shift. The template clause is utilized by a SAT solver in determining satisfiability of the CNF formula. The template clause may be utilized to reduce amount of storage resources required for performing the satisfiability analysis. The template clause may in some cases increase feasibility of determining satisfiability. The template clause may in some cases reduce required time to determine satisfiability. The template clause may be utilized in incremental SAT solving to reuse deduced relations between literals that are applicable to additional cycles, such as invariants originating from a transition relation of a model.

Abstract: The present invention provides deterioration analysis method which allows a detailed analysis of deterioration, especially deterioration of surface conditions, of a polymer material. The present invention relates to a deterioration analysis method, including irradiating a polymer material with high intensity X-rays, and measuring X-ray absorption while varying the energy of the X-rays, to analyze deterioration of the polymer.

Abstract: This relates to a processor-implemented method of providing an oil-quality indication. The method includes receiving image data associated with a captured image, wherein the image includes (i) oil sample pixels associated with an oil sample and (ii) calibration color pixels associated with a calibration color. The oil sample pixels are adjusted based on the calibration color pixels. A saturation value and a hue value are determined based on the adjusted oil sample pixels. An oil quality value is determined based on the saturation value and the hue value. The oil quality value is stored in a processor-readable medium.

Abstract: A robot includes a base part having a first cavity part inside, a torso part coupled to the base part, at least one arm unit provided on the torso part, and an inner box provided in the first cavity part and having a second cavity part opening in an upper portion. A circuit board for driving an actuator that operates the arm unit is provided on an outer side surface of the inner box.

Abstract: A method of analyzing properties of a porous sample, typically a cylinder of porous rock, comprises centrifuging the sample while it contains at least one liquid, determining the distribution of at least one liquid in the sample by magnetic resonance imaging of the sample, and also determining the distribution of at least one magnetic resonance parameter, where the parameter is one of longitudinal relaxation time T1, transverse relaxation time T2 and diffusion coefficient D. Pore throat sizes can be determined from the distribution of at least one liquid in the sample and pore body sizes can be determined from the distribution of the magnetic resonance parameter enabling determination of a relationship between pore throat sizes and pore body sizes in the sample. This can be a relationship between individual values of pore throat size and an average of body sizes of pores having that individual pore throat size.

Abstract: Methods and systems are provided for estimating background spectral content in a hyperspectral imaging (HSI) scene. A HSI processor computes a scene covariance matrix for each of a plurality of sparsely sampled pixel sets, identifies and removes the spectral content of contaminating pixels from the covariance matrices, and checks the consistency among the plurality of decontaminated covariance matrices, iteratively re-sampling and re-computing said matrices until an acceptable consistency is achieved, and then computes a final decontaminated covariance matrix representative of the background spectral content of the scene. Alternate approaches to pixel sampling, and/or using fewer spectral dimensions than are available for the pixels are presented.

Abstract: An apparatus and a method for chromatogram peak purity determination are provided, where the chromatogram's dimensions consist of retention time, wavelength and absorbance. The apparatus or method accumulates, at each retention time, absorbance in the wavelength direction for all or a part of a wavelength range in a predetermined retention time range; extracts a plurality of groups where, for each group, the absorbance accumulation value is the same for one point on a rising slope and one point on a falling slope regarding a peak that exists on a chromatogram that is prepared based on a 2-dimensional data whose dimensions are absorbance accumulation value and retention time; calculates similarities between absorption spectrum pattern at one point on the rising slope and at one point on the falling slope for each group; and determines from the plurality of groups, whether the peak consists of a single component based on similarity.

Abstract: A system for regulating a temperature of a measurement array is disclosed. The system includes a measurement array including a plurality of sensors, wherein the plurality of sensors are integrated onto an integrated circuit die. The system includes a thermal sensor integrated onto the integrated circuit die, wherein the thermal sensor senses a temperature associated with the plurality of sensors. The system further includes a heat pump coupled to the integrated circuit die, wherein the heat pump is controlled by a feedback control circuit including the thermal sensor.

Abstract: MCR provided estimated pure component time series spectra as extracted from infrared or other spectroscopy is capable of being compared to spectra in a reference library to find the best matches. The best match spectra can then each in turn be combined with the reference spectra, with the combinations also being screened for best matches versus any one of the estimated pure component time series spectra. These resulting best matches can then also undergo the foregoing combination and comparison steps. The process can repeat in this manner in an unbounded fashion if desired until an appropriate stopping point is reached, for example, when a desired number of best matches are identified, when some predetermined number of iterations has been performed, etc. This methodology is able to return best-match spectra with far fewer computational steps and greater speed than if all possible combinations of reference spectra are considered.

Abstract: A device adapted to determine an analyte concentration of a fluid sample using a test sensor. The device comprises a display adapted to display information to a user. The device further comprises at least one user-interface mechanism adapted to allow the user to interact with the device. The device further comprises a body portion including at least one opening formed therein, the at least one opening being of sufficient size to receive the test sensor. The device further comprises a memory adapted to store a plurality of stored analyte concentrations. The device further comprises a processing feature adapted to inhibit the stored analyte concentrations from being displayed on the display.

Abstract: A system includes an internal combustion engine. An aftertreatment system is coupled to the internal combustion engine to receive an exhaust gas stream. The aftertreatment system comprises one or modules. Each module includes one or more emission reducing devices to reduce undesirable constituents in the exhaust gas stream from the internal combustion engine.

Abstract: A non-optical bio-disc, a bio-disc device including the non-optical bio-disc and/or optical disc, a bio-driver apparatus in which a controller disc including a controller for the bio-disc is installed, and an assay method using the same, which are suitable for labs-on-a-chips for various diagnostic assays, nucleic acid hybridization assays, and immunoassays, are provided. The bio-driver apparatus is compatible with general optical discs, including audio, CD-ROMs, DVD players, etc. Thus, the bio-driver apparatus and the assay method offer and economical and convenient alternative to existing products. In addition, the bio-driver apparatus can be readily and easily applied in connection with a computer for remote diagnosis via the internet.

Abstract: A method for computing an exact solution for an electronic state of a substance by performing a first principle calculation using a computer, the method is characterized in that evaluating a deviation of an approximate value obtained by local density approximation or generalized gradient approximation from the exact solution of the electronic state to be obtained using an energy functional determined by an electronic density, a space derivative for the electronic density and fluctuations of physical quantities; and computing the exact solution by solving an optimization problem being defined by the energy functional.

Abstract: A method, logic and system are provided for generating data representing all possible materials that may be present when monitoring a region or space for a radioisotope of interest. All possible materials with which a radioisotope material may interact are grouped or categorized into one of a plurality of material groups. Each material group is further subdivided into a plurality of subgroups based on atomic number of a material. First data is stored for each of the subgroups of each of the plurality of material groups, where the first data represents an interaction between a representative material for a corresponding subgroup and radiation at a plurality of energy levels. Second data is stored representing spectral characteristics of each radioisotope of interest at the plurality of energy levels.

Abstract: A system and method for the 3D reconstruction of a structure, the method comprising: obtaining at least two calibrated 2D bi-planar images of the structure, associating with each pixel each of the images a textural vector characterizing the distribution of the gradient texture and orientation in a window centered around the pixel, applying a non-linear statistical dimensionality reduction procedure to the textural vectors to obtain reduced dimension textural vectors, creating segmented images of the images using the reduced dimension textural vectors, projecting the representative 3D model onto the segmented images, adjusting the projection of the representative 3D model with the contours and homogeneous zones of the segmented images using the optimization of a cost function to obtain the 3D reconstruction of the structure.

Abstract: In a batch process control system employing storage tanks without mixers, properties of the storage tank pump out feedstock may be modeled to more accurately control the quality of a process. This model may not require the measurement of input or pump out flow or assume perfect blending. Rather, the developed model may assume that feedstock input into a storage tank may remain layered with some mixing due to continuous convection, turbulence during loading, or other factors. The model may include a projection of the properties describing a storage tank layer of input material into the model. For each new load of storage tank input feedstock, model zones may be shifted and the zone from which the feedstock is drawn may be updated with the properties from the new load.

Abstract: Systems and methods for integrating a continuous glucose sensor, including a receiver, a medicament delivery device, and optionally a single point glucose monitor are provided. Manual integrations provide for a physical association between the devices wherein a user (for example, patient or doctor) manually selects the amount, type, and/or time of delivery. Semi-automated integration of the devices includes integrations wherein an operable connection between the integrated components aids the user (for example, patient or doctor) in selecting, inputting, calculating, or validating the amount, type, or time of medicament delivery of glucose values, for example, by transmitting data to another component and thereby reducing the amount of user input required. Automated integration between the devices includes integrations wherein an operable connection between the integrated components provides for full control of the system without required user interaction.

Abstract: A method and system for analyzing a sample for an iterative information dependent acquisition cycle is disclosed, the method comprising performing an initial survey mass spectrum to generate a spectral peak list from the initial survey mass spectrum, applying threshold criteria to the spectral peak list to generate a threshold spectral peak list, performing a dependent MS/MS on the threshold peak list to obtain a plurality of mass spectra, and based on the plurality of mass spectra, determining exclusion criteria for a plurality of subsequent surveys. For each subsequent scan, the exclusion criteria are applied to generate a precursor list. The subsequent mass spectra for precursors that are common to previous IDA cycles are summed with spectra for the plurality of mass spectra from previous IDA cycles to obtain summed mass spectra.

Abstract: A system for regulating a temperature of a measurement array is disclosed. The system includes a measurement array including a plurality of sensors, wherein the plurality of sensors are integrated onto an integrated circuit die. The system includes a thermal sensor integrated onto the integrated circuit die, wherein the thermal sensor senses a temperature associated with the plurality of sensors. The system further includes a heat pump coupled to the integrated circuit die, wherein the heat pump is controlled by a feedback control circuit including the thermal sensor.

Abstract: Methods and apparatus for coherent manipulation and stylization of stereoscopic images. A stereo image manipulation method may use the disparity map for a stereo image pair to divide the left and right images into a set of slices, each of which is the portion of the images that correspond to a certain, small depth range. The method may merge the left and right slices for a depth into a single image. The method may then apply a stylization technique to each slice. The method may then extract the left and right portions of each stylized slice, and stack them together to create a coherent stylized stereo image. As an alternative to first extracting slices from a merged image and then applying a stylization technique to the slices, the method may first apply the stylization technique to the merged image and then extract slices from the stylized merged image.

Abstract: A data matrix in which pixel numbers are assigned to the vertical direction, m/z values are assigned to the horizontal direction, and intensity values are used as terms is generated from data obtained by peak detection (S3), and after the standardization of the data is executed so that the norms of the intensities of the pixel space are set to 1 for each m/z, the peaks (m/z values) are classified into a plurality of clusters by performing clustering in the m/z direction (S5 and S6). Since the probability of isotope peaks or adduct ion peaks derived from the same substance being consolidated into the same cluster increases, unnecessary peaks can be accurately removed by removing unnecessary isotope ion peaks and the like using m/z differences or intensities in the clusters (S7 and S8).

Abstract: A method for monitoring the composition and flow rate of wastes discharged from industrial waste water treatment facilities into a common collection system for eventual processing at central waste water treatment plant (WWTP). The information is transmitted to a remote computer and stored in a database, and is then analyzed to prepare reports of particular interest to the receiving WWTP or treatment facility. The system includes a data collection and sending unit, a remote Internet Server computer with a database capable of receiving and storing the collected information, and a web server and reporting unit to analyze the data, prepare reports, and send out alarms. It is a further intention of this invention to correlate the incoming data from said industrial waste water treatment plants with known flows and compositions at said central WWTP to predict the flow and composition of influx water at the WWTP.

Abstract: A system and a method for improving the quality of ultrasound images. The system comprises a processor being configured to subdivide the ultrasound image, determine a deconvolution factor for the ultrasound image and apply the deconvolution factor to the subdivided ultrasound image, resulting in a restored image.

Abstract: A wireless sensor capable of sensing and measuring at least one ambient parameter is disclosed herein. The wireless sensor is capable of transmission of measurement values at a periodic rate, wherein the transmission rate is varied or non-varied. An amplifier varies a power transmission to the antenna based on a real-time soil conductivity value of a soil area and a real-time soil dielectric constant value of a soil area to improve a communication range and communication reliability of the antenna.

Abstract: A modular system and method for testing and measuring various physical and chemical properties of substances includes a user interface unit having a micro controller, a power source, a display, and an input device; and a sensing module having a sensor probe, a signal conditioner, and a sensor controller. The user interface unit and the sensing modules are in electrical communication with one another such that sensor data generated by the one or more sensor probes, corresponding to one or more properties of the substances, is transmitted to the micro controller of the user interface unit. The user interface unit can be used to remotely view, test, record, and analyze data obtained by the sensing module, which module may be located at a remote location. The user interface unit and the sensing module may be in wired or wireless communication according to various known wired and wireless connection means.

Abstract: A device for the collection and processing of information relating to the exposure of one or more persons to one or more products of chemical or biological origin has: at least one coded sensor for automatic or semi-automatic identification of a person likely to be exposed to at least one product, at least one coded sensor for the collection of information relating to the handling of at least one product by the person likely to be exposed to the product, at least one sensor for validating the information collected by the identification and collection sensors, at least one module for reading at least one coded sensor, and a module for processing information collected by the sensors.

Abstract: Methods are provided herein for: calculating cell growth rates in various environments and genetic backgrounds; calculating the order of substrate utilization from a defined growth medium; calculating metabolic flux reorganization in various environments and at various growth rates; and calculating the maximum metabolic rate and optimal metabolite concentrations and enzyme activities by applying a computational optimization method to a kinetic model of a metabolic pathway. The optimization methods use intracellular molecular crowding parameters and/or well as kinetic rates to assist in modeling metabolic activity.

Abstract: A computer implemented method. The method includes obtaining, using a processor, reflectance data from a target coating and calculating, using the processor, a reflectance from the data, wherein calculating comprises performing a calculation using a radiative transfer equation. The method also includes generating, using the processor and based on the reflectance, a coating formulation that is the same or substantially similar in appearance to the target coating.