Abstract: A method for the application of solution processed metal oxide hole transport layers in organic photovoltaic devices and related organic electronics devices is disclosed. The metal oxide may be derived from a metal-organic precursor enabling solution processing of an amorphous, p-type metal oxide. An organic photovoltaic device having solution processed, metal oxide, thin-film hole transport layer.

Abstract: A fullerene derivative having a partial structure represented by formula (1): wherein R represents a monovalent group, and r represents an integer of 0 to 4, in particular, a fullerene derivative, which has one to four structures represented by formula (1), can be applied to an organic photoelectric conversion element having a high open-circuit voltage and is therefore suitable for an organic thin-film solar cell or an organic photosensor, and thus it is extremely useful.

Abstract: Featured are a non-planar curved dye-sensitized solar cell and a method of manufacturing such a solar cell. In particular aspects, such methods include preparing two curved substrates, forming a first curved conductive substrate for a working electrode and a second curved conductive substrate for a counter electrode, coating a metal electrode and a protection film on each of the first and second curved conductive substrates, forming the working electrode by coating a semiconductor oxide electrode film on a concave surface of the first curved conductive substrate and by adsorbing a dye in the semiconductor oxide electrode film, forming the counter electrode by coating a catalytic electrode on a convex surface of the second curved conductive substrate, and joining the working electrode with the counter electrode and injecting an electrolyte in between the working electrode and the counter electrode.

Abstract: A semiconductor oxide ink composition, a method of manufacturing the composition, and a method of manufacturing a photoelectric conversion element are provided. The semiconductor oxide ink composition for inkjet printing comprises a semiconductor oxide and a solvent, wherein the semiconductor oxide comprises 0.1 to 20 parts by weight relative to 100 parts by weight of the total composition.

Abstract: The present invention provides an optoelectronic memory device, the method for manufacturing and evaluating the same. The optoelectronic memory device according to the present invention includes a substrate, an insulation layer, an active layer, source electrode and drain electrode. The substrate includes a gate, and the insulation layer is formed on the substrate. The active layer is formed on the insulation layer, and more particularly, the active layer is formed of a composite material comprising conjugated conductive polymers and quantum dots. Moreover, both of the source and the drain are formed on the insulation layer, and electrically connected to the active layer.

Abstract: When a solar battery configured by laminating a p-type layer, an i-type layer and an n-type layer in this order is produced, an n-type microcrystalline silicon thin film is formed as an n-type layer under film forming conditions wherein a ratio of the flow rate of an n-type dopant-containing gas to the flow rate of a silicon-containing gas is 0.03 or less, the ratio of the flow rate of a diluent gas to the flow rate of a silicon-containing gas is 70 or more, and the total pressure of a material gas is 200 Pa or more.

Abstract: A photoelectric converter includes a pair of electrodes and a plurality of organic layers. The pair of electrodes is provided above a substrate. The plurality of organic layers is interposed between the pair of electrodes and includes a photoelectric conversion layer and a given organic layer being formed on one electrode of the pair of electrodes. The one electrode is one of pixel electrodes arranged two-dimensionally. The given organic layer has a concave portion that is formed in a corresponding position located above a step portion among the arranged pixel electrodes. An angle ? of the concave portion is less than 50°, where an inclination angle of a tangent plane at a given point on the concave portion to a surface plane of the substrate is defined as ?.

Abstract: Provided is a method for preparing a copper indium selenide (CIS) or copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) thin film, including: (1) mixing Cu, In and Ga precursors in a solvent and adding a polymer binder to obtain a paste or ink; (2) coating the obtained CIG precursor paste or ink on a conductive substrate by printing, spin coating or spraying and heat-treating the same under air or oxygen gas atmosphere to remove remaining organic substances and obtain a CIG mixed oxide thin film; (3) heat-treating the obtained CIG mixed oxide thin film under hydrogen or sulfurizing gas atmosphere to obtain a reduced or sulfurized CIG mixed thin film; and (4) heat-treating the obtained reduced or sulfurized CIG mixed thin film under selenium-containing gas atmosphere to obtain a CIGS thin film.

Abstract: Processes for making a solar cell by depositing various layers of components on a substrate and converting the components into a thin film photovoltaic absorber material. Processes of this disclosure can be used to control the stoichiometry of metal atoms in making a solar cell for targeting a particular concentration and providing a gradient of metal atom concentration. A selenium layer can be used in annealing a thin film photovoltaic absorber material.

Abstract: Processes for making a solar cell by depositing various layers of components on a substrate and converting the components into a thin film photovoltaic absorber material. Processes of this disclosure can be used to control the stoichiometry of metal atoms in making a solar cell for targeting a particular concentration and providing a gradient of metal atom concentration. A selenium layer can be used in annealing a thin film photovoltaic absorber material.

Abstract: A multilayered structure including a first barrier layer adjacent to a substrate, a barrier bi-layer adjacent to the first barrier layer, the barrier bi-layer comprising a second barrier layer and a third barrier layer, a transparent conductive oxide layer adjacent to the barrier bi-layer, and a buffer layer adjacent to the transparent conductive oxide layer and method of forming the same. A multilayered substrate including a barrier layer structure having a plurality of barrier layers being alternating layers of low refractive index material and high refractive index material, a transparent conductive oxide layer adjacent to the barrier bi-layer and a buffer layer adjacent to the transparent conductive oxide layer. The multilayered structure may serve as a front contact for photovoltaic devices.

Abstract: A solar cell includes a substrate, a first electrode located over the substrate, where the first electrode comprises a first transition metal layer, at least one p-type semiconductor absorber layer located over the first electrode, an n-type semiconductor layer located over the p-type semiconductor absorber layer, and a second electrode located over the n-type semiconductor layer. The first transition metal layer contains (i) an alkali element or an alkali compound and (ii) a lattice distortion element or a lattice distortion compound. The p-type semiconductor absorber layer includes a copper indium selenide (CIS) based alloy material.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, there is provided an organic photovoltaic cell including substrate having a plurality of inclined surfaces and a plurality of solar cells formed on the inclined surfaces of the substrate. Each of the solar cells includes a pair of electrodes and a bulk heterojunction active layer interposed between the electrodes, the active layer containing a p-type organic semiconductor and an n-type organic semiconductor. An inclination of each of the inclined surfaces of the substrate against the horizontal plane is in the range of 60 to 89°, and the active layer exhibits a transmission of light within visible wavelength range of 3% or greater.

Abstract: A method for manufacturing a solar cell (100) includes the steps of: a step of cleaning an exposed region (R2) on a rear surface of an n-type crystalline silicon substrate (10n), wherein the step is carried out subsequent to a step of patterning an i-type amorphous semiconductor layer (11i) and a p-type amorphous semiconductor layer (11p) and prior to a step of forming an i-type amorphous semiconductor layer (12i).

Abstract: Improved methods and apparatus for forming thin-film buffer layers of chalcogenide on a substrate web. Solutions containing the reactants for the buffer layer or layers may be dispensed separately to the substrate web, rather than being mixed prior to their application. The web and/or the dispensed solutions may be heated by a plurality of heating elements.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a semiconductor compound having the general formula AxB1-xCy, to a method of optimizing positions of a conduction band and a valence band of a semiconductor material using said semiconductor compound, and to a photoactive device comprising said semiconductor compound.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention involve photovoltaic (PV) cells comprising a semiconducting nanorod-nanocrystal-polymer hybrid layer, as well as methods for fabricating the same. In PV cells according to this invention, the nanocrystals may serve both as the light-absorbing material and as the heterojunctions at which excited electron-hole pairs split.

Abstract: A method for large scale manufacture of photovoltaic devices includes loading a substrate into a load lock station and transferring the substrate in a controlled ambient to a first process station. The method includes using a first physical deposition process in the first process station to cause formation of a first conductor layer overlying the surface region of the substrate. The method includes transferring the substrate to a second process station, and using a second physical deposition process in the second process station to cause formation of a second layer overlying the surface region of the substrate. The method further includes repeating the transferring and processing until all thin film materials of the photovoltaic devices are formed. In an embodiment, the invention also provides a method for large scale manufacture of photovoltaic devices including feed forward control. That is, the method includes in-situ monitoring of the physical, electrical, and optical properties of the thin films.

Abstract: A solar cell device is formed of an insulating layer provided metal substrate and a photoelectric conversion circuit, which includes a photoelectric conversion layer, an upper electrode, and a lower electrode, formed on the substrate. The substrate is constituted by a metal substrate and a porous Al anodized film. The metal substrate is formed of a base material of a metal having a higher rigidity, a high heat resistance, and a smaller linear thermal expansion coefficient than Al and an Al material integrated by pressure bonding to at least one surface thereof, and the porous Al anodized film is formed on a surface of the Al material.

Abstract: A method for adsorption of a photosensitizing dye includes adsorbing the photosensitizing dye to the layer of an electrode material that functions as the working electrode of a dye-sensitized solar cell, within a reaction vessel containing a solution of the photosensitizing dye, wherein a flow of the photosensitizing dye solution is generated by means of a flow generation part in a direction perpendicular to the electrode material layer, a direction parallel thereto or both, and the flow rate of the photosensitizing dye solution to the electrode material layer is higher than the diffusion velocity of the photosensitizing dye.

Abstract: A temperature-adjusted spectrometer can include a light source and a temperature sensor.

Abstract: There is provided a semiconductor substrate for solid-state image sensing device in which the production cost is lower than that of a gettering method through a carbon ion implantation and problems such as occurrence of particles at a device production step and the like are solved. Silicon substrate contains solid-soluted carbon having a concentration of 1×1016-1×1017 atoms/cm3 and solid-soluted oxygen having a concentration of 1.4×1018-1.6×1018 atoms/cm3.

Abstract: Providing an organic thin-film solar cell that can be easily manufactured and then mass produced at low cost while increasing the photoelectric conversion efficiency, and the method of producing the same. Solar cells 100-102 include at least one of a mixed P-type organic semiconductor layer 12M and a mixed N-type organic semiconductor layer 14M. A plurality of organic semiconductor materials are mixed in the mixed P-type organic semiconductor layer 12M or the mixed N-type organic semiconductor layer 14M, respectively. In such a way, the photoelectric conversion efficiency of the solar cells is increased by selecting and mixing proper organic semiconductor materials to form the organic semiconductor layer.

Abstract: Materials, devices, and methods for enhancing performance of electronic devices such as solar cells, fuels cells, LEDs, thermoelectric conversion devices, and other electronic devices are disclosed and described. A diamond-like carbon electronic device can include a conductive diamond-like carbon cathode having specified carbon, hydrogen and sp2 bonded carbon contents. In some cases, the sp2 bonded carbon content may be sufficient to provide the conductive diamond-like carbon material with a visible light transmissivity of greater than about 0.70. A charge carrier separation layer can be coupled adjacent and between the diamond-like carbon cathode and an anode. The conductive diamond-like carbon material of the present invention can be useful for any other application which can benefit from the use of conductive and transparent electrodes which are also chemically inert, radiation damage resistance, and are simple to manufacture.

Abstract: Device and method of forming a device in which a substrate (10) is fabricated with at least part of an electronic circuit for processing signals. A bulk single crystal material (14) is formed on the substrate, either directly on the substrate (10) or with an intervening thin film layer or transition region (12). A particular application of the device is for a radiation detector.

Abstract: Device and method of forming a device in which a substrate (10) is fabricated with at least part of an electronic circuit for processing signals. A bulk single crystal material (14) is formed on the substrate, either directly on the substrate (10) or with an intervening thin film layer or transition region (12). A particular application of the device is for a radiation detector.

Abstract: Various embodiments for etching of silicon nitride (SixNy) lightpipes, waveguides and pillars, fabricating photodiode elements, and integration of the silicon nitride elements with photodiode elements are described. The results show that the quantum efficiency of the photodetectors (PDs) can be increased using vertical silicon nitride vertical waveguides.

Abstract: A microbolometer includes a micro-bridge structure for uncooling infrared or terahertz detectors. The thermistor and light absorbing materials of the micro-bridge structure are the vanadium oxide-carbon nanotube composite film formed by one-dimensional carbon nanotubes and two-dimensional vanadium oxide film. The micro-bridge is a three-layer sandwich structure consisting of a layer of amorphous silicon nitride base film as the supporting and insulating layer of the micro-bridge, a layer or multi-layer of vanadium oxide-carbon nanotube composite film in the middle of the micro-bridge as the heat sensitive and light absorbing layer of the microbolometer, and a layer of amorphous silicon nitride top film as the stress control layer and passivation of the heat sensitive film. The microbolometer and method for manufacturing the same can overcome the shortcomings of the prior art, improve the performance of the device, reduce the cost of raw materials and is suitable for large-scale industrial production.

Abstract: A method for forming a thin film photovoltaic device. The method includes providing a transparent substrate including a surface region. A first electrode layer is formed overlying the surface region. A copper layer is formed overlying the first electrode layer and an indium layer overlying the copper layer to form a multi-layered structure. The method subjects at least the multi-layered structure to a thermal treatment process in an environment containing a sulfur bearing species and form a copper indium disulfide material. The copper indium disulfide material includes a thickness of substantially copper sulfide material. The thickness of the copper sulfide material is removed to expose a surface region having a copper poor surface characterized by a copper to indium atomic ratio of less than about 0.95:1. The method subjects the copper poor surface to a metal cation species to convert the copper poor surface from an n-type semiconductor characteristic to a p-type semiconductor characteristic.

Abstract: A method to manufacture Copper Indium Gallium di Selenide (Cu(In,Ga)Se2) thin film solar cell includes evaporating elemental Cu, In, Ga, and Se flux sources onto a heated substrate in a single vacuum system to form a non-intentionally doped Cu(In,Ga)Se2 p-type conductivity layer and exposing the p-type conductivity layer to a thermally evaporated flux of Beryllium (Be) atoms to convert a surface layer of the p-type conductivity layer to an n-type conductivity layer resulting in a buried Cu(In,Ga)Se2 p-n homojunction. Also, the source of Be atoms includes a circular rod of Be having a uniform cross-section that is resistively heated and having its temperature controlled by passing an electrical current through the rod.

Abstract: The present invention provides a light-emitting diode (10) including a first conductive type silicon single crystal substrate (101), a light-emitting section (40) including a first pn junction structure composed of a III-group nitride semiconductor on the substrate, a first polarity ohmic electrode (107b) provided on the light-emitting section, and a second polarity ohmic electrode (108) on the same side as the light-emitting section with respect to the substrate, wherein a second pn junction structure (30) is configured in a region which extends from the substrate to the light-emitting section, the substrate is provided with a light-reflecting hole (109) from the back surface of the substrate opposite to the side on which the light-emitting section of the substrate is provided toward the stacking direction, and the inner surface of the light-reflecting hole and the back surface of the substrate are coated with a metallic film (110).

Abstract: A compound semiconductor solar battery including a first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell, a second compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell provided on the first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell, and a compound semiconductor buffer layer provided between the first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell and the second compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell, the first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell and the compound semiconductor buffer layer being provided adjacent to each other, and a ratio of a difference in lattice constant between the first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell and a compound semiconductor layer provided in a position closest to the first compound semiconductor photoelectric conversion cell among compound semiconductor layers constituting the compound semiconductor buffer layer being not less than 0.15% and not more than 0.

Abstract: A method for forming a thin film photovoltaic device is provided. The method includes providing a transparent substrate comprising a surface region. A first electrode layer is formed overlying the surface region. A chalcopyrite material is formed overlying the first electrode layer. In a specific embodiment, the chalcopyrite material comprises a copper poor copper indium disulfide region. The copper poor copper indium disulfide region having an atomic ratio of Cu:In of about 0.95 and less. The method includes compensating the copper poor copper indium disulfide region using a sodium species to cause the chalcopyrite material to change from an n-type characteristic to a p-type characteristic. The method includes forming a window layer overlying the chalcopyrite material and forming a second electrode layer overlying the window layer.

Abstract: A method for forming a thin film photovoltaic device. The method includes providing a transparent substrate comprising a surface region. A first electrode layer is formed overlying the surface region. A copper layer is formed overlying the first electrode layer and an indium layer is formed overlying the copper layer to form a multi-layered structure. The method subject at least the multi-layered structure to a thermal treatment process in an environment containing a sulfur bearing species to form a bulk copper indium disulfide material. The bulk copper indium disulfide material includes one or more portions of copper indium disulfide material characterized by a copper-to-indium atomic ratio of less than about 0.95:1 and a copper poor surface comprising a copper to indium atomic ratio of less than about 0.95:1.

Abstract: There is provided a semiconductor substrate for solid-state image sensing device in which the production cost is lower than that of a gettering method through a carbon ion implantation and problems such as occurrence of particles at a device production step and the like are solved. Silicon substrate contains solid-soluted carbon having a concentration of 1×1016-1×1017 atoms/cm3 and solid-soluted oxygen having a concentration of 1.4×1018-1.6×1018 atoms/cm3.

Abstract: A photovoltaic device such as solar cell includes a substrate, a composite electron conductor layer adjacent to the substrate, an active layer coupled relative to the composite electron conductor layer, and an electrode electrically coupled to the active layer. In some embodiments, the composite electron conductor layer includes a mixture of different sized particles, such as a mixture of smaller nanoparticles along with larger ground up or otherwise processed nanopillar, nanowire, nanorod, nanotubes, inverse opal and/or any other suitable structured nanocomponents as desired. Methods for making such photovoltaic device are also disclosed.

Abstract: The objectives of the present invention are to enable the manufacturing of an organic thin-film photoelectric conversion element under normal atmosphere, improve the photoelectric conversion efficiency of the element, and enhance its durability. A hole-blocking TiO2 layer is created between the photoelectric conversion layer and the electrode by a wet process. In the manufacturing process, the hole-blocking TiO2 layer is air-dried so that it will be an amorphous layer. It is possible to provide a concentration gradient layer of PCBM/P3HT in which the PCBM concentration is higher in a region close to the hole-blocking TiO2 layer. This structure will reduce the electric resistance of that region and minimize the current loss within the photoelectric conversion element. In the vicinity of the hole-blocking TiO2 layer, the PCBM concentration is increased, which in turn makes it easier for electrons to flow into the TiO2 layer since PCBM is electrically conductive.

Abstract: The present invention provides a process for preparing a photoanode of a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) by pressure swing impregnation, which includes impregnating a metal oxide layer on a conductive substrate in a photosensitizing dye solution in a vessel; introducing a pressurized inert gas into the vessel to maintain a first pressure therein for a period of time, wherein the first pressure can be lower or higher than the critical pressure of the inert gas and the solution is expanded by the inert gas; further pressurizing the vessel with the inert gas and maintaining at a second pressure higher than the first pressure for a period of time, wherein the inert gas becomes sub-critical or supercritical fluid and dissolves more in the solution, creating an anti-solvent effect, so that the photosensitizing dye further deposits onto the metal oxide layer due to the anti-solvent effect.

Abstract: A photoelectric conversion module X1 comprises a photoelectric conversion element D1 and a protective member 9. The photoelectric conversion element D1 comprises a photoelectric conversion layer with a first main surface, and a light-transmitting conductive layer 6 located on the first main surface. The protective member 9 on the light-transmitting conductive layer 6 comprising an ethylene vinyl acetate resin and an acid acceptor.

Abstract: A method for patterning a thin film photovoltaic panel on a substrate characterized by a compaction parameter. The method includes forming molybdenum material overlying the substrate and forming a first plurality of patterns in the molybdenum material to configure a first patterned structure having a first inter-pattern spacing. Additionally, the method includes forming a precursor material comprising at least copper bearing species and indium bearing species overlying the first patterned structure. Then the substrate including the precursor material is subjected to a thermal processes to form at least an absorber structure.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention provide a pixel cell for an image sensor that includes a photodiode, which provides high gain, low noise, and low dark current. The pixel cell includes a photodiode comprising layers of a first material and at least a second material in contact with one another. The photodiode generates charge in response to light and also amplifies the charge. The layers may be configured to promote impact ionization by a first carrier type and suppress impact ionization by a second carrier type. The pixel cell also includes a gate of a transistor adjacent to the photodiode and may include readout circuitry for reading out the charge generated and amplified by the photodiode.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention provide a pixel cell for an image sensor that includes a photodiode, which provides high gain, low noise, and low dark current. The pixel cell includes a photodiode comprising layers of a first material and at least a second material in contact with one another. The photodiode generates charge in response to light and also amplifies the charge. The layers may be configured to promote impact ionization by a first carrier type and suppress impact ionization by a second carrier type. The pixel cell also includes a gate of a transistor adjacent to the photodiode and may include readout circuitry for reading out the charge generated and amplified by the photodiode.

Abstract: There is disclosed a modular lamination approach for processing organic photosensitive devices that allows the individual processing of device components, that once processed are brought together in a final step to make electrical contact. The disclosed method of preparing a laminated photosensitive device having at least one donor-acceptor heterojunction comprises: preparing a top electrode by depositing a functional material on a flexible substrate, such as an elastomer; optionally processing the functional material to obtain desired properties prior to lamination; preparing a bottom portion by depositing a second functional material over a substrate; optionally processing the second functional material to obtain desired properties prior to lamination; and coupling the top electrode to said bottom portion to form a laminated photosensitive device.

Abstract: The present invention provides a solar cell having a silicone resin layer. The solar cell comprises a silicone resin film that is at least partially cured and a photovoltaic element formed adjacent the silicone resin film.

Abstract: Photovoltaic cells are fabricated in which the compositions of the light-absorbing layer and the electron-accepting layer are selected such that at least one side of the junction between these two layers is substantially depleted of charge carriers, i.e., both free electrons and free holes, in the absence of solar illumination. In further aspects of the invention, the light-absorbing layer is comprised of dual-shell passivated quantum dots, each having a quantum dot core with surface anions, an inner shell containing cations to passivate the core surface anions, and an outer shell to passivate the inner shell anions and anions on the core surface.

Abstract: The present invention discloses a method for improving the efficiency of flexible organic solar cells. The steps of the method comprise: a conductive film-coated flexible substrate is provided; and a hole blocking layer is formed on the flexible substrate by atomic layer deposition, or an active layer is formed first then a hole blocking layer is formed on the active layer by atomic layer deposition. Atomic layer deposition can control the thickness of the hole blocking layer precisely and form uniformly surface in a large area, so that the power conversion efficiency of the flexible organic solar cell is increasing effectively.

Abstract: The present invention relates in a first aspect to methods for producing a nanofibres-containing layer for use as an active layer in an organic electronic device. The method comprising the steps of: a) first heating up a nanofibre-forming polymer in a solvent at a temperature T1, then b) cooling said solution down to a temperature T2 at a rate less than 40° C./h thereby forming a dispersion comprising crystalline nanofibres of said nanofibre-forming polymer, then c) raising the temperature of said dispersion to a temperature T3 higher than T2, but lower than said temperature T1, and then d) coating said dispersion on a substrate at said temperature T3 thereby forming a layer for use as an element of said organic electronic device, wherein before step (d), a step of adding an electron acceptor to the solution or dispersion is performed.

Abstract: Provided are a biosensor with a silicon nanowire and a method of manufacturing the same, and more particularly, a biosensor with a silicon nanowire including a defect region formed by irradiation of an electron beam, and a method of manufacturing the same. The biosensor includes: a silicon substrate; a source region disposed on the silicon substrate; a drain region disposed on the silicon substrate; and a silicon nanowire disposed on the source region and the drain region, and having a defect region formed by irradiation of an electron beam. Therefore, by irradiating a certain region of a high-concentration doped silicon nanowire with an electron beam to lower electron mobility in the certain region, it is possible to maintain a low contact resistance between the silicon nanowire and a metal electrode and to lower operation current of a biomaterial detection part, thereby improving sensitivity of the biosensor.

Abstract: An in-situ method of cleaning a vacuum deposition chamber can include flowing at least one reactive gas into the chamber.

Abstract: According to one embodiment, a semiconductor light-emitting device using an ITON layer for a transparent conductor and realizing low drive voltage, high luminance efficiency, and uniformed light emission intensity distribution is provided. The semiconductor light-emitting device includes: a substrate; an n-type semiconductor layer formed on the substrate; an active layer formed on the n-type semiconductor layer; a p-type semiconductor layer formed on the active layer and whose uppermost part is a p-type GaN layer; an ITON (Indium Tin Oxynitride) layer formed on the p-type GaN layer; an ITO (Indium Tin Oxide) layer formed on the ITON layer; a first metal electrode formed on a part on the ITO layer; and a second metal electrode formed in contact with the n-type semiconductor layer.