Abstract: A temperature handling subsystem (12) for a pipe electrochemical polishing system (10) has a chiller (46) and associated heat exchanger (44) for cooling the acid electrolyte (24) circulating through a pipe (28) while a cathode (14) is drawn therethrough for the purpose of electropolishing the interior of the pipe (24). A temperature control method (48) has a temperature low enough decision operation (58) wherein a temperature indicating control (38) is used to determine if the chiller (46) should be activated. The electrolyte (24) is pumped by an electrolyte pump from an electrolyte reservoir (22) containing a temperature indicating controller (38) for determining the temperature of the electrolyte (24) and further containing an electric heater (36) for heating the electrolyte (24), as necessary.

Abstract: An integrated tool is provided including at least one workpiece processing station having a paddle assembly. In accordance with another independent aspect of the present invention, the workpiece processing station is adapted for adjusting the level of the processing fluid relative to a workpiece, wherein the portion of the workpiece to be processed and possibly the paddle is selectively immersed within the processing fluid. In accordance with a further independent aspect of the present invention, a paddle is provided for use proximate to a workpiece in a workpiece processing station. The paddle includes a one or more sets of delivery ports and one or more sets of fluid recovery ports. In at least one embodiment, the paddle provides for agitation of a processing fluid proximate to the surface of the workpiece. In at least another embodiment, the paddle provides for the delivery and/or recovery of one or more fluids to the portion of the workpiece to be processed.

Abstract: A method for clean processing wherein an object and a high pressure nozzle are disposed a specific distance apart from each other inside a washing tank containing only ultra-pure water, an ion exchange material or catalyst material that increases the amount of hydroxide ions is provided between the processing surface of said workpiece and the distal end of the high pressure nozzle facing said surface, a voltage is applied using the high pressure nozzle as the cathode and the object as the anode and the hydroxide ions produced from the ultra-pure water are supplied to the surface of the object.

Abstract: A method of fabricating a planarized metal structure comprising the following steps. A structure is provided. A patterned dielectric layer is formed over the structure. The patterned dielectric layer having an opening formed therein and exposing at least a portion of the structure. A first-metal layer is formed over the patterned dielectric layer filling the opening. The first-metal layer including at least a doped metal portion adjacent the patterned dielectric layer. The doped metal portion being doped with a second-metal. The structure is annealed to form a second-metal oxide layer adjacent the patterned dielectric layer. The first-metal layer and the second-metal oxide layer are planarized using only a electropolishing process to remove the excess of the first-metal layer and the second-metal oxide layer from over the patterned dielectric layer and leaving a planarized metal structure within the opening.

Abstract: An article of manufacture, method, and apparatus are provided for planarizing a substrate surface. In one aspect, an article of manufacture is provided for polishing a substrate including a polishing article having a body comprising at least a portion of fibers coated with a conductive material, conductive fillers, or combinations thereof, and adapted to polish the substrate. In another aspect, a polishing article includes a body having a surface adapted to polish the substrate and at least one conductive element embedded in the polishing surface, the conductive element comprising dielectric or conductive fibers coated with a conductive material, conductive fillers, or combinations thereof. The conductive element may have a contact surface that extends beyond a plane defined by the polishing surface. A plurality of perforations and a plurality of grooves may be formed in the articles to facilitate flow of material through and around the polishing article.

Abstract: The invention is an electrochemical method for producing trenches for trench capacitors in p-doped silicon with a very high diameter/depth aspect ratio for large scale integrated semiconductor memories. Trenches (macropores) having a diameter of less than about 100 nm and a depth of more than 10 &mgr;m can be produced on p-doped silicon having a very low resistivity at a high etching rate, and thus, trench capacitors can be fabricated in a cost-effective manner.

Abstract: Polishing compositions and methods for removing conductive materials from a substrate surface are provided. In one aspect, a composition includes an acid based electrolyte system, one or more chelating agents, one or more corrosion inhibitors, one or more inorganic or organic acid salts, one or more pH adjusting agents to provide a pH between about 3 and about 10, a polishing enhancing material selected from the group of abrasive particles, one or more oxidizers, and combinations thereof, and a solvent. The composition may be used in an conductive material removal process including disposing a substrate having a conductive material layer formed thereon in a process apparatus comprising an electrode, providing the composition between the electrode and substrate, applying a bias between the electrode and the substrate, and removing conductive material from the conductive material layer.

Abstract: The present invention applies an electrochemical etching solution to a material layer, preferably a metal layer, disposed on a workpiece, in the presence of a current. This electrochemical etching solution supplies to the material on the substrate surface the species to form an intermediate compound on the surface that can be more easily mechanically removed as intermediate compound fragments than the material. By removing the intermediate compound fragments, the process allows more efficient use of the supplied current to form another layer of intermediate compound that can also be mechanically removed, rather than using the current to result in another compound on the surface of the material that eventually dissolves into the solution. In another aspect of the invention, such intermediate compound particulates are externally generated and used to mechanically remove the surface layer of the material.

Abstract: A method of manufacturing electrode foil for aluminum electrolytic capacitors and an AC power supply unit used therewith are disclosed. An etching is performed on an aluminum foil immersed in an electrolytic solution by applying an AC current to a pair of electrodes in the electrolytic solution. A waveform of the AC current is a deformed sine wave including a period of time (a) when an electric current rises from zero to a peak value, and another period of time (b) when the electric current falls from the peak value to zero. With the periods of time (a) and (b) made different from each other, the surface area of the aluminum foil is efficiently expanded by the etching and an enhancement of electric capacity of the electrode foil is obtained.

Abstract: The present invention relates to a molded tooling fixture for supporting an airfoil during an electrochemical stripping process. The tooling fixture comprises a holder for receiving the airfoil, which holder has a slot in which a serrated portion of the airfoil is positioned. The holder is formed from an electrically non-conductive material such as molded plastic. The first slot has at least one serrated surface which mates with at least one serration on the airfoil. The fixture further includes a support arm on which the holder is supported. The support arm is also formed from an electrically non-conductive material such as molded plastic. Still further, the fixture includes a rod formed from an electrically conductive material which sits in a groove in the support arm and which contacts a lower surface of the airfoil.

Abstract: The present invention provides a method for indirect-electrification-type continuous electrolytic etching of a metal strip suitable for producing a low-core-loss, grain-oriented silicon steel sheet not susceptible to the deterioration of core loss after stress-relief annealing, and an apparatus for the indirect-electrification-type continuous electrolytic etching.

Abstract: A photoelectric conversion layer 13, a transparent electrode layer 14, an insulating layer 15, and a back electrode layer 16 are successively formed in this order on a conductive substrate 11 having a through-hole 17 formed therein, and the transparent electrode layer 14 and the back electrode layer 16 are electrically communicated with each other through the through-hole 17 so as to provide a photovoltaic element in which no grid is employed and improve the productivity and the production yield.

Abstract: A bath composition for the electropolishing of a metal surface made of nonalloyed titanium is disclosed. The bath composition may comprise sulfuric acid of 2 to 40% by volume, hydrofluoric acid of 10 to 18% by volume and acetic acid of 42 to 62% by volume.

Abstract: Embodiments of the present invention generally relate to a method and apparatus for planarizing a substrate by electropolishing techniques. Certain embodiments of an electropolishing apparatus include a contact ring adapted to support a substrate, a cell body adapted to hold an electropolishing solution, a fluid supply system adapted to provide the electropolishing solution to the cell body, a cathode disposed within the cell body, a power supply system in electrical communication with the contact ring and the cathode, and a controller coupled to at least the fluid supply system and the power supply system. The controller may be adapted to provide a first set of electropolishing conditions to form a boundary layer between the substrate and the electropolishing solution to an initial thickness and may be adapted to provide a second set of electropolishing conditions to control the boundary layer to a subsequent thickness less than or equal to the initial thickness.

Abstract: An electrolyte line extends from the outlet of an electrolysis device to a collecting tank and from the same back to the inlet of the electrolysis device. The electrolyte is passed from the outlet of the electrolysis device to a first container which is disposed at a higher level than a second container. Electrolyte collected in the first container is periodically discharged through a first syphon line into the second container, and electrolyte collected in the second container is periodically discharged through a second syphon line into the collecting tank which is disposed at a lower level than the second container. The outlet end of each syphon line is disposed at a distance above the liquid level of the container disposed thereunder, so that electrolyte always flows only in one of the two syphon lines or in none of the syphon lines. When electrolyte flows in none of the two syphon lines, electrolyte is preferably supplied from the collecting tank into the second container.

Abstract: Systems and methods for detecting the endpoint of a polishing step. In general, an electropolishing system is provided with a power supply configured to deliver a current through an electrolytic solution. Signal characteristics of the signal provided by the power supply are monitored to determine a polishing endpoint. Illustratively, the monitored signal characteristics include current and voltage.

Abstract: The present invention relates to an arc processing method and device with simultaneous chemical etching wherein the device comprises a conductive electrode, being the cathode, an auxiliary electrode, being the anode, an conductive fluid, and an non-conductive work piece for processing. Processing, and precision processing in particular, of non-conductive materials is obtained by simultaneous arc discharge and etching that are brought about by chemical reactions associated with cathode and anode. Moreover, the present invention discloses simultaneous arc processing and chemical etching that offers improved processing efficiency over conventional arc processing.

Abstract: A method of enhancing heat transfer and cooling efficiency in a cooling passage includes forming a plurality of turbulator rings in the passage, the rings projecting inwardly, substantially perpendicular to a cooling flow direction in the passage; and using a patterned electrode, forming at least one gap in one or more of the turbulator rings, extending substantially parallel to the flow direction.

Abstract: The present invention is an electropolishing process means for an inner surface of a long tube, especially applied to a long tube of greater than two meters and a diameter range between 0.3 to 5 cm. Wherein, the present invention comprises at least one tube, one complex electrode; an inner surface of the tube is for electropolishing process, and it is an anode as well; the electrode is a cathode and placed on a center of a partition; an end of electrode connects to a cable, the cable is driven by an axial mechanism to be moved toward the axial mechanism itself; inside tube are full of electrolyte, which is an electrifying medium to connect both anode and cathode, further, electrolyte cooperates with electrode to move for electropolishing process the inner surface of tube.

Abstract: A method and apparatus for processing a substrate is described. In one aspect, a processing system is provided which includes a wet area and a dry area. In another aspect, a method comprises processing the substrate in the process cell. The substrate is transferred from the process cell to a dry module and then transferring the substrate to a drying area.

Abstract: A cathode station (10) for a pipe electrochemical polishing system (12) has a valve (20) for preventing a cleaning fluid (56) from entering into a pipe (28). A cathode (14) is pulled into the cathode station (10) by a cathode puller cable (16) after a polishing operation (62) is completed. In a rinse cathode operation (66) the cleaning fluid (56) is introduced into the cathode station (10) through a fluid inlet (52) and removed from a fluid outlet (54). In a finish operation (68) the cathode (14) and cathode station (10) are removed from the pipe electrochemical polishing system (12).

Abstract: A target material is electropolished by applying a voltage between an anode electrode and a counter electrode while bringing the anode electrode into contact with the surface of the target material. The anode electrode is formed of an electrode material having a current density not higher than 10 mA/cm2 upon application of a voltage of +2.5V vs. silver/silver chloride electrode within a 0.1 M perchloric acid solution in an electrochemical measurement using a potentiostat.

Abstract: A process including: (a) creating an electrolytic cell composed of a metal surface as a first electrode, a second electrode, and an electrolytic solution, wherein the metal surface has a plurality of metal fibers connected to the metal surface; and (b) treating electrochemically the metal surface with externally supplied power to the electrolytic cell to sever a number of the metal fibers from the metal surface to result in severed metal fiber fragments unconnected with the metal surface.

Abstract: A process for creating surface microporosity on a titanium (or other metal) medical device includes creating a surface oxide layer on the device; placing the device, which is connected to a negative terminal of an electrical power supply, into a calcium chloride bath; connecting the positive terminal of the power supply to an anode immersed in or containing calcium chloride thereby forming an electrolytic cell; passing current through the cell; removing the device from the bath; and cooling and rinsing the device to remove any surface salt. If necessary, the device is etched to remove metal oxide which may have formed during the cooling process. The resulting device has a microporous surface structure. Alternatively, only a designated surface portion of a medical device is made microporous, either by applying a non-oxidizing mask, removing a portion of the oxide layer, or subtracting a portion of a microporous surface.

Abstract: An electromachining apparatus includes a mandrel for supporting a workpiece next to a cutter mounted on an arbor. The workpiece is powered as an anode and the cutter is powered as a cathode, and a coolant is circulated therebetween. The cutter is rotated and plunge twisted into the workpiece to form a twisted slot therein, with adjacent ones of such slots forming twisted blanks therebetween. The individual blanks may then be subsequently machined to final shape such as an airfoil configuration.

Abstract: A method for producing a separator in which a recessed gas path is formed. Depth fluctuations of the gas path can be reduced. The gas path having plural depths or gradation can be formed easily. An electrically conductive member 3, as a separator, and a processing electrode 16, having patterned electrode projections 20, are immersed in an electrolytic solution facing each other. Current is fed between member 3 and electrode 16 for electrolytic processing to dissolve the portion of the member 3 facing projections 20, thus forming a gas path 30 having a surface roughness Rz on this bottom surface 30e not larger than 1 &mgr;m.

Abstract: A process for selective removal of a nickel alloy brazing composition from a nickel-base alloy component includes the steps of providing a brazed assembly including nickel-base alloy components joined by nickel alloy brazing composition; immersing the assembly in an electrolyte; and applying a potential across the electrolyte at a magnitude wherein the nickel-base alloy components are electrochemically passive and the nickel alloy brazing composition dissolves whereby the brazing composition is removed from the components.

Abstract: A particular anode assembly can be used to supply a solution for any of a plating operation, a planarization operation, and a plating and planarization operation to be performed on a semiconductor wafer. The anode assembly includes a rotatable shaft disposed within a chamber in which the operation is performed, an anode housing connected to the shaft, and a porous pad support plate attached to the anode housing. The support plate has a top surface adapted to support a pad which is to face the wafer, and, together with the anode housing, defines an anode cavity. A consumable anode may be provided in the anode cavity to provide plating material to the solution. A solution delivery structure by which the solution can be delivered to said anode cavity is also provided. The solution delivery structure may be contained within the chamber in which the operation is performed. A shield can also be mounted between the shaft and an associated spindle to prevent leakage of the solution from the chamber.

Abstract: An anode structure suitable for an electrochemical process is disclosed. The anode comprises a primary anode structure, also referred to as an anode frame, and a secondary metal substrate attached to the anode frame. The anode frame is a structural support and suitable electrical conductor. The metal substrate has an electrocatalytic coating and provides the anode with an anodic surface. The metal substrate is easily removable from the anode frame. Also disclosed is a method for refurbishing anodes according to the present invention. An anode comprising an anode frame and a metal substrate is refurbished by removing a depleted metal substrate from the frame and attaching a separate precoated metal substrate to the frame. The method of refurbishing optionally includes refurbishing the depleted metal substrate and using the refurbished substrate to refurbish the anode structure. A method for providing replacement anodes is also disclosed.

Abstract: A method of chemically polishing a metal layer on a substrate is provided. The metal layer is chemically polished using an electrochemical polishing (ECP) process. In the ECP process, the substrate is immersed in a chemical polishing solution including a surfactant. The surfactant in the polishing solution covers the surface of the substrate such that only topographic portions of the substrate surface are exposed to the chemical polishing solution. Thereafter, an electrical potential applied to the substrate removes topographic portions of the substrate that are exposed to the polishing solution.

Abstract: A method for forming and polishing micro grooves in a dynamic pressure pneumatic bearing at a short time by employing the electrolytic polishing process and the micro electrolytic machining process is disclosed. The method comprises the step of forming a plurality of micro grooves in a surface of the bearing using an electrochemical electrolytic polishing process and, an electrolytic machining process.

Abstract: Non-circular holes are formed by electrochemical machining with an electrode that includes a hollow shank having a circular cross-section and a hollow tip section having a non-circular cross-section disposed on one end of the shank. The tip section is very small in length relative to the shank such that the shank comprises a large majority of the electrode's overall length. Because the majority of the electrode is circular in cross-section, it is relatively easy to straighten the electrode prior to a machining operation and to keep it straight during the operation, thereby overcoming problems experienced with full-length, non-circular electrodes. The circular shank also avoids electrolyte pressure imbalances eases the difficulty and high cost of manufacturing electrodes capable of forming non-circular holes.

Abstract: The present invention deposits a conductive material from an electrolyte solution to a predetermined area of a wafer. The steps that are used when making this application include applying the conductive material to the predetermined area of the wafer using an electrolyte solution disposed on a surface of the wafer, when the wafer is disposed between a cathode and an anode, and preventing accumulation of the conductive material to areas other than the predetermine area by mechanically polishing the other areas while the conductive material is being applied.

Abstract: An electrolytic etching method for etching treating an object to be etched by an electrochemical reaction through an electrolyte between the object to be etched and an etching electrode, where the contact angle of the electrolyte to the object to be etched is not more than 70°. This electrolytic etching method can etch the object in a non-contact manner, can reduce the cost, number of steps, and processing time, and can enhance the patterning accuracy.

Abstract: Proposed is a drum 1 for electropolishing bulk metal parts, in particular stainless steel parts, comprising a drum jacket 12 made of metal and equipped with a filling opening 13 located on the side of the jacket, and a concentrically arranged cathode 3, whereby provision is made in the drum 1 for a space 2, 10 for receiving the metal parts, said space being closed on all sides and forming the anode and being arranged concentrically with a spacing 8, 9 in relation to the drum jacket 11 and the concentric cathode 3.

Abstract: A method of reducing cutting tool wear in a lubricated metal cutting operation has been developed. An electrical cutting cell is provided having an anodic conductive cutting tool and a cathodic conductive work-piece connected to a DC current supply; the lubricant contains platable wear reducing agents. The lubricant is located to bathe the contacting interface between the cutting tool and work-piece to constitute an electrolyte. Next, the electrical current flow through the contacting interface is controlled to be in the range of 25-500 milli-amps. Lastly, the cutting tool is moved into and along cutting contact with the work-piece while current flows there-between to electro-chemically deposit the wear reducing agents on at least the contacting interface to reduce cutting tool wear and improve ease of mass removal.

Abstract: An electrochemical discharge machining method may include electrolytically machining a tool fed by a three-dimensional tool feeder which can accurately feed a tool in three dimensions. The electrolytic machining may be performed in a current controlled mode, during which a concentration and a height of an electrolyte may be regulated. Further, the method may include performing electrochemical discharge machining of the workpiece using the machined tool in a voltage controlled mode.

Abstract: The present invention relates generally to a structure, on the surface of the support material of which structure molecular layers are immobilized so as to be electrically addressable, a method for the electrically addressable immobilization of molecules, a device for carrying out this method, and the use of this structure as a chemo- and/or biosensor, in particular as a multisensor system for chemical, biological, and physical assays, and for applications in the combinatorial synthesis on the boundary surface.

Abstract: A method and apparatus are provided for planarizing a material layer on a substrate. In one aspect, a method is provided for processing a substrate including forming a passivation layer on a substrate surface, polishing the substrate in an electrolyte solution, applying an anodic bias to the substrate surface, and removing material from at least a portion of the substrate surface. In another aspect, an apparatus is provided which includes a partial enclosure, polishing article, a cathode, a power source, a substrate carrier movably disposed above the polishing article, and a computer based controller to position a substrate in an electrolyte solution to form a passivation layer on a substrate surface, to polish the substrate in the electrolyte solution with the polishing article, and to apply an anodic bias to the substrate surface or polishing article to remove material from at least a portion of the substrate surface.

Abstract: A method of nanometer-scale deposition of a metal onto a nanostructure includes the steps of: providing a substrate having thereon at least two electrically conductive nanostructures spaced no more than about 50 &mgr;m apart; and depositing metal on at least one of the nanostructures by electric field-directed, programmable, pulsed electrolytic metal deposition. Moreover, a method of nanometer-scale depletion of a metal from a nanostructure includes the steps of providing a substrate having thereon at least two electrically conductive nanostructures spaced no more than about 50 &mgr;m apart, at least one of the nanostructures having a metal disposed thereon; and depleting at least a portion of the metal from the nanostructure by electric field-directed, programmable, pulsed electrolytic metal depletion. A bypass circuit enables ultra-finely controlled deposition.

Abstract: An electropolishing apparatus for polishing a metal layer formed on a wafer (31) includes an electrolyte (34), a polishing receptacle (100), a wafer chuck (29), a fluid inlet (5, 7, 9), and at least one cathode (1, 2, 3). The wafer chuck (29) holds and positions the wafer (31) within the polishing receptacle (100). The electrolyte (34) is delivered through the fluid inlet (5, 7, 9) into the polishing receptacle (100). The cathode (1, 2, 3) then applies an electropolishing current to the electrolyte to electropolish the wafer (31). In accordance with one aspect of the present invention, discrete portions of the wafer (31) can be electropolished to enhance the uniformity of the electropolished wafer.

Abstract: A temperature handling subsystem (12) for a pipe electrochemical polishing system (10) has a chiller (46) and associated heat exchanger (44) for cooling the acid electrolyte (24) circulating through a pipe (28) while a cathode (14) is drawn therethrough for the purpose of electropolishing the interior of the pipe (24). A temperature control method (48) has a temperature low enough decision operation (58) wherein a temperature indicating control (38) is used to determine if the chiller (46) should be activated. The electrolyte (24) is pumped by an electrolyte pump from an electrolyte reservoir (22) containing a temperature indicating controller (38) for determining the temperature of the electrolyte (24) and further containing an electric heater (36) for heating the electrolyte (24), as necessary.

Abstract: A structural body material layer is formed directly on a base substrate or via a sacrificing layer or a peeling layer, a groove is fabricated electrochemically along an outer configuration shape of a part constituting an object at the structural body material layer and thereafter, only the sacrificing layer or the base substrate is selectively removed or the part is mechanically separated from the peeling layer to thereby separate the part and the base substrate and provide the part constituting the object or fabricate a part having a movable portion by partially restricting a portion to be separated.

Abstract: There are provided a method and apparatus for forming interconnects by embedding a metal such as copper (Cu) into recesses for interconnects formed on the surface of a substrate such as a semiconductor substrate. The method of the present invention includes the steps of: providing a substrate having fine recesses formed in the surface; subjecting the surface of the substrate to plating in a plating liquid; and subjecting the plated film formed on the surface of the substrate to electrolytic etching in an etching liquid.

Abstract: An apparatus and method of electrochemical polishing a workpiece with ring-form electrode is provided. A mechanism with a tool electrode, a DC power supply and electrolysis-supply tank of the present invention can be installed on the traditional production equipment. The tool electrode is connected with the negative pole of the DC power supply, while the workpiece is connected with the positive pole of the DC power supply and kept a fixed distance from the tool electrode. The electrode or the workpiece advances at a predetermined feeding speed while the workpiece is electrochemically polished. The present invention uses the centrifugal force of rotational tool electrode to discharge electrolytic byproducts, making electrochemical polishing more effective.

Abstract: In an interference filter having a layer with an area consisting of a porous material extending from the surface of the layer to the interior, the dimensions of the porous layer area in a direction normal to the layer surface have different values to provide for varying reflection or, respectively, transmission characteristics.

Abstract: A method is disclosed for separating a semiconductor epitaxial structure from an insulating growth substrate. The method utilizes electrochemical anodic reactions to remove a thin etch layer disposed near the growth interface. The thin etch layer can be an intentional layer made of a material different from the epitaxial structure and/or can include a material with a high defect density. The method can be applied in the fabrication of optoelectronic and electronic devices from III-V materials, in particular gallium-nitride based materials.

Abstract: A polishing method and polishing apparatus able to easily flatten an initial unevenness with an excellent efficiency of removal of excess copper film and suppress damage to a lower interlayer insulation film, and a plating method and plating apparatus able to deposit a flat copper film. The polishing method comprises the steps of measuring thickness equivalent data of a film on a wafer, making a cathode member smaller than the surface face a region thereof, interposing an electrolytic solution between the surface and the cathode member, applying a voltage using the cathode member as a cathode and the film an anode, performing electrolytic polishing by electrolytic elution or anodic oxidation and chelation and removal of a chelate film in the same region preferentially from projecting portions of the film until removing the target amount of film obtained from the thickness equivalent data, and repeating steps of moving the cathode member to another region to flattening the regions over the entire surface.

Abstract: A novel method to fabricate nanoscale pits on Au(111) surfaces in contact with aqueous solution is claimed. The method uses in situ electrochemical scanning tunnelling microscopy with independent electrochemical substrate and tip potential control and very small bias voltages. This is significantly different from other documented methods, which mostly apply high and short voltage pulses. The most important advantages of the present method are that the dimensions and positions of the pits can be controlled with high precision in aqueous environment so that nanopatterns of the pits can be designed, and that the operations are simple and require no instrumental accessories. Parameters, which control the pit formation and size, have been systematically characterized and show that the primary controlling parameter is the bias voltage. A mechanism based on local surface reconstruction induced by electronic contact between tip and substrate is in keeping with the overall patterns for pit formation.

Abstract: The invention relates to a method for shaping small three-dimensional articles such as nanotube exhibiting a layered structure through material removal such that the article is controllably shaped to exhibit a desired contour. Typically, material removal does not require use of a chemical etchant and is carried out while the article and a shaping electrode are positioned in contact material removal relationship with under a potential difference. The invention also relates to nanotubes and small three-dimensional articles exhibiting a layered structure having a controllably shaped contour.